Part 1 — THE SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOLS OF FRANCE. (continued 2)
Reading edition
Sixty-first Lecture.—(5.) Artillery on the field of battle. Measures to be taken on arriving in the neighborhood of the enemy.
Choice of positions adapted for artillery.
1. Different considerations relative to the ground to be occupied; form of the ground; cultivated lands; nature of the ground; communications, &c.
2. Position of the artillery relatively to the enemy.
3. Position of the artillery relatively to the troops to be supported.
Execution of the fire. Choice of the different kinds of fire according to the nature of the object aimed at and the distance. Fire of cannon, with ball, with shot. Fire of field and mountain howitzers. Fire parallel to the ground.
Use of war rockets. General principles relating to the effects to be produced by artillery, and to the warmth of the fire. Proper use of stores; their replacement. Use of the prolong. Arrangements to be made after the engagement. Spiking and unspiking of ordnance.
Use of artillery in the principal circumstances of a campaign. General case of an offensive engagement. Part played by the artillery in supporting infantry and cavalry marching to the attack. Importance of the artillery for following up a first advantage which has been obtained. Examples. Use of the artillery in masses to strike a decisive blow. Examples. Defensive engagement.
Disposition and use of the artillery for the defense of fortified positions. Attack of entrenchments. Reconnaissance. Disposition and use of artillery; attack of lunettes by the gorge. Examples. Attack and defense of villages; disposition of the artillery under these two circumstances. Attack of squares. Importance of artillery towards preparing for it. Examples. Defense of squares; disposition of artillery. Examples. Case of a charge of cavalry upon artillery. Use of artillery in the advanced guard, in the rearguard, in a retreat.
Use of artillery in the passage of streams. Examples. Use of artillery to defend or force the passage of valleys or defiles. Examples.
THIRD SECTION.—SERVICE OF ARTILLERY IN THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF PLACES, AND IN THE DEFENSE OF COASTS.
Sixty-second Lecture.—(6.) Object to be attained with the use of artillery in the attack of places. Selection of ordnance, cannon, howitzers, mortars. Composition of the siege train. Method to be followed in order to determine it. Examples of trains employed in different sieges. Carriages of the train. Supply of the siege train with projectiles, powder, &c.
Personnel of the siege train; troops and staff. Transport of the siege train. Horses to be employed. Limit in either direction. Employment of watercourses. Examples. Establishment of the train before the place. Encampment of the artillery force. Organization of the parks. Workshops, powder magazines, trench-depots. Rules relating to the direction of artillery works.
Commanding officers of attack.
Sixty-third Lecture.—(7.) Considerations on the different kinds of batteries to be employed in the attack of fortified places. Position of the batteries relatively to the point to be breached. Direct battery within point-blank range; enfilading battery, for a plunging fire, for direct fire within point-blank range, for plunging fire. Mortar batteries. Composition of the different kinds of batteries. Position of the directing lines of an enfilading battery, relative positions of the cannon, the howitzers, or the mortars. Position of the batteries relatively to the parallels and the rest of the trenches. Examination of the circumstances which affect the power of a plunging fire, command of the work over the battery; distance between the height of the traverses. Slope of the crests of the work.
General principles relating to the order of the works of the artillery, commencing from the opening of the trenches.
Times for the construction of the first batteries. Batteries of the first and second parallels. Use of field artillery to defend the flank of the attacks. Replacement of the fire covered by the advance of the works; batteries of the third parallel. Use of vertical fire. Mortars of 15c. Throwing of grenades. Breaching and counter batteries. Considerations relating to their position. Batteries in the covered way.
Case of a breach into an interior work. Composition of the breaching and counter batteries. Calibres to be used. Number of pieces of ordnance.
Ideas upon the operation of arming batteries. Precautions to be taken. Passage out of the parallels or trenches. March in the trenches; examples of some operations of this kind. Supply of the different kinds of batteries. Rule relating to their daily service. Firing of siege batteries. Opening of the fire. Direct fire within point-blank range. Plunging fire. Fire of mortars. Warmth of the fire by day and by night; mean consumption of material. Fire of breaching batteries. Effects to be produced. Height of the horizontal cutting, number of the vertical ones. Execution of the fire; fall of the revetment. Fire upon the counter forts. Fire to render the breach practicable; balls, shells, war-rockets, facts ascertained by experiment.
Consumption of powder and projectiles, length of the operation. Breaching fire in a very oblique direction. Fire upon masked masonry. Breach into an unreveted work. Fire of counter-batteries. Bombardment. Case where it can be employed; manner of executing it.
Occupation of the place; arrangements which must be made by the artillery. Case of raising the siege. Case of its transformation into a blockade.
Sixty-fourth Lecture.—(8.) Service of artillery in the defense of places. Object to be attained with artillery. Selection of ordnance, guns, howitzers, mortars. Use of war-rockets and arms of precise aim. Field artillery. Basis of the supply of fortified places. Projectiles, powder, small-arms, various carriages. Personnel of the artillery. Troops. Staff.
Measures to be taken before the siege. Reconnaissances. Arrangement of the material. Organization of the personnel, of the duty by local divisions, of the workshops of all sorts. Precautionary armament. Basis of its organization. Supply of ordnance. Defensive armament. General principles relating to the armament of different kinds of works. Bastions, cavaliers, demilunes, approaches, &c. Organization of the armament. Traverses, embrasures, gun-carriages to be employed. Powder magazines. Supplies. Service of pieces.
Employment of the artillery against the first works of the besiegers, against the construction and armament of batteries; against the besieging artillery. Partial disarmament in case of inferiority. Part played by artillery in sorties. Modification of the defensive armament in proportion to the progress of the attack. Last defensive armament. Principles relating to its disposition. Armament of the flanking part of the fortification. Increased use of vertical fire. Use of war-rockets against works in close proximity. Crowning batteries, cavaliers of the trenches. Heads of saps, &c. Blinded batteries. Conditions of the establishment. Defense of breaches.
Service of artillery in the defense of coasts. General considerations on the degree of extension admissible in the armament of coasts. Principal points to be defended. Selection of ordnance intended for the armament of coast. Objects to be effected. Effects of balls (utility of large calibres;) of howitzer shells and of shells. Fire with red-hot balls. Material appropriated to the defense of coasts.
Position of coast batteries, conditions which determine it. Composition of coast batteries; their supply. Ideas upon the organization of the batteries and their small redoubts (réduits.) Use of the fleet and of field artillery. Personnel allotted to the service of artillery on the coasts.
FOURTH SECTION.—APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES PREVIOUSLY SET FORTH TO THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF THE FORTRESS OF METZ, (SHAM SIEGE.)
Sixty-fifth Lecture.—(9.) Composition of the siege train necessary for the attack of Metz. Carriages of the train.
Supply of the train with projectiles, powder, &c. Personnel of the train, troops and staff. Transport of the siege train. Establishment of the train before the place; encampment of the artillery force. Organization of the parks. Work-shops, powder magazines and depôts.
Sixty-sixth Lecture.—(10.) Object, disposition, and armament of all the batteries from the first opening of the trenches to the capture of the place. Use of field artillery to flank the batteries, &c.
Service of artillery in the defense of the place. Supply of ordnance, projectiles, powder, small-arms, and different carriages.
Personnel of the artillery. Troops, staff. Organization of the personnel and of the duties by local divisions. Precautionary armament; supply of ordnance. Defensive armament. Armament of the different works. Service of the pieces. Last defensive armament.
Lectures Preparatory to the Labors of the Course.
1. Drawing and tracing of ordnance, 3 lessons.
2. Design for ordnance, 4 “
3. Application of the theories of the course, 1 “
4. Drawing of artillery material, 1 “
5. Tracing of batteries, 1 “
The sixth lecture of the fourth part of the course (the fifty-sixth) is partly devoted to the communication of the instructions necessary for the execution of the work of tracing plans of batteries.
Studies in connection with the Artillery Course.
The practical studies which are connected with the artillery course, are,—
1. Drawing of ordnance, 12 days.
2. The designs for ordnance, 24 “
3. The application of the theories of the artillery course, 6 “
4. The drawings of artillery material, 26 “
5. The tracing of batteries, 4 “
Total, 72 days.
The tracing of batteries is executed by the students of both arms, the other tasks by the artillery students alone.
I. DRAWING ORDNANCE (12 DAYS.)
The survey of ordnance consists in constructing accurate sketches of a gun, howitzer, and mortar, in measuring their dimensions, and in giving a description of each of the pieces drawn. It is on this occasion that the students are practiced in the management of instruments to insure precision, such as the étoile mobile, and the sliding compass, &c. One day is devoted to this work.
The tracing of ordnance consists in the execution of a drawing upon colombier paper, containing an exact and detailed representation of a gun, a howitzer, and a mortar, with their projectiles.
This work is performed with the help of the tables for the construction of ordnance. Eleven days are devoted to it.
Detailed Programme of the Drawing.
1. For each gun, howitzer, or mortar, a longitudinal in the direction of the axis, and at right angles to the axis of the trunnions, and a plan parallel to the axis of the bore and of the trunnions.
Besides this, for those cannon and howitzers which have dolphins, a transverse taken across the middle of the dolphins and the axis of the trunnions. For mortars, a transverse made by a plane passing in front of the dolphins, the whole on a scale of one-fifth.
2. Detail of the button (comprising the cascable and breeching loop for naval ordnance) on a scale of two-fifths.
3. Detail of the tracing of a dolphin, on the scale of two-fifths.
4. Tracing of the bush of a gun, on a scale of two-fifths, and tracing of a priming-pan at the real size.
5. For garrison ordnance, in cast-iron, detail of the widening of the base ring on a scale of two-fifths.
6. Tracing of a cannon-ball, of a howitzer-shell, and of a shell, on a scale of one-fifth.
Tracing of the lugs of a shell, ring and lug at the real size.
All the parts of the drawing must be colored in uniform tints in conformity to the table of conventional colors; the annexation of the figures of measurement is not required.
This work is preceded by three or four lectures intended to make the students familiar with the tracings which they have to execute, and the solution of the problems in geometry and descriptive geometry, to which the representation on paper of pieces of ordnance and their projectiles give rise.
II. DESIGN FOR ORDNANCE (24 DAYS.)
The design for ordnance has for its object the complete determination of the nature of a projectile, and of a piece of ordnance in accordance with certain special conditions, inquiring into the laws of the motion of the projectile, and into its principal destructive effects, and the settlement of practice-tables for the gun. The general case for treatment is that of a howitzer, which comprehends the gun and the mortar as particular cases.
The data usually adopted are,—
1. For the projectile, its weight and the quantity of powder which it is capable of containing.
2. For the piece, the initial velocity of its projectile. This operation comprises calculations, a drawing, and a memoir.
The drawing, on colombier paper, which must be figured in all its parts, contains,—
1. The tracing of the profile of the piece, as it is determined by calculation, so as to satisfy the different conditions of resistance, on a scale of one-fifth.
2. The complete tracing of the piece executed in conformity with the rules laid down for the tracing of ordnance on a scale of one-fifth.
3. Tracing of the projectile on a scale of one-fifth.
4. Tracing of the wooden bottom and of the fuse of the projectile, executed in the case of each of these objects in two figures—the one on a large scale (two-thirds, or even the size of nature,) representing the inquiry into their forms and dimensions, the other giving on a scale of one-fifth the results of this inquiry. To this is added, for the mountain howitzer, or any other howitzer for which it is admissible, a tracing of the mounted howitzer carriage.
5. The representation in drawing of the laws of the motion of the projectile, the trajectory, inclinations, remaining velocities, durations of the passage.
In addition, the scale of the elevations and that of the angles of fire, for an object of aim placed at different distances.
6. An inscription showing all the essential elements by which the projectile and the piece are distinguished.
The final tracings of the gun, the projectile, the bottom, and the fuse, must be colored in uniform tints conformably to the table of conventional colors.
As to the tracing of the profile founded upon the calculation, it should receive merely an edging of the color which represents the metal used.
PROGRAMME OF THE MEMORANDUM ON THE DESIGN FOR ORDNANCE.
INTRODUCTION.
Object of the work. Data of the Question.
A. PROJECTILE.
First Section.—Substance, Forms, and Dimensions.
1. Choice of the metal employed in the manufacture of this projectile.
2. Forms of the projectile.
3. Internal diameter.
4. External diameter.
5. Dimensions of the vent.
6. Diameters of the high and low gauges.
7. Densities of the projectile empty and filled with powder.
8. Weight of the cast-iron ball of the same calibre as the howitzer shell.
Second Section.—Minimum Bursting Charge.
9. Theoretical bursting charge for the hollow sphere.
10. Effect of the shock of the gases, and of their loss through the vent.
11. Résumé of the results arrived at in this chapter.
B. ORDNANCE.
First Section.—Metal, Calibre, and Length of Bore.
12. Choice of the metal of which the piece is to be formed.
13. Windage of the projectile and diameter of the bore.
14. Effect of the windage on the velocity of the projectile.
15. Length of the bore and charge of powder which satisfy the data of the programme.
16. Résumé of the results arrived at in this .
Second Section.—Thickness of Metal necessary in order that the Piece may resist the Expansion of the Gases.
17. Explanation of the method employed to resolve the question of the thicknesses of metal.
18. First propulsion of the projectile, mean density of the gases after this propulsion.
19. Second propulsion of the projectile, mean density of the gases after this propulsion.
20. Third, fourth, &c., propulsions of the projectile, mean density of the gases after each of them.
21. Density and position of the strata (of gas) at the moment of the maximum of mean density.
22. Density of the last stratum for the positions which come after that of the maximum of mean density.
23. Tensions which result from the densities found.
24. Corresponding thicknesses of metal.
25. Résumé of the results obtained.
Third Section.—Profile of the Piece.
26. Inclosing curve, resulting from the calculations of the second .
27. Modification rendered necessary by the form of the posterior part of the projectile.
28. Utility of the chamber and its dimensions.
29. Tracing of the chamber and of its junction with the bore.
30. Thickness of metal around the chamber.
31. Chase and reinforce.
32. Determination of the angle of sight.
33. Vent and base ring.
34. Minimum weight of the piece for the resistance of the carriage.
35. Approximate calculation of the weight given by the profile previously obtained. Modification of this profile, if there is any.
Fourth Section.—Trunnions, Breech, and Handles.
36. Dimensions of the trunnions and of the shoulders.
37. Tracing of the breech.
38. Base rings and other moldings.
39. Object and fixing of the preponderance of the breech.
40. Exact settlement of the position of the trunnions, definitive length of the reinforce.
41. Center of gravity of the piece; dimensions and position of the handles.
42. Means of executing the calculations indicated in the two preceding articles.
43. Table of the dimensions of the piece.
C. FIRE OF THE HOWITZER. EFFECTS OF THE PROJECTILE.
First Section.—Elements of the Charging of a Howitzer.
44. Tracing of the shot bottom.
45. Tracing of the fuse.
46. Diameter of the cartridge (or of the bag.)
47. Charge of powder for firing with ball.
Second Section.—Laws of the Motion of the Projectile. Establishment of Practice Tables.
48. Preliminary calculations.
49. Trajectory.
50. Curve of the inclinations.
51. Curve of the remaining velocities.
52. Curve of the durations of the passage.
53. Determination of the elevations for the fire at different distances.
54. Angle of fire, corresponding to the different distances of the object aimed at.
55. Angles of descent.
56. Résumé of the laws of the motion and of the practice tables.
Third Section.—Effects of the Projectile.
57. Depth of penetration in the media indicated by the programme.
58. Effects of explosion in earth.
59. Résumé of the results relating to the effects of the projectile.
Note.—The formulas cited in the memoir need not be accompanied by their demonstration, except in the case of the latter not having been already developed in the lessons of the artillery course. It will be sufficient to insert in this notice only the final result of the calculation relating to each formula, without entering into the details of such calculations.
The study of the design for ordnance is preceded by four lessons intended to make the students acquainted with all the details of its execution, and the substance of which is indicated in the programme of the memoir.
III. APPLICATION OF THE THEORIES OF THE ARTILLERY COURSE (6 DAYS.)
This study is intended to apply to the students those theories of the course which have not found their application in the design for ordnance. It comprises the solution by arithmetical calculations of certain questions on the effects of powder, the balistic pendulum, the effects of recoil, the science of projectiles, the draught of carriages, &c. The number of the questions may vary according to their nature and the time which their solution requires. The stating of the questions and the results of the calculations are inscribed on separate papers. This study is preceded by a lesson in which the students have recalled to them the formulas which they have to employ.
IV. DRAWING OF ARTILLERY MATERIAL (26 DAYS.)
The drawing of artillery material has for its object the representation by figured sketches of a gun-carriage, carriage, or other furniture of artillery material. The sketches, on paper put together in the form of a book, and headed by a special programme for the object to be drawn, consist of plans, s, or elevations of the object, executed on certain scales, and of detailed projections of the principal iron-work and joints. The whole fixed by the special programme in question.
All the simultaneous projections of any one part of the object drawn (fore part or hind part for carriages) must be completely figured; they are accompanied by explanatory inscriptions, with letters of reference to show the names of the pieces in wood or metal which they comprise.
Each collection of sketches must contain as well a notice in confirmation of the drawing, giving the complete description and the properties of the object to which it refers.
The students make two surveys of the same kind; eight days are allowed for each of these surveys, including the composition of the confirmatory notice.
The first survey is followed by the execution of an unfigured drawing, containing a complete representation of the object surveyed (elevation and plan,) obtained by the combination of the partial projections contained in the sketch. The drawing should be colored in the conventional uniform tints, and accompanied by an explanatory inscription, with letters of reference. Ten days are devoted to this work of composition.
V. TRACING OF BATTERIES (4 DAYS.)
This work consists in executing sketches showing, each in accordance with a separate programme, the complete plan of a battery and the essential data having reference to its construction and to its armament. The sketches, made by scale and completely figured, must comprise in the case of each battery to be represented—
1. The general plan of the battery, on the scale of 1/200.
2. The s or elevations necessary for the understanding of this plan, including the detail of the powder magazines, lines of communication, &c., on the scale of 1/100.
3. An inscription giving the object of the battery, its armament, its general arrangement (terre-plein, embrasures, revetment, communications, magazines, &c.,) the workmen, materials, and tools necessary for its construction, and finally the duration of the labor and its distribution by day and night.
Four days are devoted to this work, which must be executed on a half sheet of colombier paper. The separate programmes relating to each of these batteries are shown on the study orders of the rooms.
RECAPITULATIVE TABLE.—ARTILLERY STUDENTS.
NL Number of the Lectures.
+A With application at 1h 50m.
-A Without application at 3h.
TC Total Credits.
Q Number of the Questions.
Lectures. NL Credits given for the Lectures. TC Q
+A -A
Division of the Course—
First Part. Theory, Sections 1, 2, 3, 26 18 42 60 4
Second Part. Description of the Material, Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 20 30 .. 30 3
Third Part. Fire of Ordnance, 4 .. 12 12 1
Fourth Part. Construction of Batteries, 6 9 .. 9 2
Fifth Part. Organization and Service of the Artillery, Sections 1, 2, 3, 8 .. 24 24 1
Sham Siege, 2 3 .. 3 ..
Lectures in preparation for the Studies, 9 13 50 .. 13 50 ..
Totals, 75 73 50 78 151 50 10
S Sketches
D Drawings.
M Memoirs.
Inv Inventories.
ID In-door Attendance. 1½ hours.
OD Out-door Attendance. 1½ hours.
C Credits in round Numbers.
Studies. Number of C
S D M Inv ID OD
Survey of Ordnance, 1 .. .. .. .. 1 5
Tracing of Ordnance, .. 1 .. .. 11 .. 50
Design for Ordnance—
Calculations, .. .. .. 1 10 .. 45
Drawings, .. 1 .. .. 8 .. 35
Memoir, .. .. 1 .. 6 .. * 55
Application of Theories—(Artillery Question) .. .. 1 .. 6 .. † 55
First Survey of Material—
Sketch, 1 .. .. .. .. 8 35
Composition of Notice, .. 1 .. .. 10 .. 45
Second Survey—Sketch, 1 .. .. .. .. 8 35
Sketch of Batteries, 1 .. .. .. 4 .. 20
Totals, 4 3 2 1 55 17 ..
* The time is doubled for the memoirs.
† Ditto.
RECAPITULATION.
Lectures, 150 Studies, 380 530
RECAPITULATIVE TABLE.—ENGINEER STUDENTS.
NL Number of the Lectures.
+A With application at 1h 50m.
-A Without application at 3h.
TC Total Credits.
Q Number of the Questions.
Lectures. NL Credits given for the Lectures. TC Q
+A -A
Division of the Course—
First Part. Theories, Sections 1, 2, 3, 24 ... 72 72 4
Second Part. Description of the Material, Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14 ... 42 42 2
Third Part. Fire of Ordnance, 4 ... 12 12 1
Fourth Part. Construction of Batteries, 6 9 .. 9 1
Fifth Part. Organization and Service of the Artillery, Sections 1, 2, 3, 8 ... 24 24 1
Mock Siege, 2 3 .. 3 ..
Totals, 58 12 150 162 9
Studies Number of Credit
Sketches. In-door Attendance
Sketches of Batteries, 1 4 20
RECAPITULATION
Lectures, 162 Studies, 20 182. Round number, 180.
IV. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF MILITARY ART AND FIELD FORTIFICATION.
The course is divided into six parts, and is made up of lectures and works of Application in the Halls of Study and on the ground.
I. LECTURES.
The 1st part contains sundry historical notices on the Organization of Armies, 6 Lectures.
2d part is on Tactics, 3 “
3d part is on Castrametation, 2 “
4thpart is on Field Fortification, 16 “
5thpart is on Military Communication, 10 “
6thpart is on Strategy, 6 “
Total 43
FIRST PART.—HISTORICAL NOTICES ON THE ORGANIZATION OF ARMIES.
The first lecture commences with explanations relating to the Greek and Roman armies; their order of battle, mode of marching; comparison of the Roman Legion with the Greek Phalanx, and of the Roman Legion under Marius and under the Emperors.
2. Military organization of the Franks under the Kings of the first race. Consequences of the feudal system, acting on the military organization. Feudal armies. Chivalry. Crusades, and war against England. Establishment of the first standing armies. Results dependent on the introduction of fire-arms. Progress made in the Art of War and in the organization of armies, from the sixteenth century to the present time.
3. Necessity for standing armies. Their proper character. Recruiting. Promotion. Degrees of rank. Station of the officers. Various positions of military men. On the composition of armies, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers. Corps d’Etat-Major. Composition of the army during the Revolution and during the Empire. Actual formation of a French army.
General Staff. Commissariat. (Intendance.)—Different services dependent on it.
Relations between the strength of each of the arms that make up an army. On other corps which are not classed among the principal arms.
4, 5, 6. Summary relating to the military organization of the principal Powers of Europe.
SECOND PART—ON TACTICS.
1. Definitions. Formations. Manœuvers; character of a good manœuver. Order of battle: first, of the Infantry; second, of Cavalry; third, of the Artillery; relating to Sharpshooters (tirailleurs.)
2. Brief summary of the principal movements in battalion drill to pass from line to the order in columns and reciprocally. Movements in column. Movements in battle. Dispositions to be made against Cavalry.
3. Of the principal movements in line. Order of battle. Line of battle. Formation of Infantry to advance against the enemy. Action of Cavalry. Principal formations. Charges of Artillery. Use of the Three Arms.
THIRD PART.—CASTRAMETATION.
1. General principles of castrametation. Situation. Construction and disposition of barracks. Camp of a Regiment of Infantry, of Cavalry, and of a Battery of Artillery.
2. Manner of tracing a camp on the ground. Huts; details relating to their construction. Tents. Bivouacs. Screens. Kitchens and camp ovens. Choice of the site of a camp; precautions to be taken for its security. Main guards. Advanced posts. Patrols and sentinels.
FOURTH PART.—FIELD FORTIFICATION.
1. Definition of fortification in general. Object and character of field fortification; its utility demonstrated by historical examples. Napoleon’s opinion. Essential principle of field fortification. Discussion on the ordinary profile of earthen entrenchments; on the dimensions to be given to the ditch in level ground.
2. Definitions relating to the trace; general principles. Redoubts.
3. On the elements of lines. Relation that should exist between the crest and the internal size of a closed work. Maximum and minimum of the sides of a square redoubt. Defects inherent to the trace of this kind of redoubt. Circular redoubts. Redoubts en crémaillères. Star forts. Lines with bastions.
4. Revetments of various kinds; case in which the slope of the ditch should be reveted; choice to be made of the different kinds of revetments.
5. Exterior dispositions; accessories to the defense; abattis; trous de loups; palisades; chevaux de frise, &c. Precautions to be adopted with reference to such accessories.
6. Interior dispositions; armament of musketry, artillery, barbettes, and embrasures; their advantages and disadvantages; construction of.
7. Powder magazines of different kinds. Small earthen entrenchments; palisades, carpentry, or blockhouses; advantages and disadvantages of blockhouses. African blockhouse. Closing of field-works.
8. Artificial inundations; under what circumstances they can be considered as obstacles. Positions and dimensions of dikes. Details of their execution; what advantage can be drawn from an inundation having less than five feet depth of water.
9. What is understood by the defilading of a work. The defilading of fieldworks should, above all things, be made to depend on their trace and situation. Definitions: dangerous ground; dangerous points. Defilement of an isolated and closed work; in what case it is practicable. Use of traverses. A partial defilement may sometimes be sufficient.
10. Continuous lines. Broken lines. Traces of redan, tenailles, cromailleres. Bastioned lines. Comparison between continuous and broken lines. Principal objections to their use. Utility of each demonstrated under certain circumstances.
11. Lines in broken ground: their form should depend on the nature of the ground. On the manner of fortifying a table-land. Expedients for defilading portions of lines. On the manner of making use of the natural obstacles of the ground; forests, scarps, marshes, water-courses, &c. Method of fortifying a house, village, an open town. Defense of a bridge or road.
12. Têtes de pont. Utility of small earthen entrenchments in these cases to facilitate the passage of a retreating army. Traces of a large tête de pont. Principal circumstances relating to the use of lines in war. Lines of circumvallation and countervallation. Frontier lines. Retrenchments against a descent. Lines that an army should make in an enemy’s country, far from its base of operations. Entrenchment on the field of battle. Lines, mixed, proposed by General Rogniat.
13. Attack and defense of entrenchments, of a continuous line; of a line at intervals; of an isolated work, &c. Examples of the attack and defense of lines.
14. Instruction relating to the operations for profiling and defilading on the ground.
15. Instruction on the project of field fortification. Calculation of the dimensions of a ditch corresponding to the face of a work of a variable relief, and to be constructed in level or other ground. Details relating to traverses, small entrenchments; defensive caponnieres, and accessories to defense, &c.
16. On the construction of entrenchments. Practical operations and organization of workshops to obtain durable and solid work. Necessity, in most cases, for accelerating the construction of entrenchments. Vauban’s precepts. In what manner the work must proceed to obtain a useful result; and, in the event of plenty of hands, how to finish it promptly.
FIFTH PART.—ON MILITARY COMMUNICATIONS.
1. On roads. 1 and 2, Classification of roads. Section and trace of roads in level and mountain country. Details connected with the study of a project for a road. Particular conditions relating to military roads. Execution of paved and macadamized roads. Roads for passing difficult places by the use of fascines, logs, &c. Maintenance and destruction of roads.
2. On military bridges.
3. Observations on the currents and change of form in the bed of rivers. Fords. Transverse s, &c. Reconnaissances of rivers. Properties essential to military bridges. Relation between the buoyancy and the load in the case of floating supports. Anchorage. Construction of the abutments. Means of rendering bridges stable.
4. Construction of a bridge of boats in different ways. Bridges made of ordinary boats. Method of withdrawing a bridge of boats.
5. Raft bridge. Relation between the weight and the extrinsic load of a raft. Number of trunks of trees required for a raft bridge on a river of given dimensions. Weight of the trunk of a tree. Number and space between rafts. Construction of a raft and a bridge of rafts. Bridges of casks and trestles.
6. Rope bridges; their use. Calculations respecting the tension and diameters of ropes. Construction of a suspension bridge, and calculations relating to it.
7. Bridges on piles, carriages, gabions, &c.
8. Measures to be taken for the preservation of military bridges. Destruction of military bridges; also of masonry bridges. Reëstablishment of bridges.
9. Flying bridges. Ferry-boats, tubs, passage by fords, on the ice, by swimming.
10. Execution of the passage of rivers. Advancing and in retreating. Examples.
SIXTH PART.—STRATEGY.
1. Definition. Fundamental principles of all operations in war. In all cases there are—first, the base of operations; second, the point to be arrived at; third, the line of operations. Strategetical points and lines.
2. On marching. Preparatory and manœuvering marches. Advanced and rear guard. On provisions. System of magazines. Requisitions. Invasions. Battle. Examples.
3. On positions. War in a mountainous district. Retreats. Pursuit. Convoys. Partizans.
4. Winter quarters. Cantonments. War against irregular bands. Military reconnaissances.
5. Precis of the campaigns of the French armies.
6. Analysis of the principal campaigns of great captains.
II. PROGRAMME OF THE WORKS OF APPLICATION EXECUTED IN THE HALLS OF STUDY.
These works consist of four Plates of Drawings, two Memoirs, and a Project, of Field Fortification. Of the four Plates of Drawings, two relate to Field Fortification, and two, accompanied by Memoirs, relate to Military Communications.
Plate 1—Elements of lines. Tracing, on the scale of 1/1000 of the interior crest (only) of a redan, lunette, redoubt, star fort, bastioned fort, according to particular data given to each Sous-Lieutenant. Construction on the scale of 1/200 of a complete profile for each of these works, supposed to be established on level ground. Complete calculation of the deblais and remblais for one of the preceding works, according to the instructions of the Professor.
Plate 2.—Details of a field-work. Trace on the scale of 1/200 of a portion of the work of which the deblais and remblais has been calculated. Graphic construction of a barbette and of a direct or oblique embrasure. Details of revetments in fascines, hurdles, turf. Pisé. Drawing of a blockhouse.
Plate 3.—Accompanied by a Memoir. Project of a portion of road on ground represented by certain lines, according to certain data.
Plate 4.—Accompanied by a Memoir. Military bridges.
1. Drawing of a portion of a bridge of boats, three openings being shown; the two first relating to the successive construction of the bridge, and the third, of the construction by portions.
2. Project for establishing a raft bridge; the width of the river; the kind of troops to pass over the bridge; the length; mean diameter of the available trunks of trees and the length and scantling of the joints being given. The drawing to exhibit a plan of two openings of the bridge, and a transverse .
3. Tressel bridge. To draw a longitudinal elevation and a transverse of a tressel bridge, being given the length of the top and of the feet of the tressels up and down the stream.
4. Project for the repair of a broken arch; being given the opening of the head, the elevation of the roadway of the bridge above the level of the water; the depth of the water, the rapidity of the current, the kind of troops to pass over the bridge, and the available time and the resources as regards men and materials which can be had recourse to.
Programme of the Project of Field Fortification.
This project is made by the Sub-Lieutenants, according to certain data given to each of them. It has for its object to cause them to study:—1st. The trace. 2d. The complete organization necessary for its defense. 3d. The details of construction of a field-work. In consequence, the work comprises three Plates of Drawings and a Memoir divided into three parts.
Programme of the Drawings.
Plate 1.—Plan of the whole. This plate has for its object the research of a trace and of a combination of suitable works for the fortification of a certain portion of ground under certain circumstances of war defined by particular data. Each Sub-Lieutenant receives a lithographed sheet representing the ground to be fortified, and he has to exhibit on this sheet the works he proposes, in tracing in plain lines the horizontal projections of the interior crests and superior limits of the ditch, and in dotted lines the stockades or palisades; to show in black figures at the angles of the works the relief of the interior crests; the sites of barbettes, embrasures, traverses, barriers, &c., being indicated by reference letters and explanatory notes, the lines in red showing the directions and objects of the line of fire.
Plate 2.—Organization of a work.
This plate has for its object the study of the details of the interior and exterior organization of a work of a certain form, in order to render it susceptible of making a good defense.
Each Sub-Lieutenant will draw a complete plan of such one of the works shown on Plate 1, as may be pointed out by the Professor. He will represent the ditches, parapets, embrasures, accessory defenses, small entrenchments, descents into the ditch, &c., according to the particular data furnished to him; the figures of the relief of the crests of all kinds, the deblais and remblais being marked at all the angles. The figures of the natural ground will be underlined. The same plate will contain figured profiles which have served for the determination of the complete projection of the work. Scale 1/250.
Plate 3.—Details of construction.
The object of this plate is to show the composition of workshops and the manner that should be adopted in the construction of field-works, according to circumstances, for the execution of the deblais and remblais.
Each Sub-Lieutenant will indicate the manner in which the work drawn on Plate 2 should be constructed:—1st. To render it durable and solid. 2d. To arrive rapidly at a useful result, even with limited resources of workmen and tools. 3d. To finish the work in the shortest possible time, by making use of all the necessary means. A plan will show the composition of the workshops under each of these hypotheses, and the successive advancement of the work will be represented by certain profiles supposed to be made at certain periods of the construction through the center of one of the faces of the work. In these profiles a firm trace, figured with altitudes, will show the limits of the deblais and remblais at the period represented by the profiles; and in addition by dotted lines, the final results proposed to be obtained. All these projects must be accompanied by a figured plan, showing the principal altitudes in meters. The remblais will be colored with gamboge, the undisturbed earth in bistre, and the deblais will be left white.
Programme of the Memoir.
Each Sub-Lieutenant will write at the head of his Memoir the text of the particular programme, to which he is obliged to conform in the preparation of his project, and he should add to the text of the Memoir all the sketches properly figured, which are necessary for the proper appreciation of the dispositions which are not sufficiently detailed on the Drawings.
The Memoir is divided into three parts, corresponding to the three Plates of Drawings.
FIRST PART.—CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING THE WHOLE PROJECT.
1st. General principles, according to which it would be proper to trace the works indicated in the particular programme, such as lines at intervals, continuous lines, têtes de pont, &c.
2d. Description of the tracing in Plate 1. Reasons deduced from the form of the ground or the nature of the military operations that led to the adoption of the trace. Object of the works, and their connection with each other.
3d. Number, description, and position of the pieces of artillery composing the armament.
4th. Maximum and minimum of troops that could be employed in the defense of these works.
5th. Dispositions which should be adopted (relatively to the necessary preparations in materials and to the separation and movement of troops) for the attack and for the defense.
SECOND PART.—COMPLETE ORGANIZATION OF A WORK.
1st. Particular object of the work shown in Plate 2. Trace of the complete projections of the parapets, barbettes, ramps, embrasures, traverses, &c.
2d. Conditions that should be fulfilled by the ditch. Approximate calculation of dimensions which should be given to it, taking into account the increased means of providing for an excess or defect of the deblais.
3d. Discussion on the site and the part which might be expected from small entrenchments, accessory defenses, shutters, descents of ditches, &c.
4th. Site of powder magazines; capacity that should be given to them, suitable to the state of the munitions necessary for the armament of the work.
THIRD PART.—DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTIONS.
1st. Means of ascertaining the nature of the earth; considerations respecting relays for the transport of earth with the shovel.
2d. Description, number and disposition of the workmen in a shed for deblai and remblai, according to the nature of the ground and number of relays.
3d. Explanation of Plate 3. Organization of the sheds and conduct of the work where the duration and solidity of the work are the greatest essentials; where, on the other hand, rapidity of execution is the principal thing to be fulfilled.
4th. Which of the modes of construction exhibited in Plate 3 it would be desirable to employ for the proposed works, according to the circumstance specified in the particular programme. Calculation for this mode of construction, of the time and of the numbers of men and tools necessary for the execution of the deblais and remblais of the work given in the plate.
5th. Details of construction of the revetments, magazines, shutters, accessory defenses, artillery platforms, &c.
III. PROGRAMME OF EXTERIOR WORKS.
These works consist of an exercise in tracing out a camp, and an exercise on the profiling and defilement of field-works.
The exercise on tracing camps has no particular programme, but is preceded by a lecture given by the Professor.
Programme of Practical Exercises on the Defilement and Profiling of Field Works.
This exercise comprehends: 1st, work on the ground; 2d, a Memoir.
The work on the ground has for its object: 1st, the trace of the projections of the interior crest of a work, whose position and form are known; 2d, the determination of the relief of the interior crest; 3d, the profiling of the different parts, so that the relief of the different parts of the parapet, barbettes, traverses, &c., may all be fixed.
The Sub-Lieutenants for this kind of work are divided into groups of six or eight, employed together on the same work, each group being divided into two squads. The work may be a lunette or a redan of given dimensions, having a parapet of three meters thick, and a natural slope of one to one.
1st. The direction of the capital will be marked out in front by two numbered pickets.
2d. The tracing will be executed by means of poles or pickets placed at all the angles, and at the extremities of the gorge; the relief will be determined by the practical methods of defilement adverted to in the lecture which preceded the work.
3d. The relief obtained by the defilement will be marked on all the poles or pickets placed at the angles, and at the extremities of the sides of the work.
4th. On each face two vertical profiles will be executed, perpendicular to the horizontal projections of its interior crest. In order that these profiles shall not interfere with those placed at the angles, they must be established at several meters distant from the extremity of each face.
5th. The profiles of the angles will be deducted by simple prolongations, and the same for the profiles of the gorge. If the homologous crests of two contiguous faces do not meet each other, they should be reconciled by joining two points taken on each of them at half a meter from the inter of their projections.
6th. On the traverse, designed to secure the defenders from a reverse fire, two profiles are constructed, near to its extremities if its crest is a right line, but if it is bent, another profile must be set up at the junction.
7th. The data of all these profiles are, the relief of the interior crest at the point where it is encountered by the profile, the thickness of the parapet, the constant parts of every profile, and the natural slope of the ground; the portion of the slope of the traverses exposed to the view of the dominant heights should not be reveted, the others should be.
8th. At the points of inter of the profiles with the projections of the ridges of the works, as well as at the points used for adjusting, poles or pickets are placed, on which the points belonging to the ridges are marked. These points will be joined together in each profile by twine, indicating the different planes of the work.
9th. The form and dimensions of the batteries, either of barbettes or embrasures, will be equally determined by poles or pickets placed at all their angles, and united together by twine in the manner that will be subsequently explained.
10th. For the barbette batteries, the first thing to be done is to establish and to construct the front coupé of the salient of the interior crest, and substitute an interior horizontal crest throughout the extent of the barbette for that situated in the plane of defilement. The necessary adjustments are then made between the slope of the parapet of the barbette and that of the rest of the face, and indicate by means of twine the inters of the terre-plein of the barbette and of its slope with the different planes of the work.
11th. For the embrasures, after having determined their direction, the inters of the cheeks and bottom, with the interior and exterior slope of the parapet, and with its slope; also the slope which terminates the interruption of the banquette throughout the extent of the battery. In the case where the platform is formed more than 0m 4 elevated above the soil, a ramp is constructed with its slope, and the inters with the slope from the platform are shown.
12th. After the batteries, the slope of the ends of the traverses and of the passages for entry and exit are constructed.
13th. The traverse will be finished by adjusting its different planes with those of the parapet. In the particular case, where it was interfered with to make a passage over the banquette, it is finished by reveting the slope passing by the crest of the banquette of the work.
14th. At the passages of entry and exit from the work, the parapets will be finished by the slope of the revetment, whose inters with the different planes of the parapets must be determined.
15th. For each squad of workmen, the distance of the salient of the work to the point on which it will be defiladed must be determined.
MEMOIR.
1st. Object of defilement—which is considered to be dangerous ground, dangerous point, plane of defilement.
2d. Position of the dangerous point relatively to the work which is to be defiladed. Practical method on the ground. Results to which it leads.
3d. On the field this method is not always applicable to an isolated work, and never is so to entrenchments of a great development, such as lines, large têtes-de-pont, &c. By what proceeding is it generally expedient to attempt to fulfill in war the indisputable condition of defilement.
RECAPITULATION FOR THE SUB-LIEUTENANTS OF ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.
NL Number of the Lectures.
+A With application.
-A Without application.
I No. of Interrogations.
First Lectures.—Parts of the Course. NL Credits for Lectures. I
+A -A Total
1st Part. Historical notions on the Organization of Armies 6 18 18 1
2nd Part. Tactics 3 9 9
3rd “ Castrametation 2 6 6
4th “ Field Fortification 16 24 24 2
5th “ Military Communications 10 15 15 1
6th “ Strategy 6 18 18 1
Totals 43 39 51 * 90 5
* The number 90 is applied to the interrogations and to the obligations of the notes.
D Drawings
M Memoirs
I In the Halls
O Outside
C Credits
Execution of Work. Number of
D M Attendances C
I O
Drawings of Military Art,—
Plate 1. Elements of Lines 1 .. 4 .. 20
Plate 2. Details of a Field-work 1 .. 8 .. 35
Plate 3. Project of a Road 1 .. 8 .. 35
Memoir .. 1 2 .. 20
Plate 4. Military Bridges 1 .. 8 .. 35
Memoir .. 1 2 .. 20
Project of Field Fortification,—
Plate 1. Plan of the whole 1 .. 3 .. 15
Plate 2. Organization of a work 1 .. 8 .. 35
Plate 3. Details of Construction 1 .. 5 .. 20
Memoir .. 1 .. 3 30
Tracing of Camps .. .. .. 1 5
Tracing on the Ground .. .. .. 2 10
Memoir .. 1 1 .. 10
Totals 7 4 51 3 280
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.
Lectures, 90
Execution of Work, 280
Totals 370
4th. Methods of defilement employed. Determination of the different planes of barbettes, of their ramps, of the profiles of the gorge, &c. Construction of embrasures.
5th. Means made use of in practice for determining the distance of the salient of the work to the dangerous point on which it is defiladed.
V.—PROGRAMME OF PERMANENT FORTIFICATION, AND THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF PLACES.
The course of instruction in Permanent Fortification and the Attack and Defense of Places, is divided into three parts, viz:—
No of lectures to
Artillery Engineers
The first part consists of the study of the Construction of existing Fortifications, and it is common to the two services; it comprises, 10 10
The second part contains principles of the Art of Fortification, divided into three s, of which the 1st relates to Fortification on level ground 19 19
2nd relates to Fortification on hilly ground 19 26
3rd relates to general questions of Fortifications 4 5
Third part relates to the Attack and Defense of Places, 24 24
Total number of Lectures, 76 84
The first part contains a description of the various works of permanent fortification, their respective uses, and the changes that have been successively made in them, together with a short history of ancient fortification prior to the invention of powder, and the changes introduced by the use of fire-arms.
The systems of Errard, Beville, Pagan, Vauban, Cochorn, and Cormontaigne.
The first of the second part describes the principles on which the various parts of a front of fortification on level ground, and according to Cormontaigne’s system, are regulated, such as the command, relief, defilement, form, length, and material of which the various parts should be constructed; the modifications required by the absence or presence of water; the changes which are necessary as regards exterior or advanced works, and ending with a comparison of a front of fortification according to Cormontaigne, with a modification of the same system introduced by the French engineers.
The second commences with the principles of defilement and its application under various given circumstances, proceeds with the description of an imaginary work founded on certain given data, and furnishes the data of its proposed construction. It then supplies the theory relating to mines, and their use in the attack, defense, and destruction of places, and points out the particular duties of engineers in fortified places, and the proper and most efficient manner of carrying them on.
The third relates to the preparation of projects for the improvement of inefficiently fortified places, and to the utility, particular organization, and proper position of fortified places on a frontier line. It then explains the necessity for military law in providing for the security of fortified places and districts along the frontiers of a state.
The third part describes the various operations connected with the attack and defense of a bastioned fortification, commencing with the operations preliminary to the siege and investment of the place, and continuing to describe the several processes to be employed in the attack of the place, with the corresponding efforts that should be made during its defense, and ending with an historical account of certain sieges.
This course requires the practical completion of the following:
T Time allowed for its completion.
O Observations.
Nature of the Work. T Subject of the Work. Scale. O
1st Part.—On existing fortifications. *
Single Plate, 20 days, Complete projection of the front of Cormontaigne without counterguard or cavalier, 1/1000
Three profiles of the front, 1/500
2d Part.—Principles of the Art of Fortification.
Plate, No. 1, 8 “ 1st Section: Fortifications on level ground.—Principal graphical constructions of the front on level ground according to particular data given to each Student 1/1000
Plate, No. 2, 28 “ Complete projection of the whole of the visible and underground parts of the same front, 1/1000
Three profiles of the front. 1/500
Memoir, 6 “ Description of the principles of the Fortification, with a detailed discussion of the dispositions adopted in the particular case treated by the Students.
Plate 3, 20 “ 2d Section: Fortification on hilly ground.—Drawing of the ideal fortress and of its Tête-du-pont, with the interior entrenchments, inundation, sluices, and all necessary details to enable a proper comprehension to be had of the action of the water.
Drawing complete of one of the fronts of the place and its outworks, described by a particular programme. Defilement of all the works of this front and of the masonry of one of its faces, 1/5000
Memoir, 3 “ On the situation of the fortification; description of the imaginary fortress, and of the management of the water; explanation of the operations of defilement drawn on Plate 3.
Plate 4, (Artillerie.) 10 “ Plan and profile of a full revetment of the escarp with its counterforts. 1/200 †
Plan, profiles, and elevation of a revetment “en décharge.” 1/200
Detail of a gallery and small chamber of a mine, of its tamping and mode of firing. 1/50
Plate 4, (Engineers.) 20 “ Detailed project of one of the parts of the front of fortification defiladed in Plate 3. Plans at different height; disposition of the galleries and small chambers of mines required for blowing up the whole of the ground between two listening galleries. 1/250 ‡
Plate 5, 10 “ Sections and elevations of the preceding project. Foundations, coping of vaults, dressing of cut stones, &c., 1/125
Detail of a small gallery and chamber of a mine, comprised in the dispositions of Plate 4. Tamping and mode of firing.
Avant, 3 “ Abstractions of measurement of a part of the preceding project. ...
Plate 6, 11 “ Study of the alterations in the earth of the same part of the projects, representing the four principal periods of the work, by a plan and , with an elevation of the 4th period. 1/250
Memoir, 2 “ General theory of the removal of earth. Application to a particular project,
Register, 3 “ Register of the removal of earth as represented in Plate 6.
Estimate, 1 “ Estimate of the part of the project to which the abstraction of measurements has been applied.
3d Section: Projection of the improvement of an existing fortified place.
Plate 7, 30 “ Complete projection of the project for improving an existing fortified place 1/1000
Plate 8, 6 “ Details of the most interesting parts of the project, in plans, s, and elevations. 1/250
Memoir, 2 “ Marginal notes on the defects presented by the existing system, and on the means employed for correcting them.
Calculation, 5 “ Balance of the “deblais” and “remblais” of the project.
3d Part.—Attack and Defense of Places. *
Single Plate, 30 “ Project of attack of a front of fortification on level ground, 1/2000
Details of the attack.
Journal, 4 “ Journal of the siege. Details relating to the composition of the garrison and of the besieging army; also on the material for the Artillery and Engineers required for the attack and defense. Pen sketch of the most elementary works of attack. 1/200
* Common to Students of Both Services.
† Artillery.
‡ Special to Engineer Students.
RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY.
NL Number of Lectures
+A With application (a.) *
-A Without application (b.) †
T Total.
I Number of Interrogations.
I. Lectures. Parts of the Course. NL Credits for the Lectures. I
+A -A T
First Part. Study of existing Fortifications, 10 4.5 21 26 1
Second Part. Principles of the Art of Fortification, . . . . . . . . . .
First Section. Fortification on level ground, 19 24.0 9 33 2
Second Section. Fortification on hilly ground, 19 19.5 18 38 2
Third Section. General questions of Fortification, 4 . . 12 12 . .
Third Part. Attack and Defence of Places, 24 24 24 48 2
Totals, 76 72 84 157 7
* (a.) The lectures with application count for 1 hour 5 minutes.
† (b.) Those without application for 3 hours.
D Drawings.
M Memoirs.
V Various.
S Sitting in the Halls of Study.
Cr Credits
II. Execution of Work. Number of Cr
D M V S
First Part. Front of Cormontaigne 1 20 90
Second Part. Plate 1. Construction of Project on Level Ground 1 8 35
Plate 2. Project on Level Ground 1 28 125
Memoir on ditto 1 6 55
Plate 3. Project on Hilly Ground 1 20 90
Memoir on ditto 1 3 30
Plate 4. Project of Details. Plan 1 20 90
Plate 5. Project of Section. Plan 1 10 45
Abstraction of Measurements 1 3 25
Plate 6. Removal of Earth 1 11 50
Memoir on ditto 1 2 20
Register of ditto 1 3 25
Estimate of the Project 1 1 10
Plate 7. Project of Improvements 1 30 135
Plate 8. Details of ditto, 1 6 25
Memoir on ditto 1 2 20
Balance of Deblais and Remblais 1 5 45
Third Part. Project of Attack 1 30 135
Journal of the Siege 1 4 35
Totals 10 5 4 212 1085
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.
Lectures, of Works, 1, 165 Execution of Works, 1,085 1,250
II. Studies and Execution of Work. Number of Cr
D M S
First Part. Front of Cormontaigne, 1 20 90
Second Part. Plate 1. Construction of the Project on Level Ground, 1 8 35
Plate 2. Project on Level Ground, 1 28 125
Memoir, 1 6 55
Plate 3. Project on Hilly Ground, 1 20 90
Plate 4. Details of the Project, 1 10 45
Memoir, 1 3 30
Third Part. Plate. Project of Attack, 1 30 135
Journal of Attack, 1 4 35
Totals 6 3 129 640
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.
Lectures, of Works, 160 Execution of Works, 640 800
RECAPITULATION FOR THE ENGINEERS.
NL Number of Lectures.
+A With application.
-A Without application.
T Total.
I Number of Interrogations.
I. Lectures. NL Credits for Lectures. I
+A -A T
First Part. Study of Existing Fortification, 10 4.5 21 26 1
Second Part. Principles of the Art of Fortification, . . . . . . . . . .
First Section. Fortification on Level Ground, 19 24.0 9 33 2
Second Section. Fortification on Hilly Ground, 26 36.0 6 42 2
Third Section. General Questions on Fortification, 5 1.5 12 13 . .
Third Part. Attack and Defense Places, 24 24.0 24 48 2
Totals 84 90.0 72 162* 7
* The number 162 is applicable to the Interrogations.
VI. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY.
The course of Topography comprehends two parts.
The first relates to the art of topographical drawing, and the second to the art of making topographical surveys. Both parts are carried on pari passu; but as the order in which the different branches of the instruction can be given depends very much on the other works carried on in the School, it will be more convenient to give the programme for each separately.
FIRST PART.—INSTRUCTION IN TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING.
The instruction in topographical drawing comprehends lectures and exercises in graphical representation. It is based on a complete exposition of the conventional principles of this species of drawing, and it is illustrated by engraved examples of the characteristics adopted for the representation of the various details.
First Section.—Lectures.
The lectures have for their object the explanation of the general principles of the instruction in topographical drawing, and the geometrical conditions which should regulate the shading of maps and their reduction. They immediately precede the exercise to which they relate.
Lecture 1 relates to small maps, copies, and reductions of these; and it explains the object of topographical maps, the various kinds and the different scales generally used. The manner in which the form of the ground is represented by equi-distant contour or level lines is also explained, and mention is made of the conventional tints used, and the species of writing and value of the scale employed.
Lectures 2 and 3 relate to the execution of shaded plans by the brush and the pen, under different circumstances of light and shade.
Lecture 4 explains the different methods for reducing topographical maps, also the description, mode of using, and verification of pentagraphs.
Second Section.—Exercises.
These exercises are intended to teach the students the conventional signs used in topographical drawing, and to give them facilities with the pencil and brush for producing shaded maps, and in reducing them from one scale to another.
SECOND PART.—INSTRUCTION IN TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING.
This instruction comprises:
1st. Lectures given in amphitheatre.
2d. Practical lectures or exercises.
3d. The execution of topographical surveys.
First Section.—Oral Lectures.
These lectures are divided in two classes, which comprehend:—
1st. Those relating to the description of the instruments, and of the methods used in topography.
2d. Those which have reference to the manner in which the students should proceed in the execution of the work, and principally of surveys of limited extent.
Eight lectures are devoted to the description of the various instruments, the method of adjusting their errors, and the manner of using them, as well as to the different ways of proceeding in topography; touching also on the various modes of measuring distances, with descriptions of the compass, plane table, and instruments used for leveling, and on the taking observations for and preparation of s, and the orientation of maps.
Four preparatory lectures are given, showing the manner in which the students should proceed when on the ground to make a survey of small extent.
Two lectures relate to the methods that should be employed in making a survey of considerable extent, and on the appropriate scales.
Two lectures on military reconnaissance plans; instruments and scales employed.
Two preparatory lectures relate to the execution of a reconnaissance plan, in which the operations of a sham siege are intended to be recorded.
Second Section.—Practical Lectures or Exercises.
The object of these lectures, which take place on the glacis of the fortification, is to show the students the practical modes of using the instruments, and the precautions which must be taken, together with the most elementary proceedings in topography. They are given to ten or twelve students at the same time, and the Professor is assisted by an officer of the staff. Each lecture lasts two and a half hours.
Third Section.—On the Execution of Topographical Surveys.
The object is to familiarize the students with the use of the principal instruments and the principal operations, and they comprehend out-of-door work, of which the results are sketches, registers, and minutes made in pencil, and in the construction of plans, and inking in of the minutes in the Halls of Study.
The out-of-door work is performed under the superintendence of officers of the staff, who assist the students in their work. The construction of the plans is not commenced until the pencil minutes have been examined by the Professor.
These exercises comprise:—
1st and 2d. Construction of plans by the aid of the compass.
3d. The plan of a fortification made with the plane table.
4th. The determination of the variation of the compass.
5th. The execution of a second survey by the aid of the compass.
6th. The execution of a rapid survey by pacing the distances.
7th. The execution of a reconnaissance survey.
8th. The execution of a an itinerary and reconnaissance sketch.
9th. The preparation of a plan on which the whole of the operations of a sham siege may be laid down, as the works of attack and defense proceed.
RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.
NL Number of Lectures.
+A With application.
-A Without application.
T Total Credits.
I Number of Interrogations.
Lectures. NL Credits for Lectures. I
+A -A T
1st part:
Topographical drawing, 4 6 . . 2
Art of Surveying— 36
On the instruments and Topographical processes, 8 12 . .
On Surveys of considerable magnitude, 2 . . 6
On Reconnaissance Plans, 2 1.5 3
Preparatory to out-of-door work, 5 7.5 . .
Total, 21 27 9 30* 2
* The credit is diminished here and carried forward to the exercises, which serve for the interrogations of many lectures. These lectures have therefore really three series of interrogations.
D Drawings.
M Memoirs.
V Various.
+H In the halls.
-H Out of the halls.
O Out of doors.
C Credits.
Execution of Work. Number of C
D M V Attendances
+H -H O
1st Part:— Topographical Drawing:
Conventional Tints, 1 . . . . 3 . . . . 10
Study of Maps, 4 . . . . 26 . . . . 120
Reduction, 1 . . . . 2 . . . . 10
Construction of a Triangulation with the Compass, 1 . . . . 3 . . . . 15
1st Survey with the Compass:
Out-of-door work, . . . . 1 . . . . 6 50
Laying down, 1 . . . . 4 . . . . 20
Survey of Fortifications with the Plane-Table:
Out-of-door work, 1 . . 1 . . . . 10 80
Laying Down, . . 4 . . . . 25
Determination of the Variation of the Compass, 1 . . . . 1 1h . . 5
2d Survey with the Compass:
Out-of-door work, 1 . . 1 . . . . 8 65
Laying down, 1 . . . . 2 . . 10
Rapid Survey:
Out-of-door work, 1 . . 1 . . . . 6 50
Laying down, 1 . . 4 . . . . 25
Reconnaisance survey:
Out-of-door work, 1 . . 1 . . . . 4 30
Laying down, 1 . . 3 . . . . 20
Itinerary and Reconnaissance,* 1 . . . . . . . . 1 10
Topographical operations relative to sham siege† . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Topographical exercises, each of 2½ hours duration, . . . . . . . . 6 .. ‡ 20
Total 15 3 5 52 7 35 565
* The description Itinerary is reckoned with the simulated siege operations.
† For a memoir.
‡ This number is formed with 5 taken from it for the credit of the interrogations because the exercises serve for the interrogations of several lectures.
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.
Lectures, n of Works, 30 Execution of Works, 565 595.
VII. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF GEODESY AND DIALLING.
This course is divided into two parts—the one part special for the engineers, and the other common to the artillery and engineers.
The first comprises:—
1st. The study of the execution of a triangulation of some extent, and of its connection with the general triangulation of France, executed under the superintendence of the Dépôt de la Guerre, and
2d. Leveling with the barometer.
The second contains:—
1st. The study of reflecting instruments.
2d. The principles of dialling.
Each of these parts comprehend:—
1st. Lectures given in the amphitheatre.
2d. Practical lectures or exercises.
3d. An application.
FIRST PART.—SPECIAL FOR ENGINEERS.
1st Section—Lectures.
These Lectures include:—
1st. A description of the principal geodesical instruments.
2d. The establishment of the triangulation.
3d. The survey and the calculations connected with it.
4th. The orientation of the triangulation.
5th. The calculation of the co-ordinates of the points and their construction from the minutes of the survey.
6th. The geodesical and barometrical leveling.
The first lecture is devoted to the explanation of the different kind of signals used under various circumstances; on the method of measuring bases and angles, and the principles on which these operations are performed; and concluding with the description and mode of using certain instruments for measuring angles.
The second lecture continues and enlarges on the subject of the measurement of angles, horizontal and vertical, with different kinds of instruments.
The third lecture relates to the corrections and reductions which must be made to observed angles, such as the correction for the eccentricity of the instruments, to the reduction of the angles to the horizon, and to the center of the station, and also on the adjustments of the instruments, or the application of corrections for certain errors.
The fourth lecture discusses the calculation of the triangles and their errors, and points out the best organization that can be given to the triangulation, and the exactitude which can be expected from it.
The fifth lecture also relates to the calculation and the development of the triangulation, and explains the nature of the geodesical operations for the map of France.
The sixth lecture explains the manner of observing for, and determination of the azimuthal bearing, for the orientation of the triangulation.
The seventh lecture has reference to the convergence of meridians, calculation of rectangular co-ordinates, sundry problems, and geodesical leveling.
The eighth lecture shows in what manner the barometer is made use of for the determination of differences of altitude, the nature of the corrections to be applied to the instrument, and the degree of exactitude to be found in the results of this process.
The ninth lecture points out the order in which geodesical calculations should be performed and the verifications which should be exacted.
The Second Section contains five lectures or exercises, and they have for their object to familiarize the students with the use of the various kinds of instruments employed in carrying on the operations which have been shortly described in the first .
The Third Section relates to the practical application of the preceding principles, and mostly consists of geodesical applications.
SECOND PART.—COMMON TO THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.
The First Section consists of lectures given in the amphitheatre, and relates to reflecting instruments, such as the sextant, reflecting circle, and the method of using them, and also on the principles of dialling, and its connection with various problems in astronomy; describes also the different kinds of dials.
SECOND SECTION.—PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
In which the students are called upon, in the presence of the Professor, to adjust the sextant, and to use it in connection with an artificial horizon for the measurement of the angle between any two objects of the altitude of these objects above the horizon, and also the same altitude.
Third Section contains the practical application of the principles enunciated in the preceding s, in the preparation by the students of two drawings, in which they will exhibit the graphical representation of the hour in terms of the altitude of the sun previously observed, and show the various constructions of a sun-dial, according to the specified conditions based on the observation of the hour angle.
RECAPITULATION FOR THE ENGINEERS.
NL Number of Lectures.
+A With application.
-A Without application.
T Total Credits.
I Number of Interrogations.
Lectures. NL Credits for Lectures. I
+A -A T
First Part:—Geodesy:
Lectures with application, 4 6 . . 21 1
Lectures without application, 5 . . 15
Second Part:
Reflecting Instruments, 1 1.5 . . 4.5 1
Dialling, 2 3
Total, 12 10.5 15 25.5 2
D Drawings.
M Memoirs.
V Etats Divers.
+H In the halls.
-H Out of the halls.
C Credits.
Execution of Work. Number of C
D M V Attendances
+H -H
First Part:
Geodesical calculations, . . . . 1 4 . . 20
Exercises of 2½ hours, . . . . 1 . . 5 10
Second Part:
Drawings of Dialling, 2 . . . . 4 . . 20
Exercises of 2½ hours, . . . . . . . . 1 5
Total 2 . . 2 8 6 55
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF IMPORTANCE.
Lectures, of Works, 25 Execution of Works, 55 80.
RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY.
NL Number of Lectures.
+A With application.
-A Without application.
T Total Credits.
I Number of Interrogations.
Lectures. NL Credits for Lectures. I
+A -A T
Reflecting Instruments, 1 4.5 . . 5 1
Dialling, 2
Total, 3 4.5 5 1
D Drawings.
M Memoirs.
+H In the halls.
-H Out of the halls.
C Credits.
Execution of Works. Number of C
D Days M
+H -H
Drawings of Dialling, 2 4 . . . . 20
Exercises of 2½ hours, . . . . 1 . . 5
Total, 2 4 1 . . 25
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF IMPORTANCE.
Lectures, n of Works, 5 Execution of Works, 25 30.
VIII.—PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF SCIENCES APPLIED TO THE MILITARY ARTS.
Lectures.
1st part— Geology, 12
2d “ On the Metallurgy of Iron, on Working in Iron, 6
3d “ Applications of the Working in Iron, 3
4th “ On the Manufacture of Small-arms, 4
5th “ On the Manufacture of Ordnance, 5
6th “ On the Manufacture of Powder, 5
7th “ On Pyrotechny, 2
Total, 37
FIRST PART.—GEOLOGY.
Lecture 1.—Preliminary notions. Definition of geology expressed from its applications. Division in four s:—1st. Mineralogy. 2d. Paleontology. 3d. Geognosy. 4th. Geogeny. (Only the three first are here treated of.)
First Section.—Mineralogy. Generalities. Distinctive characters of minerals. Fundamental principle of a mineralogical classification. Minerals are distinguished as having characters either exterior, crystalline, chemical, or physical; classification of minerals.
Lecture 2.—First class: Simple bodies forming one of the essential principles of minerals. Genus silica, quartz, sulphur. Second class: Alkali and alkaline salts, potass, soda, &c. Third class: Alkaline earths, and earths. Genus lime. Fourth class: Metals. Iron of various kinds; copper, lead, tin, zinc.
Lecture 3.—Fifth class: Silicates of various kinds. Sixth class: Combustibles, minerals.
Lecture 4.—Description of various rocks. Classification of rocks.
Lecture 5.—Use of rock and stone in the arts, and particularly in the art of construction.
Lecture 6.—On the calcination of calcareous stones, lime-kilns.
Lecture 7.—Manufacture of artificial hydraulic lime, manufacture of bricks, stucco, or cements.
Lecture 8.—Second Section: Paleontology. General division established in zoology and botany. General notions relating to the different kinds of animals and vegetables, of which the remains are found in various geological formations. Third : Geognosy. Lectures 9, 10, 11, 12, occupied with the explanation of the various formations.
SECOND PART.—ON WORKING IN IRON.
Lecture 13.—Preliminary notions. Definitions and general considerations. Characteristics of iron, steel, cast-iron, &c.
Lecture 14.—On iron ore and the various kinds of fluxes.
Lecture 15.—On combustibles. Vegetable combustibles, mineral combustibles.
Lecture 16.—Manufacture of cast-iron. High furnaces, different modes of proceeding with vegetable and mineral combustibles.
Lecture 17.—Manufacture of iron and steel and the different kinds of iron.
THIRD PART.—APPLICATION OF THE WORKINGS OF IRON.
Lecture 19.—Making of projectiles, carriages for guns and mortars, axle-trees and anchors. Use of cast-iron for artillery. General notions in moulding. Use of wrought-iron and steel. Materials first made use of for the making of projectiles, and in the casting of cannon-balls, &c.
Lecture 20.—On the manufacture of hollow projectiles and the carriages for guns and mortars.
Lecture 21.—On the manufacture of axles and anchors.
FOURTH PART.—ON THE MANUFACTURE OF SMALL-ARMS.
Lecture 22.—Preliminary considerations. Assay of metals. Fire-arms, manufacture of gun-barrels, describing the various details.
Lecture 23.—Bayonets, locks, &c.
Lecture 24.—On the making of stocks. Finishing. Rifling small-arms.
Lecture 25.—Manufacture of sabres, swords, lances, hatchets, cuirasses, and on the preservation, maintenance, and repair of arms.
FIFTH PART.—ON THE MANUFACTURE OF ORDNANCE.
Lecture 26.—Preliminary notions. Metals proper for the manufacture of ordnance. Composition and properties of gun-metal. Wrought and cast-iron ordnance. Moulding generally. Moulding of cannons.
Lecture 27.—Moulding of howitzers. Foundries. Fusion of the metals.
Lectures 28, 29.—Boring. Turning. Carving. Turning of the trunnions, &c. Manufacture and reception of bushes. Insertion and replacement of bushes.
Lecture 30.—Last operations. Proofs and reception of cannon. Chemical operations. Assay and analysis of the metals employed in the casting of gun-metal; proportion of the several ingredients.
SIXTH PART.—ON THE MANUFACTURE OF POWDER.
Lecture 31.—General notions. Various kinds of powder, &c. On saltpetre and sulphur.
Lecture 32.—Charcoal; wood employed; various kinds of charcoal; proceeding followed in making powder in various ways by the pestle.
Lecture 33.—Manufacture by mills, &c.
Lecture 34.—Influence of the proportion of the several ingredients, and of the manner of making it on its various properties. Preservation, inflammation, and combustion.
Lecture 35.—Proofs and reception of powder. Proof of its projectile force. Mortar proof, and various kinds of other proofs to which it is subject. Reception and analysis of powder.
SEVENTH PART.—PYROTECHNY.
Lecture 36.—Preliminary ideas. Objects of the course. Precautions that should be adopted to prevent accident. Mixture of the materials. Manufacture of leaden balls of various kinds. Caps. Fireworks for warlike purposes, used for setting buildings, &c., on fire. Firing cannon and exploding mines.
Lecture 37.—Fireworks employed under various circumstances in war. Signal rockets. For illuminating or setting on fire. For explosions. Petards. On ordinary fireworks.
Works of Application.—The works of application which are connected with the course of science applied to the military arts are as follows:—
1st. Study of samples of mineralogical specimens.
2d. Study of geological maps to be followed by a memoir.
3d. Memoirs on: 1st. Iron and its applications. 2d. Manufacture of cannon. 3d. Manufacture of small-arms and powder.
4th. Out-of-door geological excursions to be followed by memoirs.
5th. Manipulations relative to moulding in earth or sand.
6th. Chemical manipulations.
7th. Pyrotechnic manipulations.
First.—Study of Samples of Mineralogical Specimens.
This study has for its object the determination of the kind of minerals described in the course. It is made in s of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants and by attendances of one hour, each Sub-Lieutenant being called upon to reply at least three times.
Second.—Study of Geological Maps, followed by a Memoir.
The study of geological maps will consist in indicating, by conventional colors, the different geological formations of a lithographical map, and to make a in a particular direction. The map will be the same for all, and it will be conceived so as to correspond with the geological formation of France, but the s will differ for each student.
An explanatory memoir will have for its object to call the attention of the Sub-Lieutenants to the most salient facts which will be placed in relief by this study.
One attendance in the halls of study will be devoted to this work.
Third.—Three Memoirs.
Three memoirs on different parts of the course, other than the geological, will be made immediately after the interrogations relative to each . Particular data will be furnished to each Sub-Lieutenant. Three attendances in the halls of study will be allowed for these memoirs.
Fourth.—Geological Excursions.
Three geological excursions will be made in the environs of Metz by groups of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants under the direction of the Professor, and at the period of the out-of-door work, so as not to interfere with the current work in the halls. The first excursion will have for its object the study of the lias and lower oolite, met with in the vicinity of Metz. If the time will admit of it, a reconnaissance will be made to the great oolite at Taumont or at Amanvillers.
The second excursion will be made in the direction of Gorze for the study of the lower oolitic formation and to trace it up to Bradford clay, where an important fault occurs in this direction near to Metz. The study of this fault will be the great object of this excursion.
The third excursion will be made in the direction of Forbach, meeting with the lias, chalk-colored freestone, &c.
Three entire days will be devoted to these excursions, and each Sub-Lieutenant will enter his observations in a note-book, and make a certain number of s, and report the results of these excursions in three memoirs in a specified time.
Fifth.—Manipulations relative to Moulding in Earth or Sand.
These mouldings of projectiles will be made by s of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants, two attendances of three hours each being devoted to them, one for ordinary and the other for hollow projectiles.
The manipulations for the moulding of cannon will be executed by the Professor.
All the Sub-Lieutenants will be successively called by s a certain number of times, in order that they may be enabled to render an account of the different states of advancement of the work.
Programme of practical instruction for the casting of projectiles.
1st attendance. Making shot, &c.
2d attendance. Making hollow projectiles.
Programme of the moulds to be executed by the Professor.
Manufacture of cannon; moulding in earth and the various processes to be carried on.
Sixth.—Chemical Manipulations.
The chemical manipulations are made by s of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants.
Nine attendances of three hours each are employed.
1st. To the determination of the specific gravity and real density of gunpowder and to its analysis.
2d. To two other analyses of gun-metal, iron-ore, &c.
Seventh.—Manipulations in Pyrotechny.
The manipulations in pyrotechny will be made by the whole division, divided into three brigades. Each brigade will be assembled in one of the halls at the School of Pyrotechny, and will execute the different manipulations indicated in the following programme, under the direction of the Professor, and with the assistance of the master artificers of the School of Pyrotechny. Five attendances of three hours will be employed at these manipulations.
PROGRAMME OF THE PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS ON MUNITIONS AND FIREWORKS.
1st Attendance. Munitions for small-arms.
Infantry cartridges, Construction of bullets. Construction of pouches and caps. Construction of cartridges.
Cartridges with oblong bullets.
2d Attendance. Ammunition for field guns.
Construction and filling of pouches, packing in wood, &c.
3d Attendance. Ammunition for siege artillery, &c.
Construction and filling of cartridges, &c.
Charging hollow projectiles.
4th Attendance. Fireworks for war purposes.
Construction of matches, quick matches, tubes, fusees for shells and grenades.
Construction of signal rockets.
5th Attendance. Carriage of field ammunition.
Loading and unloading field ammunition chests for cannons, howitzers, and infantry wagons.
Construction of ornamental lances and Roman candles.
RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.
NL No. of Lectures.
+A With Application, 1h. 5m.
-A Without Application, 3h. 0m.
T Total Credits.
I No. of Interrogations.
Lectures.—Parts of the Course. NL Credits for Lectures. C I
+A -A
1st Part, Geology, 12 15 6 20 2 *
2d “ on Working in Iron, 6 18 20 1 †
3d “ Applications of working in Iron, 3 15 6 10
4th “ Manufacture of Small Arms, 4 12 10 1
5th “ Manufacture of Cannon, 5 15 15 1
6th “ Manufacture of Powder, 5 15 15 1
7th “ Pyrotechny, 2 3 5
37 19.50 72 95 6
* The first series of interrogations relates to mineralogy.
† The second to geognosy.
The printed Observations column (shown here as footnotes) is ambiguous; the best guess is that both items refer to Geology.
St Studies.
Sk Sketches.
M Memoirs.
E Exercises.
Mp Manipulations.
H Attendances in halls, 4h. 5m.
OD Attendances out of doors, 6h.
AL Attendances at the Laboratory:
L1 1h. to 2h.
L3 of 3h.
P Attendance at the School of Pyrotechny 3h.
Cr Credits.
Works of Application. Number of Cr
St Sk M E Mp H OD AL P
1L 3L
Study of Mineralogical Specimens, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . 5
Study of Geological Map, followed by a Memoir Map, . . 1 . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . 5
Memoir, . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . 10
Memoirs on the Metallurgy of Iron, and its—
1. Application, . . . . 1 . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . 10
2. Manufacture of cannon, . . . . 1 . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . 10
3. Manufacture of small arms or powder, . . . . 1 . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . 10
Geological Excursions, followed by Memoirs: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Excursions, . . . . . . 3 . . . . 3 . . . . . . 20
Memoirs, . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Manipulations in Moulding, . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . 2 . . 5
Manipulations in Chemistry, . . . . . . . . 9 . . . . . . 9 . . 25
Manipulations in Pyrotechny, . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . . 5 15
Total, 3 1 7 3 16 4 3 3 12 5 135
RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.
Lectures, n of Lectures, 95 Works of Application, 135 230.
IX. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
FIRST SECTION.—GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Lectures 1 and 2.—Short account of the general principles which serve as a base for the application of mechanics to machines, under the compound ratio of their establishment and of the calculation of their effects.
Lecture 3.—General composition of a factory; power, recipient, transmission of movement, tools. General method of calculating the effect of forces in a complete factory.
Lectures 4, 5, and 6.—Theoretical rules and the results of experiments concerning the flow of liquids. (Particular reference is made to the principles which relate to the large orifices of machines moved by water.)
Lecture 7.—Gauging of the volumes and valuation of the dynamical power of water-courses which feed machines.
SECOND SECTION.—MOTOR MACHINES.
Lecture 8.—Theory of the effect of water on hydraulic wheels. Determination of the elements of the calculation.
Lectures 9 to 13.—Application of the general theories to the principal hydraulic recipients. Conditions of the maximum, relative to the useful effect of each kind. Results of experiments, &c. (With reference to turbines, those which are most generally employed in the artillery workshops must be adverted to.)
Lecture 14.—Comparative abstract of the usual properties of various hydraulic “recepteurs.” Operations that must be carried on in order to arrive at their results and to their reception in manufactories.
Lecture 15.—Physical ideas relative to the use of the vapor of water as a motive power. Theoretical bases of the calculation of the effects of steam-engines. Force exerted by the compression and expansion of elastic fluids.
Lectures 16 to 18.—Practical notions and results of experiments relating to the effects and to the usual properties of the principal systems of steam-engines in use, as to the employment, reception, and maintenance in workshops.
THIRD SECTION.—RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS.
Lecture 19.—Resistance to compression: 1st, by gradual pressure; 2d, by shock. Results of experience. Application to wooden and cast-iron supports, and to the foundations of machines. Stocks of hammers.
Lecture 20.—Resistance to traction. Application to the shank of a piston, to bolts, chains, cordage, and leather straps. Resistance to flexure. Practical formulæ for calculating the transverse dimensions of the wooden or cast-iron arms of hydraulic wheels, of the catches or sails.
Lecture 21.—Continuation of the resistance to flexure. Practical formula for calculating the dimensions of the several parts of such machines. Cranks, winches, and handles in wood or in metal.
Lecture 22.—Resistance to torsion. Practical formulas. Results of experiments relative to the resistance of wood and metals to boring and turning. Resistance of cast-iron plates to clipping.
FOURTH SECTION.—WORKING MACHINES
Lectures 23 and 24.—Of blowing machines. General expression of their useful effect. Conditions of the maximum effect. Ventilators; their use in workshops and galleries of mines. Practical bases of their construction. Blowing machines with a piston. Description. Calculation of the effects and results of experiment.
Lectures 25 and 26.—Description and properties of alternative and circular sawing machines. Practical rules for their establishment. Results of experiments concerning the motive power they require, the useful effect obtained, and the resistance of various kinds of wood to the action of the tool. Results of observation relative to the work in shops by hand-saws.
Lectures 27 and 28.—Machines which act by shocks. Practical formula for the calculation of the loss of acting force in the shock. Description and usual properties of various kinds of hammers employed in workshops. Results of experiments proper for serving as the base for the establishment of lever hammers and pestles in powder manufactories. Results of calculation and observation relative to hammers and pestles moved directly or by the transmission of a movement by steam.
Lecture 29.—Grindstones for powder manufactories. Rapidity suitable to the different parts of the work. Means of obtaining it. Calculation of the necessary motive power. Sharpening grindstones for the manufacture of arms. Ventilation.
Lecture 30.—Lathes and drilling bits. Description. Rapidity of movement and form of the tools, according to the nature of the matter and kind of work. Results of experiments concerning the motive force required, and its relation to the useful effect obtained. Composition of a workshop of turning-lathes for an arsenal of artillery.
Lecture 31.—Boring. Machines for cutting and boring. The form of the tool and the rapidity of its action must depend on the nature of the material and the kind of work. Results of experience concerning the motive power required, and its relation to the useful effect obtained, principally for the boring machines of the manufactories of arms and of foundries. Boring machines, disposal of them in an arsenal.
Lecture 32.—Flatteners. Machines for centering, for making screw holes. Descriptions. Different rapidity of the work, dependent on its nature and that of the material. Results of experiments concerning the amount of the motive power and its relation to the useful effect obtained.
FIFTH SECTION.—LECTURES PREPARATORY TO THE WORKS OF APPLICATION.
Lecture 33.—Proceeding to be followed in the preparation of the sketches of a machine. Observations on the effects of machines, their duration, original cost, and cost of maintenance, mode of making, &c. Indications of the difficulties which are met with, and means which should be employed.
Lecture 34.—Project of a factory (specially for the sub-lieutenants of artillery.) Legal conditions respecting the erection of factories. General mode of proceeding with the project. Choice of motor machines dependent on local circumstances and the nature of the work to be performed.
Lecture 35.—(Special for the sub-lieutenants of artillery.) Determination of the effects supported by the pieces, whose dimensions should be calculated in applying the practical formula of the resistance of materials. Selection of materials.
Lecture 36.—(Special for the sub-lieutenants of artillery.) Principal assemblages of various pieces of machines. Building, foundations, supports of trunnions and pivots.
SECTION SECOND.—WORKS OF APPLICATION.
Survey of Workshops.
This survey of workshops comprehends:—
1st. Figured sketches and observations made on the ground.
2d. Drawing of the whole and of details shaded.
3d. A memoir containing an accurate description of the machines and workshops, the calculation of the dynamical effect, the exposition of the mode of fabrication, and, in general, the results and consequences of the observations made on the spot. It must be executed by each, conformably with the particular programme, and to the instruction which will be given to him. He is allowed for this work thirty-four days.
Project of Machines.
This work, executed immediately following the preceding, by the sub-lieutenants of artillery only, has exclusively for its object the establishment of a workshop for the service of the artillery, comprehending the driving machines and the principal operators; or, if there be time, the improvement of the workshops of the same arm, described in the preceding work. This project must be executed conformably to the particular programme given to each sub-lieutenant. It comprehends; 1, sheet of drawings: 2, a memoir. Twenty-six days are allowed for this work,
RECAPITULATION.
NL No. of Lectures.
CL Credits for Lectures.
+A With application.
-A Without application.
C Total Credits.
I No. of Interrogations.
Oral Instruction—Parts of the Course. Artillery. Engineers.
NL CL C I NL CL C I
+A -A +A -A
1st Section—General Principles, 7 6 9 15 1 7 6 9 15 1
2d Sec.—Driving Machines, 11 12 9 21 1 11 12 9 21 1
3d Sec.—Resistance of materials, 4 5 3 8 . . 4 5 3 8 . .
4th Sec.—Working Machines, 10 15 . . 15 1 10 15 . . 15 1
5th Sec.—Lectures preparatory to the works of application, 4 6 . . 6 . . 1 1.50 . . 1.50
Total 36 44 21 65 3 33 39.50 21 60.50 3
RECAPITULATION.
D Sheets of drawings.
M Memoirs.
Att Attendances.
H In the halls.
O Out-of-doors.
C Credits.
Works of application Number of Number of
D M Att C D M Att C
H O H O
Survey of workshops:
Figured sketches and observations, * . . . . 8 65 * . . . . 8 65
Shaded drawings, 1 . . 22 . . 100 1 . . 22 . . 100
Memoir, . . 1 4 . . 40 . . 1 4 . . 40
Project of machines:
Calculations and drawings, 1 . . 20 . . 90 . . . . . . . . . .
Preparation of memoir . . 1 6 . . 60 . . . . . . . . . .
Total, † 2 52 8 355 † 1 26 8 205
* 1 note book.
† 1 note book 2 sheets
RECAPITULATION.
Artillery. Engineers.
Credits for lectures assigned to the interrogations, 65 60
Credits for works of application, 355 205
420 265
X.—PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE ON CONSTRUCTION.
The course on construction is divided into four parts.
The first part relates to the elements of masonry and the principles which should regulate the form, dimensions, and the construction of walls, and the different parts of buildings; it contains eighteen lectures.
The second part is devoted to the architecture of military buildings—twelve lectures.
The third part supplies the theory of the stability of construction, and is divided into—
1st , relating to the resistance of materials—six lectures.
2d , relating to the stability of walls of revetments and arches—nine lectures.
The fourth part applies to constructions in water—twenty lectures.
The course is very nearly the same for the Artillery as for the Engineers.
ELEMENTS OF MASONRY, ETC.
Lectures 1, 2, and 3.—Relate to the elements of which masonry is composed, such as the different kinds of stones, usual dimensions, manner in which good stone may be known; bricks, lime, cement, sand, mortar, stucco, mastic plaster, asphalte, &c., and to the general considerations relating to foundations, and the different kinds of walls under various circumstances.
Lecture 4.—Treats of sustaining walls and the probable effects of the pressure of the earth. Of the conditions which must be fulfilled to insure stability. Various formulæ on the subject. Details of construction and on the proper material to be used.
Lecture 5.—Refers to the manner of facing masonry. Openings in walls, windows. Partition-walls.
Lecture 6.—On cylindrical arches, vaults, key-stones. Formulæ for the calculation of the thickness of piers of an arch or vault. Construction and use of tables for the calculation of the thickness. Construction of arches and vaults in different materials.