Part 1 — THE SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOLS OF FRANCE. (continued 3)

Lecture 7.—Arches continued, flat arches, plate bands, &c.

Lecture 8.—On the woods used in construction. On the influence of the soil on its quality. Characteristics of good wood. Preservation of wood. Proper wood for constructions.

Lecture 9.—Flooring. Beams. Girders. Joists. Ceilings.

Lecture 10.—Staircases, conditions respecting. Construction of different kinds of staircases, part of masonry, wood, &c.; steps. Construction of landing-places, &c.

Lectures 11 and 12.—Roofs in carpentry. Conditions which should be satisfied. Composition of the roof of a building. On the different kinds of roofs.

Lecture 13.—On the different ways of joining pieces of wood or timber together.

Lecture 14.—On permanent kinds of roofing. Conditions which should be fulfilled by good roofing. Composition of roofing. Tiles, lathing, cut slates, ridge tiles, hollow tiles, Dutch tiles. On slate roofing. Metallic roofing. Metal mostly used. Precautions to be taken with reference to all metal roofing.

Lecture 15.—Details relating to inhabited buildings. Cellars. Privies. Drainage. Chimneys; cause of their smoking. Most favorable forms of the flues, pipes. Bake-house, hearth.

Lecture 16.—On joinery and locksmiths’ work. Flooring of different kinds. Doors. Camp-beds. Racks and mangers in stables. Shutters.

Lecture 17.—Apparatus for heating and for cooking food. Hearth, ash-pan. Grate-flues. Amount of surface to be given to heating apparatus. Furnace of kitchens in barracks. Summary notions on the heating and ventilating of buildings. Calorifiéres with hot air, steam, and hot water.

Lecture 18.—Plan of a building. Projections adopted for the representation of a building. Plans, s, and elevations. Order in which the measurements should be made, and the sketch prepared. Height at which the horizontal plane of projections should pass, &c.

SECOND PART.—ARCHITECTURE OF MILITARY BUILDINGS.

Lecture 1.—Decoration, without making use of the orders of architecture. Principal conditions relating to decoration. Symmetry, regularity, simplicity, unity, and apparent soliditity. Proper character. Proportions of the façades. Height of the stories. Basements. Horizontal chains or fillets. Vertical chains and pilasters. Proportions of the doors and windows. Arcades and arched windows. Cornices, pediments.

Lecture 2.—Distribution of buildings. Considerations that should have weight in the distribution. Number composing the edifice. Circumstances that guide in the disposal of masses. Conditions that should be satisfied in placing a building. Locality and suitable dimensions. Relations that should exist between them. Interior and exterior communications. Stories on the same floor. Position of the large rooms. Separation of the rooms. Position and arrangement of staircases. Verification of stability.

Lecture 3.—Conditions to be fulfilled in the distribution of the principal military establishments. Arsenals. Polygons for drill. Military establishments to the School of Bridges.

Lecture 4.—Foundries. Manufacture of arms.

Lecture 5.—Refining saltpetre. Powder. Powder magazines. Details relative to the construction of lightning conductors.

Lecture 6.—Infantry and cavalry barracks.

Lecture 7.—Hospitals. Military prisons and penitentiaries.

Lecture 8.—Storehouse for corn. Store-pits. Storehouse for fodder. Preserving houses.

Lecture 9.—Cisterns. Filtration.

Lecture 10.—Military tribunals. Guard-house. Gates of cities. Hotels and dwelling-houses. Officers’ quarters.

Lecture 11.—Preparatory to the execution of a project for a building. Method of proceeding. Composition of the sketch; approximate surface of all the locality; separation into symmetrical groups in the case of several buildings; number of stories; surface of the ground floor; length and breadth of the building between its walls; distribution of each story; verification of the relation between the stories. Elevation of the building. Sketches. Memoir. General details, and details of execution.

Lecture 12.—Discussion before the abstraction of the measurements and the preparation of the estimate of the building.

THIRD PART.—FIRST SECTION: ON THE RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS.

1. Resistance of prismatic bodies to extension and compression. Elasticity of bodies. Modulus of elasticity. Limits of permanent efforts. Resistance to extension and compression of stone, bricks, and analogous materials; also of wood and metals. Applications.

2. Transverse resistance. Some cases in which it is brought into play. Results of experience. Resistance of bodies submitted to the effects of transversal flexure. Results of experience and conventions. Conditions of equilibrium of bodies submitted to efforts directly transversal to their length. Direction and value of molecular efforts. Equation of the axis of the body. Equation of the squaring. Discussion of these equations.

3. Geometrical method for determining the inertia. Application to the research for the inertia of various s. Applications of general equations of equilibrium and of squaring to straight pieces.

1st. A horizontal piece set in a frame at one extremity, and subjected to a weight acting at the other extremity, with a uniform vertical effect.

2d. Horizontal beam placed upon two supports, and subjected to a weight acting at its center, and with a uniform vertical effect.

3d. Beam placed horizontally on two supports, and having two equal weights symmetrically placed with respect to its center.

4th. Beam placed horizontally on two supports, and subjected to a weight acting at any point whatever throughout its length.

5th. Horizontal beam fixed at both its extremities, and subjected to a weight acting at its center with an equal vertical effect.

6th. Horizontal beam placed on three points of support, at unequal distances, and weighted with two weights acting at the middle of the intervals between the supports.

7th. Vertical beam fixed at the foot, and charged with a weight acting at a certain distance from the axis of the beam.

5. Solids of equal resistances. Most suitable form for cast girders. Applications of the formula of equilibrium and squaring to various kinds of carpentry.

6. On polygonal roofs. Conditions respecting them. Arched roofs, pressure, &c. On the stability of walls required to resist the pressure of roofs.

SECOND SECTION: ON THE STABILITY OF REVETMENT WALLS AND ARCHES.

7. On the pressure of earth. Explanation of the theory on Coulomb’s system. Investigation of the pressure of earth by analysis. Hypothesis necessary in order to simplify the calculations. General formula of the value of the pressure, &c. Equations of stability and equilibrium under the hypothesis of slipping and rolling.

8. Simplification of the general equations of equilibrium in three particular cases. Determination of the co-efficient of stability in Vauban’s profile. M. Poncelet’s formula for calculating the thickness of revetment walls with perpendicular face. Transformation of the profile of a revetment to another of equal stability. Vauban’s counterforts, &c.

9. Geometrical method for determining the pressure of earth, whatever may be the profile of the wall and of the earth, taking into account the friction of the earth on masonry. Geometrical determination of the amount of the pressure. Proceeding for the determination, by geometry, of the thickness of a revetment wall at the level of the exterior ground.

10. On buttresses. Geometrical determination of the buttressing of earth, and of its momentum. Simplification of the geometrical constructions of the pressure, of the buttressing, and of their momenta under certain hypotheses.

11. Points of application of the pressure and of the buttress. 1st. In the case of a terrace sloping less than the natural slope of the ground. 2d. In the case of the ordinary revetments of fortification.

On the stability of the foundations of revetment walls.

Compressible soil. The resultant of all the forces should pass through the center of the base. Size of the footing of the wall or depth of the foundations to arrive at the result. Possibility of the wall slipping over the base of the foundations. Use of the buttress to prevent this movement. Graphical method to determine the depth of the foundations. Depth of the foundations in unstable soil.

12. Pressure of arches. Case of cylindrical arches. Explanation of the theory of the pressure of arches. Point of application of the pressure in the five modes of possible rupture. Expression for the pressures and resistances by rolling or slipping. Proceeding to be followed to find by calculation the pressures and resistances.

13. Geometrical determination of the pressures and resistances by rolling. Explanation of the solution of this question. Construction of lines proportional to the surfaces of the voussoirs. 1st. In the case of an arch. Extrados without coping or additional weight. 2d. In that of an arch with extrados in the form of coping, and with or without additional weight. Construction of the verticals passing through the center of gravity of the voussoirs. Abstract of the operations to be performed. Determination by geometrical means of the pressure and resistance against slipping.

14. Co-efficient of stability of arches from the springing. Manner of finding the outline of an arch for a certain given co-efficient. Stability of a cylindrical arch on its piers. Thickness of the piers. Considerations relative to the value of the co-efficient of stability. Stability of an arch on the base of its foundations. Filling in and depth of the foundations of piers.

Extension of the geometrical methods serving for the determinations of the pressures and thicknesses of piers in case of cross vaulting, arcades, and spherical vaulting.

15. Investigation by analysis of the pressures and resistances of an arch.

1st. Hypothesis of a plat-band; stability at the springing charge necessary on the coussinet; stability of the plat-band on its piers; thickness of the piers. Squaring of a tie-beam of iron which annihilates the pressure.

2d. Hypothesis of a semicircular vaulting with arched extrados. Pressures and resistances. In similar arches the pressure is proportional to the square of the radius.

FOURTH PART.—HYDRAULIC CONSTRUCTION.

1st. Classification of ground on which it may be necessary to place a foundation. Soundings. Their object. Various kinds of sounding line. Dams in earth, and in wood and earth combined. Case of an unstable foundation. Construction on rock. Thickness of dams and of the clay work. General disposition of a dam. Bottom-springs. Means of choking or smothering them or of diverting them. Use of sunk dams. Service bridges. Their height and disposition. Railways in great constructions. Their disposition.

2d. Summary review of draining or pumping machines. Choice between the different methods of draining. Table of the useful effect of such machines.

Pile driving. Pile driving machine with band ropes. Preparation of the pile and operation of driving. Pile driving machine with catch. Choice between the two kinds of pile driving machines. Precautions to be taken in the driving of piles. Distribution of piles, the space to be left between them, and the squaring of them. Disposition and driving of planks. Method of drawing up piles and planking. Execution of a foundation on piles. Driving stakes out of water. Machine for squaring piles.

3d. Parafouilles. Their object and construction.

Foundations in mortar under water. Preparation and immersion of the mortar. Examples.

Thickness of sunk dams with the enceint in mortar.

4th. Foundation frames and platforms. Their object and their construction. Preparation of the foundation frames in masonry.

Foundation by packing.

Foundation by coffer-dams. Details of a coffer-dam.

5th. Foundations on solid gravel. Properties of gravel. Case where it is advantageous to make use of gravel. Examples.

Foundations on sunk wooden piles, in gravel, and in gravel and mortar.

Foundation on pillars built in masonry.

Foundations on quicksand.

Species of foundation to adopt according to the nature of the ground.

6th. Banks of reservoirs. Conditions which should be fulfilled in their establishment. Banks in earth; their profile; revetments to protect them; the wet slope; sort of remblai; precautions which exact a large remblai. Banks in remblai and sustaining walls combined. Banks entirely in masonry; movements observed in walls; most suitable profile. Comparison between banks in earth and masonry. Works which are employed in connection with banks of reservoirs. Dikes of inundations. Their profile; defense of their slope against the action of water; their establishment and works in connection with them.

7th. Batardeaux in the ditches of strong places. Situation; profile; details of construction. Weirs. Their object; effect of a weir in a current. Advantages of the wedge or circular form. Height to give to a weir; and longitudinal form of the swelling occasioned by a horizontal dam. Construction of weirs with vertical walls, with a long slope down the stream. Injuries to which weirs are liable. Profile to adopt according to the nature of the ground.

8th. Sluice-dams, their object; form of the piles; distance apart, and dimensions. Details of construction. Various kinds of apparatus for opening and shutting sluice-dams. Play of a revolving gate. Calculation of the dimensions of the two half sluice gates and of the wicket. Carpentry of a revolving gate. Movable dams with iron wickets. Modifications to render them applicable to the retention of water at a greater height than 2.80 meters.

9th. Navigable locks. Canal lock; its management; form of the chamber; profile of the cheeks. Trace of the pier on which the gates work. Means of filling and emptying the chambers. Means of raising the paddle-valves. Wood-work of the gates sheathed in timber. Planes. Details of the pivots, collars and rollers. Arrangements for the management of the sheathed gates.

10th. Gates sheathed in wood; curves. Ties of cast-iron, and lining in wood or sheet-iron. Cast-iron gates.

River Navigation.—Advantages and disadvantages of water transit. Conditions of a navigable river. Works for the improvement of the navigation on a river.

Artificial Navigation.—Classification of canals. Conditions which determine the best position for a summit level. Search after a minimum of elevation. Expenditure of water at the summit level.

11th. Principal processes employed to economise the water in passing through a lock. Profile of a navigable canal.

Deep cuttings; their profile. Great landslips and means of remedying them.

Tunnels; their profile. Piercing of a tunnel.

12th. Bridges in masonry. Position; breadth of the roadway; outlet to be left for the water; size and form of the arches; trace of the surbased arches on more than five centers. Expansion of the bridge-heads. Profile of the arch. Thickness of the piles and abutments. Apparatus for the arches and bridge-heads. Parts above the arches. Leveling with the banks. Fixed and movable centerings. Removal of the centerings of arches.

13th. Wooden Bridges composed of straight pieces. Arrangement of the stakes and starlings. Different construction of the openings according to their span. Arrangement of the platform.

American Bridges.—Arrangement of the earliest form of bridge on Town’s system. Height of the trusses constructed in the form of trellis-work. Modifications introduced to increase the resistance of the bridge. Calculation of the resistance of the trusses.

Arched frame-work of bridges. Composition of the arches. Junction of the straight beams with the arches.

Cast-iron Bridges.—Different systems. General principles of their construction.

Aqueducts in masonry; in cast-iron.

14th. Suspension Bridges.—Equation of the curve of the chains and construction of this curve. Tension supported by the suspension cables, their thickness. Influence of the length of the flèche upon the tension of the cables. Inconveniences resulting from a long flèche. Vibrations and means of diminishing them. Limits of length of the flèche. Length of the curve of suspension. Causes operating to vary this length; means of obviating the effects produced by them. Length of the suspension rods. Number of supports to be adopted. Thickness of the piles. Points at which the fixing cables are to be attached. Advantages and disadvantages of chains composed of bars and of cables of iron wire. Some details of construction.

15th. Drawbridges.—Conditions which they must satisfy. General principle of their balance.

Drawbridges with Plyers.—Special theory of this bridge. Reduction of it to practice. Alteration of equilibrium and means of remedying it.

Disadvantages of the drawbridge with plyers.

16th. Spiral drawbridge of Captain Berché. Trace of the spiral. Determination of the radius of the chain-roller, and of the greatest radius of the spiral.

17th. Drawbridges with variable counterbalances, invented by M. Poncelet. Construction of the chains of the counterbalance. Establishment of the leverage. Calculation of the counterbalances for the special case of the pulleys in front corresponding to the axis of the platform. Influence of the nature of the chains. Method of allowing for the weight of the small chains. Definitive construction of the chains of the counterbalance. Provision of loose cords.

18th. Succinct ideas upon the motion of the sea, and its action on the shore.

Undulating movement. Height of the waves, and depth at which the agitation is perceptible. Effects of the waves on the coasts. Tides; spring-tides; neap-tides. Height of tides and hour of flood. General currents. Action of the sea on its shores. Protection of level and steep shores.

19th. Sea-ports. Requisites of a good port. Ports in the Mediterranean. Conditions of a good roadstead. Moles and breakwaters. Ocean ports, channel tide-dock, floating dock, and sluice of floating dock, laying-up dock, and sluice for the ditch of fortifications. General arrangement of a harbor.

20th. Construction of moles. Stones dropped for foundations. Profile of a loose heap. Volume of the materials which insure their stability. Settling of masonry resting on a heap. Instances of masonry constructed at sea. 1. Wall of Cherbourg. 2. Fort Boyard.

Piers.—Direction, length, form of interval between, and profile of piers. Their construction. Passages reserved through piers.

RECAPITULATION.

First Part.— Parts of Buildings 18

Second Part.— Architecture of Military Buildings 12

Third Part.— First Section. Resistance of Materials, 6 15

Second Section. Stability of Constructions, 9

Fourth Part.— Hydraulic Constructions, 20

Total 65

WORKS OF APPLICATION.

Art Artillery.

Eng Engineers.

Name of work. No. Days allowed for execution of work to Students of Subject employed on. Observations.

Art Eng

Survey of a Building: Representation of an existing building or a part of a building by means of plans, s, and elevations. The memoir contains an accurate and critical description of the distribution, construction, and decoration of the building. Each day is equivalent to 4½ hours’ work. The sketches are executed to scales approximating to one-fiftieth for the whole drawing, of one-twentieth for the large details, and of ¼ to ½ for the minute details. The drawing prepared from the sketches is made on the scale of 1–100th.

Sketch (out-of-door work,) 8 31 8 31

Drawing, 21 21

Memoir, 2 2

Project for a Building: Study and preparation of a project of a building, in accordance with certain given data. The sketches, the result of the first study, are made in pencil; the drawing is the fair copy of the sketch, modified as may be necessary. The memoir contains an explanation of the rules and principles which must be observed in the construction of buildings, and the grounds on which the dispositions contained in the building have been adopted. The abstraction of the measurements and their reduction to the proper elements, and the estimates, are prepared in conformity to the instructions laid down for the Engineer Service in towns: these supply the estimated cost of the construction of the building according to the project. This work, common to the students of the two arms, is an application of the first part of the course. The scale for the drawing is in general 1–200th for the plans and elevations, and 1–100th for the s. It is restricted by the condition that the whole of the drawings should be given on a single sheet of paper. The details need only occupy half a sheet of paper, and its scales must depend on the size of the objects to be represented. The details need only occupy half a sheet of paper, and its scales must depend on the size of the objects to be represented. The project for a building is an application of the first two parts of the course, as well as of the 1st of the 3d part.

Sketch, (first study in pencil.) 12 12

Drawing, (fair copy) 18 42 18 42

Details, 4 4

Memoir, 4 4

Abstraction of Measurements and Estimates 4 4

Diagram of the Stability: Determination of the profile for a revetment wall, according to certain conditions. Verification of the stability of an arch, and calculation of the pier supporting this arch. In the memoir a short explanation is given of the theory relating to the strength of the revetment walls and arches, as well as the results of the application of these principles to the particular case. The drawing is executed to the scale of 1–100th. This work is an application of the 2d of the 3rd part.

Drawing, 6 9 6 9

Memoir, 3 3

Project for an Hydraulic construction: Study and composition of a project for a great work of art on certain given data. In the memoir an explanation is given of the principles and the results of the theories which are to be applied in making this project. The arrangements adopted in the project are discussed for the foundation and all other parts of the construction. The scale of the drawing is chosen in such a manner that the project may be placed on a single sheet; generally it is 1–200th, or smaller. The project of a hydraulic construction is an application of the 1st of the 3rd part as well as of the 4th part of the course.

Sketches, 10 28 12 34

Drawing, 15 18

Memoir, 3 4

Total, 110 116

NL No. Lectures

CL Credits for Lectures

+A With application

-A Without application

T Total

I No. Interrogations

1st. Lectures.—Parts of the Course. Artillery. Engineers.

NL CL I NL CL I

+A -A T +A -A T

1st Part:

Elements of Masonry, form and dimensions of the different parts of buildings, 18 *24 6 30 2 18 *24 6 30 2

2d Part:

Architecture of military buildings, 12 18 ... 18 1 12 18 ... 18 1

3d Part:

Theory respecting stability:

1st —Resistance of materials, 6 6 6 12 1 6 6 6 12 1

2d —Stability of revetment walls and arches, 9 10.5 6 16.5 1 9 10.5 6 16.5 1

4th Part:

Hydraulic Constructions, 20 24 12 36 1 20 24 12 36 1

Total, 65 82 30 112 6 65 82 30 112 6

* A lecture with application is equivalent to 1½ hours of work, and a lecture without application is equal to 3 hours.

D Drawings and Sketches.

M Memoirs.

V Various.

H Attendances in halls 4½ hours.

O Attendances out of doors, 6 h.

C Credits.

2d. Execution of the Work. Artillery. Number of Engineers. Number of

D M V H O C D M V H O C

Plan of a Building:

Sketches (pen,) 1 ... ... ... 8 50 1 ... ... ... 8 50*

Drawing, 1 ... ... 21 ... 95 1 ... ... 21 ... 95

Memoirs, ... 1 ... 2 ... 20 ... 1 ... 2 ... 20†

Project of a Building:

Sketch, 1 ... ... 12 ... 55 1 ... ... 12 ... 55

Drawing, 1 ... ... 18 ... 80 1 ... ... 18 ... 80

Detail, 1 ... ... 4 ... 20 1 ... ... 4 ... 20

Memoir, ... 1 ... 4 ... 35 ... 1 ... 4 ... 35

Abstraction of quantities and estimates, ... ... 1 4 ... 20 ... ... 1 4 ... 20

Diagram of Stability.

Drawing, 1 ... ... 6 ... 25 1 ... ... 6 ... 25

Memoir, ... 1 ... 3 ... 25 ... 1 ... 3 ... 25

Project of an Hydraulic construction.

Sketch, 1 ... ... 10 ... 45 1 ... ... 12 ... 55

Drawing, 1 ... ... 15 ... 70 1 ... ... 18 ... 80

Memoir, ... 1 ... 3 ... 25 ... 1 ... 4 ... 35

Total, 8 4 1 102 8 565 8 4 1 108 8 595

* Of which 20 is for the out-of-door work, and 30 for the sketch.

† The time allowed for the preparation of the memoirs in the halls should be doubled, in order to take an account of the correction out of the halls of study.

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE FOR THE COURSE.

Artillery, Lectures, 112 677, or about 680.

Execution of Work, 565

Engineers, Lectures, 112 707, or about 710.

Execution of Work, 595

XI.—PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE IN THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

SECOND DIVISION.—FIRST YEAR’S STUDY.

Number of Lectures, 50.

Grammar and composition during the 25 Lectures forming the odd numbers.

Oral translations of German authors. Phraseology. Lecture on idioms, founded on the passages which have been translated and given in the form of conversation during the first half of the 25 Lectures forming the even numbers.

Dialogues and conversations, on various subjects of every-day life, such as are particularly useful to an officer traveling in Germany, carried on during the second half of the Lectures of the even numbers.

FIRST DIVISION.—SECOND YEAR’S STUDY.

Number of Lectures, 100.

Translations of German authors, and conversations in German on the passages translated, during fifty Lectures, reckoning the odd numbers.

Military reconnaissances, in the form of a dialogue in German and in French, during the first half of the fifty Lectures, even numbers.

Translation of French into German: 1st, Narratives; 2d, Historical and descriptive fragments; 3d, Dramatic scenes; 4th, Epistolary style, during the second half of the fifty Lectures, even numbers.

At the close of the second year, the Sub-Lieutenants give in a composition on a certain subject.

The Sub-Lieutenants most advanced are not obliged to follow the course in German, but they should make translations of articles taken from German military works. These translations, after having been corrected, are deposited in the Library of the School.

Abstract of the course in German:—

1st year’s study, 50 Lectures.

2d “ “ 100 “

Total, 150 at ½ hour each— 112. 3 0.

Credits of influence, 110.

XII.—PROGRAMME OF A SHAM SIEGE.—(Common to the Artillery and Engineers.)

FIRST SECTION.—PRELIMINARY MEASURES.

Art. I.—Commission charged to study the Project for a Sham Siege.

A Commission is charged with drawing up and presenting to the General commanding the School a project for a sham siege. This is composed of:—

The Colonel second in command of the School, President.

The Major of Artillery, Members.

The Major of Engineers,

The Professor of Artillery,

The Professor of Fortification,

Clerk.

The Professors of Artillery and Fortification may be replaced by the Assistant Professors.

The General Commandant of the School decides in a Council of Instruction on the dispositions to be adopted for the project of a sham siege.

Art. II.—Preparatory Lectures.

By the Professor of Military Art, 2

1st. Considerations relating to the fortress of Metz. Circumstances which might bring on a siege of it. Force of the garrison and of the besieging army. Investment.

2d. Trace of the lines of circumvallation and of countervallation.

By the Professor of Topography, 1

Execution of the second reconnaissance plan (memoire,) (1 lecture.) 1st. Measure of the base. Plan of the ground of the attack. Construction of the plans. Plans of the work executed.

By the Professor of Permanent Fortification, 2

1st. Discussion on the points of attack. Organization of the personnel and matériel of the Engineers of the besieging army and of the garrison. 2d. General progress of attack, and general dispositions of defense.

By the Professor of Artillery, 2

1st. Composition of the personnel and matériel of the Artillery of the besieging army. Transport of the siege equipage. 2d. General dispositions of the artillery in the attack and defense.

SECOND SECTION.—COMPOSITION OF THE PERSONNEL.

Director of the Siege.—The General Commandant of the School.

Chief of the Staff.—The Colonel second in command of the School.

Chief of the Artillery Service.—The Major of Artillery attached to the Staff.

Director of the Park of Artillery.—This may be given to the preceding.

Chief of the Engineer Service.—The Major of the Engineers attached to the Staff of the School.

Director of the Engineer Park.—This may be given to the preceding.

Major of the Trenches.—A Captain. Chiefs of Attacks. Captains.

Chiefs of Brigades.—Named by the General Commandant of the Siege.

THIRD SECTION.—CONFERENCES.

Before proceeding to the ground, the sub-lieutenants assist at conferences which are held for the purpose of explaining to them the successions of the several operations of the siege, as well as upon the traces which they have to execute. These conferences, eight in number, are divided as follows:—

The Chief of the Artillery Service will hold 4 conferences, and

The Chief of the Engineer Service will hold 4 “

FOURTH SECTION.—TRACING OF LINES AND TOPOGRAPHICAL WORK.

1st. The second reconnaissance survey (comprised in the course of topography.) Tracing of lines; one day is allowed for this work.

2d. “Director” plan. The execution of this plan comprises out-of-door work and drawing. The out-of-door work includes the measurement of one or many bases, the observation of the angles which are formed by this base, and the direction of certain remarkable points in the city and fortification, and the formation of a net-work of triangulation, intended to co-ordinate the surveys of the details.

The work of constructing the plan consists in laying down, day by day, the surveys of the details of the ground, as well as of the traces executed. Five days are allowed for the execution of the topographical work, which precedes the opening of the trenches. The Director Plan is kept close up during the whole duration of the siege.

3d. Itineraries and sketches (comprised in the course of topography.)

The Professor of Topography directs the whole of the surveys and the execution of the Director Plan.

FIFTH SECTION.—TRACING OF THE WORKS OF ATTACK, AND ACTUAL EXECUTION IN FULL RELIEF OF CERTAIN WORKS.

The sub-lieutenants, divided into brigades, trace the works of the siege, under the direction of the officers of the staff, and take part in the superintendence of the works executed in full relief when the exigencies of the service will permit the chief of the Artillery Service and the Colonel of the Regiment of Engineers to place workmen at the disposal of the General Commandant of the School. Six days are appropriated to this work.

SIXTH SECTION.—WORK IN THE HALLS OF STUDY.

The work in the Halls of Study consists of:—

1st. A memoir on the sham siege, which memoir must be approved by the General Commandant of the School.

2d. Of a sketch representing one of the works traced or executed in full relief. These works in the Halls are performed during the interval of the attendances devoted to out-of-door work. Two days are appropriated to the preparation of the memoir, and two to the execution of the sketch. This time is included in the eleven days allowed to the sham siege.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.

NL No. of Lectures or Conferences.

CL Credits for Lectures or Conferences.

L Lectures.

Cf Conferences.

T Total.

Q No. of Questions.

Lectures and Conferences. NL Credits for Lectures or Conferences. Q

L Cf T

By the Professor of Military Art, 2 3 . . 3

By the Professor of Topography, 1 1½ . . 1½ 2

By the Professor of Permanent Fortification, 2 3 . . 3

By the Professor of Artillery, 2 3 . . 3

Conferences by the Chief of the Service,

of Artillery, 4 . . 6 6

of Engineers, 4 . . 6 6

Total, 15 10½ 12 22½ 2

* One series of questions by the Chief of the Artillery Service, as to what relates to that arm.

One series of questions by the Chief of the Engineer Service, as to what relates to that arm.

A Credit of 11 is assigned to each series of questions.

D Drawings.

M Memoirs.

H Attendances in the Halls.

I Credits.

Works of Application. Number of

D M Attendances out of doors. H C

of 4½h. of 8 h.

2nd Reconnaissance Plan (Memoir.)

Topographical Work, . . . . 4 . . . . 20 *

Itinerary and Sketch (Memoir,) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plan “Director,” . . . . . . . . 1 5

Tracing of Lines, . . . . . . 1 . . 10 †

Tracing of Works of Attack and of Defense, . . . . 6 . . . . 25

Sketch, 1 . . . . . . 2 1 ‡

Memoir, . . 1 . . . . 2 2

90

Total, 1 1 10 1 5

* Credits given by the Professor of Topography.

† Credits given by the Captains of the Staff, Chiefs of Brigades.

‡ Credits given by the Chiefs of the Service of the Artillery and Engineers.

XIII.—PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE ON THE VETERINARY ART.

FIRST PART.—INTERIOR OF THE HORSE.

Lecture 1.—Classification and nomenclature of the various matters which constitute the horse. Skeleton (head and body.)

Lecture 2.—Skeleton (limbs.) Mechanical importance of the skeleton. Nomenclature and use of the muscles. Cellular and fatty tissues, grease, skin. Insensible perspiration.

Lecture 3.—Functions for maintenance. Arteries of the nerves. Animal heat.

Lecture 4.—On various functions.

SECOND PART.—EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE.

Lecture 5.—Proportions. Equilibrium. Description and importance of the natural beauties and defects of the head and region of the throat.

Lecture 6.—Description and importance of the other parts of the horse. Blemishes. Soft tumors.

Lecture 7.—Osseous tumors. Various accidents. Temperaments. Description of clothing, &c.

Lecture 8.—Data respecting horses.

Lecture 9.—To know the age. On various bad habits. Examination of the eyes; their diseases.

Lecture 10.—Defective paces, &c. Draught and pack horses. Mules.

Lecture 11.—Stud and remounts. Races.

Lecture 12.—Vicious horses, and different bits. Manner of bitting a horse. On grooms and punishment.

THIRD PART.—ON THE HEALTH OF THE HORSE.

Lecture 13.—Examination of the foot, and shoeing with the hot shoe.

Lecture 14.—Shoeing with the cold shoe. Different kinds of horse-shoe, &c.

Lecture 15.—On stables. Food. Rations.

Lecture 16.—Description and nomenclature of the saddle. Harness and pack. Various saddles.

Lecture 17.—On work and rest. Horse and mule on the road and in bivouac. On diseases and accidents.

Abstract of the course:—

Interior of the horse, 4 17 lectures at 1½ hours. Total time, 25½ hours. Credits, 25.

Exterior, 6

Health, 7

The instruction on horseback can, under certain circumstances, be considered as connected with this course; and questions are asked during the time when the sub-lieutenants are not engaged in actual riding exercise. This instruction is described under the head of Practical Military Instruction; it comprises at the maximum 272 attendances, and its credit of influence is valued at 240.

ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS’ REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

I. ARTILLERY REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

These are intended for the theoretical and practical instruction of officers, sous-officiers, and gunners.

Each School is under the orders of the General of Brigade commanding the Artillery in the military division in which it is situated.

Independent of the general officer, the school has the following staff:—

A Lieutenant (associated assistant to the General.)

A Professor of Sciences, applying more particularly to the Artillery.

A Professor of Fortification, of drawing, and construction of buildings.

Two Gardes of Artillery (one of the first, and the other of the second class.)

There are, in addition, attached to each school the number of inferior officers (captains, lieutenants, or sous-lieutenants) required for carrying on the theoretical courses, which are not placed under the direction of the professors.

A captain of the first class, assisted by two first lieutenants, is the director of the park of the school. Another captain, also of the first class, but taken from the regiment of Pontooneers, has the direction of that portion of the bridge equipage necessary for the special instruction of this corps, as well as of the material of the artillery properly belonging to this instruction.

The lieutenant-colonel, assistant to the general, fulfills, independent of every other detail of supervision with which he may be charged, the functions of ordonnateur secondaire, in what concerns the expenses of the school and their propriety (justification.) He corresponds with the minister of war for this part of the service.

The instruction is divided into theoretical and practical, and the annual course is divided into half-yearly periods, or into summer and winter instructions.

The summer instruction commences, according to different localities, from the 1st of April to the 1st of May, and that of the winter from the 1st of October to the 1st of November.

The winter and summer instruction is subdivided into school and regimental instruction.

The school instruction comprehends all the theoretical and practical instruction common to the different corps which require the assistance of the particular means of the school, the employment of its professors, locality, and material, as that of the practical instruction in which the troops belonging to the different corps of the army are united to take part.

The regimental instruction is that which exists in the interior of the regiments and the various bodies of the artillery. It is directed by the chiefs of these corps, who are responsible for it, with the means placed at their disposal, under the general surveillance of the commandant of the school.

The special instruction of the Pontooneers not admitting of their following the same instruction as the other regiments of artillery, the chief of this corps directs the special instruction according to certain bases prescribed by the regulations.

There are for the captains of artillery, each year during the winter half-year, six conferences for the purposes of considering and discussing projects for the organization of different equipages and armaments for the field service, and for attack and defense of places.

In a building belonging to each school of artillery, under the name of the hotel of the school, are united the halls and establishments necessary for the theoretical instruction of the officers and sous-officers, such as halls for théorique drill and drawing, library, depots of maps and plans, halls for machines, instruments and models, &c.

Each school is provided with a physical cabinet and a chemical laboratory. There is also a piece of ground, called a polygon, for exercising artillerymen to the manœuvers of cannon and other firearms of great range. Its extent is sufficient in length to furnish a range of 1,200 meters, and in breadth of 600 meters.

Permanent and temporary batteries are established on this ground, and they seem not only for practice, but also to accustom the men to the construction of fascines, field batteries, &c.

The administration of each school, and the accounts relating to it, are directed by an administrative council, consisting of—

The General Officer commanding the Artillery (President.)

The Colonels of the regiments of Artillery in the towns where two regiments of the Artillery are quartered, and in other towns, the Colonel and Lieutenant-Colonel of the regiment.

The Colonel of the regiment of Pontooneers in the town where the principal part of the corps may be stationed, and in any other town the Lieutenant-Colonel or the Major.

The Lieutenant-Colonel associated assistant with the General Commandant.

The functions of secretary of the council are intrusted to a grade of the first class.

The functionaries of the corps of intendants fulfill, in connection with the administrative councils of the artillery schools, the same duties as are assigned by the regulations relating to the interior administration of bodies of troops. They will exercise over the accounts, both of money and material of the said schools, the same control as over the administration connected with the military interests of the state.

II. ENGINEER REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

The colonel of each regiment has the superior direction of the instruction.

The lieutenant-colonel directs and superintends, under his orders, the whole of the details of the regimental instruction.

A major, selected from among the officers of this rank belonging to the état-major of this arm, directs and superintends, under the orders of the colonel, the whole of the details of the special instruction.

The complete instruction consists of—

General instruction, or that of the regiment, by which a man is made a soldier.

Special or school instruction, having for its object the training of the miner or sapper.

The instructions are each separated into theoretical and practical instruction.

The theoretical instruction of the regiment comprehends the theories:—

On the exercises and manœuvers of infantry. On the interior service. On the service of the place. On field service. On the maintenance of arms. On military administration. On military penal legislation.

The practical instruction of the regiment comprises:—

The exercises and manœuvers of infantry. Practice with the musket. Military Marches. Fencing.

The teaching of these various duties is confided to officers, sous-officiers, and corporals of the regiments, as pointed out by the regulation, and the orders of the colonel.

The fencing school is organized in a similar manner to those of the infantry, and the military marches are also made in the same way as in those corps.

The special and theoretical instruction consists of:—

Primary instruction. Mathematics. Drawing. Geography. Military history of France. Fortification and the various branches of the engineering work.

Three civil professors (appointed by competition) are attached to each regimental school, for the special theoretical instruction, as regards the primary instruction, drawing, and mathematics.

The courses are distributed and taught in the following manner:

Primary instruction for the Soldiers. By the Professor of Primary Instruction.

French grammar for the Corporals.

Book-keeping for the Sous-Officiers.

Elementary arithmetic for the Corporals. By the Prof. of Mathematics.

Complete arithmetic for the Serjeants.

Elementary geometry

Complete geometry for the Serjeant-Major.

Trigonometry

Surveys for the Sous-Officiers.

Special mathematics for the Officers.

Drawing for the Corporals and Sous-Officers. By the Professor of Drawing, who is also charged with completing the collection of models which relate to it.

The elements of fortification for the Serjeant-Majors.

Construction, and theories on practical schools for the Sous-Officiers. By the Officers of the regiment, named by the Colonel, independently of those appointed by the regulations

Permanent fortification

The attack and defense of places for the Officers.

Mines

Bridges

Ovens

Topography

Geography for the Sous-Officiers.

Military history of France

At the end of each course the colonel of the regiment causes a general examination to be made in his presence of the whole of the men who have followed this course, and has a list made out in the order of merit, with notes of the capacity and aptitude of each.

These lists are consulted in the formation of tables of promotion, and placed with the said tables before the inspector-general.

Each captain and lieutenant are obliged to give in at least a single treatise on five different projects, consisting of a memoir discussing or the journal of a siege, with drawing of the whole, and of details in sufficient number to render them perfectly intelligible.

The special practical instruction is composed of seven distinct schools, relating to:—

Field Fortification. Saps. Mines and Fireworks. Bridges. Ovens. Topography. Gymnastics.

And they comprehend, in addition, sham sieges, and underground war. Each of these seven schools is taught in accordance with the special instructions annexed to the regulation, which, however, are not published.

Winter is more especially devoted to the course of special theoretical instruction, which commences on the 1st November, and usually finishes on the 15th March, and the course of special practical instruction is carried on during the summer from the 15th March to the 15th September. The second fortnight of September and the month of October are devoted to sham sieges and underground war, to the leveling of the works executed, and to the arrangement of magazines.

SCHOOL FOR INFANTRY AND CAVALRY AT ST. CYR.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. CONDITIONS OF ADMISSION. STAFF.

It will have been seen in the accounts of the Polytechnic School and the School of Application at Metz, in what manner young men destined for commissions in the artillery and engineers receive their previous education, and under what conditions appointments as officers in these two services are made in France. The regulations for the infantry, the cavalry, and the marines are of the same description. There are in these also the same two ways of obtaining a commission. One, and in these services the more usual one, is to rise from the ranks. The other is to pass successfully through the school at St. Cyr. Young men who do not enter as privates prove their fitness for the rank of officers by going through the course of instruction given, and by passing the examinations conducted in this, the principal, and putting aside the School of Application at Metz, the one Special Military School of the country.

The earliest foundation of the kind in France was the Ecole Royale Militaire of 1751. Like most other similar institutions of the time, it was intended for the young nobility. No one was to be admitted who could not prove four generations of Noblesse. The pupils were taught free of charge, and might enter at eight years old. Already, however, some marks of competition are to be discerned, as the best mathematicians were to be taken for the Artillery and Engineers. Buildings on the Plain of Grenelle (the same which still stand, occupying one end of the present Champs de Mars, and retaining, though only used as barracks, their ancient name,) were erected for the purpose. The school continued in this form till 1776, when it was dissolved (apparently owing to faults of discipline,) and replaced by ten Colleges, at Sorrèze, Brienne, Vendôme, and other places, all superintended by ecclesiastics. A new Ecole Royale Militaire, occupying the same buildings as the former, was added in 1777.

This came to an end in 1787; and the ten colleges were suppressed under the Republic. A sort of Camp School on the plain of Sablons took their place, when the war had broken out, and lasted about a year under the name of the Ecole de Mars.

Under the Consulate in 1800, the Prytanée Français was founded, consisting of four separate Colleges. The name was not long after changed to the Prytanée Militaire; and after some time the number was diminished, and La Flèche, which had in 1764 received the youngest pupils of the old Royal Military School, became the seat of the sole remaining establishment; which subsequently sunk to the proportions of a mere junior preparatory school, and became, in fine, the present establishment for military orphans, which still retains the title, and is called the Prytanée Militaire de la Flèche.

A special Military School, in the meantime, had been set up at Fontainebleau in 1803, transferred in 1808 to St. Cyr, and thus taking the place of the Prytanée Militaire and of its predecessor, the original Ecole Royale Militaire, gradually assumed its present form.15

The course of study lasts two years; the usual number of cadets in time of peace is five, or at the utmost six hundred; the admission is by competitive examination, open to all youths, French by birth or by naturalization, who on the first of January preceding their candidature were not less than sixteen and not more than twenty years old. To this examination are also admitted soldiers in the ranks between twenty and twenty-five years of age, who, at the date of its commencement, have been actually in service in their regiments for two years.

The general conditions and formalities are the same as those already stated for the Polytechnic. It may be repeated that all the candidates, in accordance with a recent enactment, must have taken the usual degree which terminates the task at the lycées—the baccalaureate in sciences.

Those who succeed in the examination and are admitted, take an engagement to serve seven years either in the cavalry or infantry, and are thus under the obligation, if they are judged incompetent at the close of their two years’ stay at the school to receive a commission, to enter and serve as common soldiers. The two years of their stay at the school counts as a part of their service. It is only in the special case of loss of time caused by illness, that permission is given to remain a third year.

The ordinary payment is 60l. (1,500 francs) per annum. All whose inability to pay this amount is satisfactorily established, may claim, as at the Polytechnic, an allowance of the whole or of half of the expenses from the State, to which may be added an allowance for the whole or for a portion of the outfit (from 24l. to 28l.) These bourses or demi-bourses, with the trousseau, or demi-trousseau, have during the last few years been granted unsparingly. One-third of the 800 young men at the school in February 1856 were boursiers or demi-boursiers. Candidates admitted from the Orphan School of La Flèche, where the sons of officers wounded or killed in service receive a gratuitous education, are maintained in the same manner here.16

It was the rule till lately that cadets appointed, on leaving St. Cyr, to the cavalry should be placed for two years at the Cavalry School at Saumur. This, however, has recently been changed; on entering St. Cyr those who desire appointments in the cavalry declare their wishes, and are put at once through a course of training in horsemanship. Those who are found unfit are quickly withdrawn; the remainder, if their place on the final examination allows of their appointment to the cavalry, are by that time sufficiently well practiced to be able to join their regiments at once.

Twenty-seven, or sometimes a greater number, are annually at the close of their second year of study placed in competition with twenty-five candidates from the second lieutenants belonging to the army,17 if so many are forthcoming, for admission to the Staff School at Paris. This advantage is one object which serves as a stimulus to exertion, the permission being given according to rank in the classification by order of merit.

The school consists of two divisions, the upper and the lower, corresponding to the two years of the course. Each division is divided again into four companies. In each of these eight companies there are sub-officers chosen from the élèves themselves, with the titles of Sergent, Sergent Fourrier, and Caporal; those appointed to the companies of the junior division are selected from the second year cadets, and their superiority in standing appears to give these latter some considerable authority, exercised occasionally well, occasionally ill. The whole school, thus divided into eight companies, constitutes one battalion.

The establishment for conducting the school consists of—

A General as Commandant.

A Second in Command (a Colonel of Infantry.)

A Major, 4 Captains, 12 Lieutenants, and 5 Second Lieutenants of Infantry; the Major holding the office of Commandant of the Battalion.

A Major, 1 Captain, 34 Lieutenants, and 3 Second Lieutenants of Cavalry to superintend the exercises, the riding, &c.

A Director of Studies (at present a Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers.)

Two Assistant Directors.

Six Examiners for Admission.

One Professor of Artillery.

One Assistant ditto.

One Professor of Topography and Mathematics.

One Professor of Military Administration, Military Art, and Military History.

One Professor of Fortification.

One Professor of Military Literature.

Two Professors of History and Geography.

One Professor of Descriptive Geometry.

One Professor of Physics and Chemistry.

Three Professors of Drawing,

One Professor of German.

Eleven Military and six Civilian Assistant Teachers (Répétiteurs.)

There is also a Quartermaster, a Treasurer, a Steward, a Secretary of the Archives, who is also Librarian, an Almoner (a clergyman,) four or five Surgeons, a Veterinary Surgeon, who gives lessons on the subject, and twelve Fencing Masters.

The professors and teachers are almost entirely military men. Some difficulty appears to be found by civilians in keeping sufficient order in the large classes; and it has been found useful to have as répétiteurs persons who could also be employed in maintaining discipline in the house. Among the professors at present there are several officers of the engineers and of the artillery, and of the staff corps.

There is a board or council of instruction, composed of the commandant, the second in command, one of the field officers of the school staff, the director of studies, one of the assistant directors, and four professors.

So, again, the commandant, the second in command, one of the field officers, two captains, and two lieutenants, the last four changing every year, compose the board or council of discipline.

St. Cyr is a little village about three miles beyond the town of Versailles, and but a short distance from the boundary of the park. The buildings occupied by the school are those formerly used by Madame de Maintenon, and the school which she superintended. Her garden has given place for the parade and exercise grounds; the chapel still remains in use; and her portrait is preserved in the apartments of the commandant. The buildings form several courts or quadrangles; the Court of Rivoli, occupied chiefly by the apartments and bureaux of the officers of the establishment, and terminated by the chapel; the Courts of Austerlitz, and Marengo, more particularly devoted to the young soldiers themselves; and that of Wagram, which is incomplete, and opens into the parade grounds. These, with the large stables, the new riding school, the exercising ground for the cavalry, and the polygon for artillery practice, extend to some little distance beyond the limit of the old gardens into the open arable land which descends northwards from the school, the small village of St. Cyr lying adjacent to it on the south.

The ground floor of the buildings forming the Courts of Marengo, Austerlitz, and Wagram appeared to be occupied by the two refectories, by the lecture-rooms or amphitheaters, each holding two hundred pupils, and by the chambers in which the ordinary questionings, similar to those already described in the account of the Polytechnic School, under the name of interrogations particulières, are conducted.

On the first floor are the salles d’étude and the salle des collections the museum or repertory of plans, instruments, models and machines, and the library; on the second floor the ordinary dormitories; and on the third (the attics,) supplementary dormitories to accommodate the extra number of pupils who have been admitted since the commencement of the war.

The commission, when visiting the school, was conducted on leaving the apartments of the commandant to the nearest of the two refectories. It was after one o’clock, and the long room was in the full possession of the whole first or junior division. A crowd of active and spirited-looking young soldiers, four hundred at least in number, were ranged at two long rows of small tables, each large enough, perhaps, for twelve; while in the narrow passage extending up and down the room, between the two rows, stood the officers on duty for the maintenance of order. On passing back to the corridor, the stream of the second year cadets was issuing from their opposite refectory. In the adjoining buttery, the loaf was produced, one kilogramme in weight, which constitutes the daily allowance. It is divided into four parts, eaten at breakfast, dinner, the afternoon lunch or gouter, and the supper. The daily cost of each pupil’s food is estimated at 1f. 80c.

The lecture rooms and museums offer nothing for special remark. In the library containing 12,000 books and a fine collection of maps, there were a few of the young men, who are admitted during one hour every day.

The salles d’étude on the first floor are, in contrast to those at the Polytechnic, large rooms, containing, under the present circumstances of the school, no less than two hundred young men. There are, in all, four such rooms, furnished with rows of desks on each side and overlooked in time of study by an officer posted in each to preserve order, and, so far as possible, prevent any idleness.

From these another staircase conducts to the dormitories, containing one hundred each, and named after the battles of the present war—Alma, Inkerman, Balaclava, Bomarsund. They were much in the style of those in ordinary barracks, occupied by rows of small iron beds, each with a shelf over it, and a box at the side. The young men make their own beds, clean their own boots, and sweep out the dormitories themselves. Their clothing, some portions of which we here had the opportunity of noticing, is that of the common soldier, the cloth being merely a little finer.

Above these ordinary dormitories are the attics, now applied to the use of the additional three hundred whom the school has latterly received.

The young men, who had been seen hurrying with their muskets to the parade ground, were now visible from the upper windows, assembled, and commencing their exercises. And when, after passing downwards and visiting the stables, which contain three hundred and sixty horses, attended to by two hundred cavalry soldiers, we found ourselves on the exercising ground, the cavalry cadets were at drill, part mounted, the others going through the lance exercise on foot. In the riding-school a squad of infantry cadets were receiving their weekly riding lesson. The cavalry cadets ride three hours a-day; those of the infantry about one hour a week. The exercising ground communicates with the parade ground; here the greater number of the young men were at infantry drill, under arms. A small squad was at field-gun drill in an adjoining square. Beyond this and the exercising ground is the practice ground, where musket and artillery practice is carried on during the summer. Returning to the parade ground we found the cadets united into a battalion; they formed line and went through the manual exercise, and afterwards marched past; they did their exercise remarkably well. Some had been only three months at the school. The marching past was satisfactory; it was in three ranks, in the usual French manner.

Young men intended for the cavalry are instructed in infantry and artillery movements and drill; just as those intended for the infantry are taught riding, and receive instruction in cavalry, as well as artillery drill and movements.

It is during the second year of their stay they receive most instruction in the arms of the service to which they are not destined, and this, it is said, is a most important part of their instruction. “It is this,” said the General Commandant, “that made it practicable, for example, in the Crimea, to find among the old élèves of St. Cyr, officers fit for the artillery, the engineers, the staff; and for general officers, of course, it is of the greatest advantage to have known from actual study something of every branch.”

The ordinary school vacation last six or seven weeks in the year. The young men are not allowed to quit the grounds except on Sundays. On that day there is mass for the young men.

The routine of the day varies considerably with the season. In winter it is much as follows:—At 5 A.M. the drum beats, the young men quit their beds; in twelve minutes they are all dressed and out, and the dormitories are cleared. The rappel sounds on the grand carré; they form in their companies, enter their salles, and prepare for the lecture of the day until a quarter to 7. At 7 o’clock the officers on duty for the week enter the dormitories, to which the pupils now return, at a quarter to 8 the whole body passes muster in the dormitories, in which they have apparently by this time made their beds and restored cleanliness and order. Breakfast is taken at one time or other during the interval between a quarter to 7 and 8 o’clock.

They march to their lecture rooms at 8, the lecture lasts till a quarter past 9, when they are in like manner marched out, and are allowed a quarter of an hour of amusement. They then enter the halls of study, make up their notes on the lecture they have come from, and after an hour and a half employed in this way, for another hour and a half are set to drawing.

Dinner at 1 is followed by recreation till 2. Two hours from 2 to a quarter past 4 are devoted to military services.

From 4 to 6 P.M. part are occupied in study of the drill-book (théorie,) part in riding or fencing: a quarter of an hour’s recreation follows, and from 6¼ to 8½ there are two hours of study in the salles. At half-past 8 the day concludes with the supper.

The following table gives a view of the routine in summer:—

4½ A.M. to 4¾ A.M. Dressing.

4¾ “ to 7¼ “ Military exercises.

7¼ “ to 8¼ “ Breakfast, cleaning, inspection.

8¼ “ to 9½ “ Lecture.

9½ “ to 9¾ “ Recreation.

9¾ “ to 11¼ “ Study.

11¼ “ to 1 P.M. Drawing.

1 P.M. to 2 “ Dinner and recreation.

2 “ to 4 “ Study of drill-book (théorie) or fencing.

4 “ to 6 “ Study for some, riding for others.

6 “ to 6¼ “ Recreation.

6¼ “ to 8 “ Riding for some, study for others,

8 “ to 8½ “ Supper.

The entrance examination is much less severe than that for the Polytechnic; but a moderate amount of mathematical knowledge is demanded, and is obtained. The candidates are numerous; and if it be true that some young men of fortune shrink from a test, which, even in the easiest times, exacts a knowledge of the elements of trigonometry, and not unfrequently seek their commissions by entering the ranks, their place is supplied by youths who have their fortunes to make, and who have intelligence, industry, and opportunity enough to acquire in the ordinary lycées, the needful amount of knowledge.

Under present circumstances it is, perhaps, more especially in the preparatory studies that the intellectual training is given, and for the examination of admission that theoretical attainments are demanded. The state of the school in a time of war can not exactly be regarded as a normal or usual one. The time of stay has been sometimes shortened from two years to fifteen months; the excessive numbers render it difficult to adjust the lectures and general instruction so as to meet the needs of all; the lecture rooms and the studying rooms are all insufficient for the emergency; and what is yet more than all, the stimulus for exertion, which is given by the fear of being excluded upon the final examination, and sent to serve in the ranks, is removed at a time when almost every one may feel sure that a commission which must be filled up will be vacant for him. Yet even in time of peace, if general report may be trusted, it is more the drill, exercises, and discipline, than the theory of military operations, that excite the interest and command the attention of the young men. When they leave, they will take their places as second lieutenants with the troops, and they naturally do not wish to be put to shame by showing ignorance of the common things with which common soldiers are familiar. Their chief incentive is the fear of being found deficient when they join their regiments, and, with the exception of those who desire to enter the staff corps, their great object is the practical knowledge of the ordinary matters of military duty. “Physical exercises,” said the Director of Studies, “predominate here as much as intellectual studies do at the Polytechnic.”

But the competition for entrance sustains the general standard of knowledge. Even when there is the greatest demand for admissible candidates, the standard of admission has not, we are told, been much reduced. No one comes in who does not know the first elements of trigonometry. And the time allotted by the rules of the school to lectures and indoor study is far from inconsiderable.

EXAMINATIONS FOR ADMISSION—STUDIES AT THE SCHOOL.

The examinations for admission are conducted almost precisely upon the same system which is now used in those for the Polytechnic School.18 There is a preliminary or pass examination (du premier degré), and for those who pass this a second or class examination (du second degré.) For the former there are three examiners, two for mathematics, physics, and chemistry, and a third for history, geography, and German. The second examination, which follows a few days after, is conducted in like manner by three examiners. A jury of admission decides. The examination is for the most part oral; and the principal difference between it and the examination for the Polytechnic is merely that the written papers are worked some considerable time before the first oral examination (du premier degré,) and are looked over with a view to assist the decision as to admissibility to the second (du second degré.) Thus the compositions écrites are completed on the 14th and 15th of June; the preliminary examination commences at Paris on the 10th of July; the second examination on the 13th.

The subjects of examination are the following:—

Arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions, weights and measures, square and cube root, ratios and proportions, interest and discount, use of logarithmic tables and the sliding rule.

Algebra, to quadratic equations with one unknown quantity, maxima and minima, arithmetical and geometrical progressions, logarithms and their application to questions of compound interest and annuities.

Geometry, plane and solid, including the measurement of areas, surfaces, and volumes; s of the cone, cylinder, and sphere.

Plane Trigonometry: construction of trigonometrical tables and the solution of triangles; application to problems required in surveying.

Geometrical representations of bodies by projections.

French compositions.

German exercises.

Drawing, including elementary geometrical drawing and projections; plan, , and elevation of a building; geographical maps.

Physical Science (purely descriptive:) cosmography; physics, including elementary knowledge of the equilibrium of fluids; weight, gravity, atmospheric pressure, heat, electricity, magnetism, acoustics, optics, refraction, microscope, telescope.

Chemistry, elementary principles of; on matter, cohesion, affinity; simple and compound bodies, acids, bases, salts, oxygen, combustion, azote, atmospheric air, hydrogen, water; respecting equivalents and their use, carbon, carbonic acid, production and decomposition of ammonia, sulphur, sulphuric acid, phosphorus, chlorine; classification of non-metallic bodies into four families.

History: History of France from the time of Charles VII. to that of the Emperor Napoleon I. and the treaties of 1815.

Geography, relating entirely to France and its colonies, both physical and statistical.

German: the candidates must be able to read fluently both the written and printed German character, and to reply in German to simple questions addressed to them in the same language.

The general system of instruction at St. Cyr is similar to that of the Polytechnic; the lectures are given by the professors, notes are taken and completed afterwards, and progress is tested in occasional interrogations by the répétiteurs. One distinction is the different size of the salles d’étude (containing two hundred instead of eight or ten;) but, above all, is the great and predominant attention paid to the practical part of military teaching and training. It is evident at the first sight that this is essentially a military school, and that especial importance is attached both by teachers and pupils to the drill, exercise, and manœuvers of the various arms of the service.

The course of study is completed in two years; that of the first year consists of:—

27 lectures in descriptive geometry.

35 “ physical science.

20 “ military literature.

35 “ history.

21 “ geography and military statistics.

30 “ German.

Total, 174

In addition to the above, there is a course of drawing between the time when the students join the school early in November and the 15th of August.

The course of drawing consists in progressive studies of landscape drawing with the pencil and brush, having special application to military subjects, to the shading of some simple body or dress, and to enable the students to apply the knowledge which has been communicated to them on the subject of shadows and perspective. This course is followed by the second or junior division during the first year’s residence.

The course of lectures in descriptive geometry commences with certain preliminary notions on the subject; refers to the representation of lines on curved surfaces, cylindrical and conical, surfaces of revolutions, regular surfaces, inter of surfaces, shadows, perspective, vanishing points, &c., construction of geographical maps, and plan côté.

The lectures in physical science embrace nine lectures on the general properties of bodies; heat, climate, electricity, magnetism, galvanism, electro-magnetism, acoustics.

There are twelve lectures in chemistry; on water, atmospheric air, combustibles, gas, principal salts, saltpetre, metallurgy, organic chemistry.

There are fourteen lectures in mechanics applied to machines; motion, rest, gravity, composition and resolution of forces, mechanical labor, uniform motion, rectilinear and rotatory, projectiles in space, mechanical powers, drawbridges, Archimedean principle, military bridges, pumps, reservoirs, over and under-shot wheels, turbines, corn mills, steam-engines, locomotives, transport of troops, materials, and munitions on railways.

The twenty lectures in military literature refer to military history and biography, memoirs of military historians, battles and sieges, the art of war, military correspondence, proclamations, bulletins, orders of the day, instructions, circulars, reports and military considerations, special memoirs, reconnaissance and reports, military and periodical collections, military justice.

The thirty-five lectures in history principally relate to France and its wars, commencing with the Treaty of Westphalia and ending with the Treaty of Vienna.

The twenty-seven lectures in geography and military statistics are subdivided into different parts; the first eight lectures are devoted to Europe and France, including the physical geography and statistics of the same; the second six lectures are devoted to the frontiers of France; and the third part of thirteen lectures to foreign states and Algeria, including Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Russia.

The studies for the first division during the second year of their residence consist of—

10 lectures in topography.

27 “ fortification.

15 “ artillery.

10 “ military legislation.

12 “ military administration.

27 “ military art and history.

20 “ German.

Total, 121

One lesson weekly is given in drawing, in order to render the students expert in landscape and military drawing with the pencil, pen, and brash.

We must not omit to call attention to the fact that mathematics are not taught in either yearly course at St. Cyr.

The course in topography, of ten lectures, has reference to the construction of maps, copies of drawings, theory, description, and use of instruments for measuring angles and leveling, the execution for a regular survey on the different systems of military drawing, drawing from models of ground, on the construction of topographical drawing and reconnaissance surveys, with accompanying memoirs.

Twenty-seven lectures are devoted to fortification; the first thirteen relate principally to field fortification, statement of the general principles, definitions, intrenchments, lines, redoubts, armament, defilement, execution of works on the ground, means necessary for the defense, application of field fortification to the defenses of têtes de pont and inhabited places, attack and defense of intrenchments, &c., castramentation; six lectures have reference to permanent fortification, on ancient fortifications, Cormontaigne’s system, exterior and detached works, considerations respecting the accessories of defense to fortified places; eight lectures relate to the attack and defense of places, preparations for attack and defense, details of the construction of siege works from the opening of the trenches to the taking of the place, exterior works, as auxiliaries, sketches, and details of the different works in fortifications, plans, and profile, &c.

The students also execute certain works, such as the making of fascines, gabions, saucissons, repair of revetments of batteries, platform, setting the profiles, defilement, and construction of a fieldwork, different kinds of sap, plan and establishment of a camp for a battalion of infantry, &c.

Under the head of artillery, fifteen lectures are given, commencing with the resistance of fluids, movement of projectiles, solution of problems with the balistic pendulum, deviation of projectiles, pointing and firing guns; small arms, cannon, materials of artillery, powder, munition, fireworks for military purposes; range of cannon, artillery for the attack or defense of places or coasts, field artillery, military bridges.

The students are practically taught artillery drill with field and siege guns, practice with artillery, repair of siege batteries, bridges of boats or rafts.

The ten lectures allowed for the course of military legislation have for their object the explanation of the principles, practice, and regulations relating to military law, and the connection with the civil laws that affect military men.

The twelve lectures on what is called military administration relate to the interior economy of a company, and to the various matters appertaining to the soldier’s messing, mode of payment, necessaries, equipment, lodging, &c.

Military art and history is divided into three parts. The first, of five lectures, relates to the history of military institutions and organization. The second, of fifteen lectures, refers to the composition of armies and to considerations respecting the various arms, infantry, cavalry, état-major, artillery and engineers, and the minor operations of war. The third part, of seven lectures, gives the history of some of the most celebrated campaigns in modern times. In the practical exercises, the students make an attack or defense of a work or of a system of fieldworks during their course of fortification, or of a house, farm, village, in the immediate vicinity of the school, or make the passage of a river.

The students receive twenty lectures in German, and are required to keep up a knowledge of German writing.

EXAMINATIONS AT THE SCHOOL.

The examinations at the end of the first year take place under the superintendence of the director and assistant director of studies. They are conducted by the professor of each branch of study, assisted by a répétiteur, each of whom assigns a credit to the student under examination, and the mean, expressed as a whole number, represents the result of the student’s examination in that particular branch of study. The examination in military instruction for training (in drill and exercises) is carried on by the officers attached to companies, under the superintendence of the commandant of the battalion, and that relating to practical artillery by the officer in charge of that duty.

The pupils’ position is determined, as at the Polytechnic, partly by the marks gained at the examination, partly by those he has obtained during his previous studies. In other words, the half of the credit obtained by a student at this examination in each subject is added to the half of the mean of all the credits assigned to him, in the same subject, for the manner in which he has replied to the questions of the professor and répétiteur during the year; and the sum of these two items represents his total credit at the end of the year. The scale of credit is from 0 to 20, as at the Polytechnic.

Every year, before the examinations commence, the commandant and second in command, in concert with the director and assistant director, and in concurrence with the superior officer commanding the battalion for military instruction, are formed into a board to determine the amount of the minimum credit which should be exacted from the students in every branch of study. This minimum is not usually allowed to fall below eight for the scientific, and ten for the military instruction.

Any student whose general mean credit is less than eight for the scientific, or ten for the military instruction, or who has a less credit than four for any particular study in the general instruction, or of six for the military instruction, is retained at the school to work during the vacation, and re-examined about eight days before the re-commencement of the course, by a commission composed of the director and assistant director of studies for the general instruction, and of the second in command and the commandant of the battalion, and of one captain for the military instruction. A statement of this second examination is submitted to the minister of war, and those students who pass it in a satisfactory manner are permitted by him to proceed into the first division. Those who do not pass it are reported to the minister of war as deserving of being excluded from the school, unless there be any special grounds for excusing them, such as sickness, in which case, when the fact is properly established before the council of instruction, they are permitted to repeat the year’s studies.

Irregularity of conduct is also made a ground for exclusion from the school. In order to estimate the credit to be attached to the conduct of a student, all the punishments to which he can be subjected are converted into a specific number of days of punishment drill. Thus,

For each day confined in the police chamber, 4 days’ punishment drill.

For each day confined in the prison, 8 days’ punishment drill.

The statement is made out under the presidency of the commandant of the school, by the second in command, and the officer in command of the battalion. The credits for conduct are expressed in whole numbers in terms of the scale of 0 to 20, in which the 20 signifies that the student has not been subjected to any punishment whatever, and the 0, that the student’s punishments have amounted to 200 or more days of punishment drill. The number 20 is diminished by deducting 1 for every 10 days of punishment drill.

The classification in the order of merit depends upon the total amount of the sum of the numerical marks or credits obtained by each student in every branch of study or instruction. The numerical credit in each subject is found by multiplying the credit awarded in each subject by the co-efficient of influence belonging to it.

The co-efficients, representing the influence allowed to each particular kind of examination, in the various branches of study are as follows:—

Second Division, or First Year’s Course of Study.

Descriptive Geometry, Course, 6

General Instruction. Drawing and Sketches, 2 40

Physical Science applied to the Military Arts, Course, 6

Sketch and Memoir, 2

History, 6

Geography and Statistical Memoirs, Course, 5

Sketch and Memoir, 2

Literature, Memoir on 4

German, 4

Drawing, 3

Special Instruction:—Drill, Practice, Manœuvers (Infantry and Cavalry,) 7

Conduct, 3

50

First Division, or Second Year’s Course of Study

Infantry. Cavalry.

Topography, Course, 3 3

General Instruction. Maps, Memoirs, and Practical Exercises, 3 35 2 32

Fortification, Course, 4 4

Drawings, Memoirs, and Practical Exercises, 3 2

Artillery and Balistic Pendulum, Course, 4 4

Practical Exercises, School of Musketry 2 1

Military Legislation, 2 2

Military Administration, Course, 3 3

Sheets of Accounts, 1 1

Military History and Art, Course, 4 4

Memoirs and applications, 1 1

German, 4 4

Drawing, 1 1

Infantry Theory of Drill, Manœuvers—3 Schools, 4 9

Special instruction for Practical Instruction 3

Regulations, 2

Cavalry, Riding, 3 12

Theoretical and Practical Instruction 7

Veterinary Art, 2

Conduct 6 6

Total, 50 50

To facilitate this classification in order of merit, three distinct tables are prepared,—

The first relating to the general instruction;

The second relating to the military instruction; and

The third relating to the conduct;

and they respectively contain, one column in which the names of the students are arranged by companies in the order in which they have been examined; followed by as many columns as there are subjects of examination, for the insertion of their individual credit and the co-efficient of influence, by which each credit is multiplied; and lastly by a column containing the sum of the various products belonging to, and placed opposite each student’s name.

These tables are respectively completed by the aid of the existing documents, the first for the general instruction, by the director of studies; the second for the military instruction, by the officer commanding the battalion; the third for conduct, under the direction of the commandant of the school, assisted by the second in command.

A jury formed within the school, composed of the general commandant, president, the second in command, the director of studies, and the officer commanding the battalion, is charged with the classification of the students in the order of merit.

To effect it, after having verified and established the accuracy of the above tables, the numbers appertaining to each student in the three tables are extracted and inserted in another table, containing the name of each student, and, in three separate columns, the numbers obtained by each in general instruction, military instruction, and conduct, and the sum of these credits in another column.

By the aid of this last table, the jury cause another to be compiled, in which the students are arranged in the order of merit as established by the numerical amount of their credits, the highest in the list having the greatest number.

If there should be any two or more having the same number of total credits, the priority is determined by giving it to the student who has obtained a superiority of credits in military instruction, conduct, general instruction, notes for the year; and if these prove insufficient, they are finally classed in the same order as they were admitted into the school.

A list for passing from the second to the first division is forwarded to the minister at war, with a report in which the results for the year are compared with the results of the preceding year; and the minister at war, with these reports before him, decides who are ineligible from incompetency, or by reason of their conduct, to pass to the other division.

The period when the final examinations before leaving the school are to commence, is fixed by the president of the jury, specially appointed to carry on this final examination, in concert with the general commandant of the school.

The president of the jury directs and superintends the whole of the arrangements for conducting the examination; and during each kind of examination, a member of the corps, upon the science of which the student is being questioned, assists the examiner, and, as regards the military instruction, each examiner is aided by a captain belonging to the battalion.

The examination is carried on in precisely the same manner as that already described for the end of the first year’s course of study. And the final classification is ascertained by adding to the numerical credits obtained by each student during his second year’s course of study, in the manner already fully explained, one-tenth of the numerical credits obtained at the examinations at the end of the first year.

The same regulations as to the minimum credit which a student must obtain in order to pass from one division to the other, at the end of the first year, which are stated in page 160, are equally applicable to his passing from the school to become a second lieutenant in the army.

A list of the names of those students who are found qualified for the rank of second lieutenant is sent to the minister at war, and a second list is also sent, containing the names of those students that have, when subjected to a second or revised examination, been pronounced by the jury before whom they were re-examined as qualified.

Those whose names appear in the first list are permitted to choose according to their position in the order of merit, the staff corps or infantry, according to the number required for the first named service, and to name the regiments of infantry in which they desire to serve.

Those intended for the cavalry are placed at the disposal of the officer commanding the regiment which they wish to enter.

Those whose names appear in the second list are not permitted to choose their corps, but are placed by the minister at war in such corps as may have vacancies in it, or where he may think proper.

The students who are selected to enter the staff corps, after competing successfully with the second lieutenants of the army, proceed as second lieutenants to the staff school at Paris. Those who fail pass into the army as privates, according to the terms of the engagement made on entering the school.

THE CAVALRY SCHOOL AT SAUMUR.

This school was established in 1826, and is considered19 the most perfect and extensive institution of the kind in Europe,—perhaps the only one really deserving the title, the others being more properly mere schools of equitation.

It is under the control of the Minister of War, and was established for the purpose of perfecting the officers of the cavalry corps in all the branches of knowledge necessary to their efficiency, and especially in the principles of equitation,—and to diffuse through the corps a uniform system of instruction, by training up a body of instructors and classes of recruits intended for the cavalry service.

The instruction is entirely military, and is based upon the laws and regulations in force with regard to the mounted troops. It includes; 1st. The regulations for interior service; 2nd. The cavalry tactics; 3rd. The regulations for garrison service; 4th. The regulations for field service applied, as far as possible, on the ground, especially with regard to reconnaissances; 5th. A military and didactic course of equitation, comprising all the theoretical and practical knowledge required for the proper and useful employment of the horse, his breaking, application to the purposes of war, and various civil exercises; 6th. A course of hippology, having for its object practical instruction, by means of the model breeding-stud attached to the school, in the principles which should serve as rules in crossing breeds and in raising colts, to explain the phases of dentition, to point out the conformation of the colt which indicates that he will become a good and solid horse, the method to be pursued to bring the colt under subjection without resistance, and, finally, to familiarize the officers and pupils with all the knowledge indispensable to an officer charged with the purchase and care of remount horses. This course includes also a knowledge of horse-equipment, illustrated in the saddle factory connected with the school; 7th. Vaulting, fencing, and swimming. The non-commissioned officers are also instructed in the theory of administration and accountability. The course of instruction continues one year, commencing in the month of October. The pupils at the school are:—

1st. A division of lieutenants, (lieutenants instructeurs.)

2nd. A division of sub-lieutenants, (sous-lieutenants d’instruction.)

3rd. A division of sub-officers, (sous-officiers élèves instructeurs.)

4th. A division of non-commissioned officers, (brigadiers élèves.)

5th. A division of cavalry recruits, (cavaliers élèves.)

The lieutenants are chosen out of the regiments of cavalry and artillery, as well as from the squadrons of the park-trains and military equipages, from the lieutenants who voluntarily present themselves for the appointment to the General Board of Inspectors. Their age must not exceed thirty-six years.

The sub-lieutenants are appointed from the cavalry regiments, must be graduates of the Special Military School, not above thirty-four years of age, and have served at least one year with the regiment.

The sub-officers are selected from the cavalry corps—one from every two regiments of cavalry and artillery, and every two squadrons of the park-trains and military equipages.

The non-commissioned officers are chosen annually by the inspectors-general—one from each regiment of cavalry:—from among those that show a peculiar aptness for equitation and are distinguished by good conduct, information, zeal, and intelligence; those who are recommended for promotion in their corps are selected in preference. Their age must not exceed twenty-five years, and they must have served at least one year in the ranks.

These pupils, numbering about four hundred, are sent to the school by order of the Minister of War. They continue connected with their corps, from which they are regarded as detached while they remain at the school. They receive additional pay. Those who after due trial are found deficient in the necessary qualifications, are sent back to their regiments.

Upon the recommendation of the inspector-general of the school, the officers who are serving as pupils, compete for promotion by choice with the officers of the corps from which they are detached.

The cavalry lieutenant, who graduates first in his class, is presented for the first vacancy as captain-instructor that occurs in the cavalry, provided he has the seniority of rank required by law. The lieutenant who graduates second obtains, under the same condition, the second vacancy of captain-instructor, provided his division consisted of more than thirty members. The sub-lieutenant graduating first, provided he is not lower than the tenth in the general classification of the officers of both grades, is presented for promotion to the first vacant lieutenancy that occurs in his regiment.

The non-commissioned officers who pass a satisfactory final examination, are immediately promoted to vacancies that have been preserved for them in their regiments—those who have graduated among the first ten of the class, being presented for promotion as sub-lieutenants, as soon as they have completed their required term of service as non-commissioned officers. Those who attend the school as non-commissioned officers, frequently return as officers for instruction, and again in a higher grade on the staff of the school.

Officers transferred from the infantry to the cavalry are generally sent to this school for a short time at least. The captains-instructor of the cavalry regiments, and the instructors of equitation in the artillery regiments, are mostly selected from the graduates.

The school also receives by voluntary enlistment, such young men, not above the age of twenty-one years, as desire to enter the cavalry service. They are not admitted until they have been subjected to an examination before a committee, by whom they are classified according to their fitness. These volunteer enlistments for the cavalry school are made at Saumur, at least a month before the commencement of the course, on presentation of the certificate of classification and of approval by the commandant of the school. The number is limited to fifty each year.

Such of these cavalry pupils as are distinguished for diligence and good conduct and pass a satisfactory final examination are transferred to the regiments of cavalry, for promotion to the rank of noncommissioned officers by their respective colonels. Those who have not been found fit for admission are sent back simply as privates.

A council of instruction is charged with the direction of the studies. They propose useful changes, and direct the progress of the studies. They are also charged with the examinations.

The recitations are by s of about thirty each. In reciting upon the general principles of tactics, equitation, hippology, &c., the manner is as in our Military Academy; when reciting upon the movements in tactics, all the commands and explanations of the instructor to the troops are repeated “verbatim et literatim,” and in the tone and pitch of voice used in the field. Perfect uniformity of tone and manner is required. The object of thus reciting is to teach the pupils the proper tone and pitch of voice, to accustom them to hear their own voices, and to enable them to repeat the text literally at this pitch of voice, without hesitation or mistake.

The course of hippology includes the structure of the horse, the circulation of the blood, organs of respiration, &c., food, working powers, actions, breeds, manner of taking care of him, ordinary ailments and remedies, shoeing, lameness, saddling, sore backs, sanitary police, &c., but does not comprise a complete veterinary course.

The practical exercises consist of:—the ordinary riding-hall drill, including vaulting, the “kickers,” &c.; the carrière, or out-door riding at speed, over hurdles, ditches, &c.; cutting at head; target-practice; fencing; swimming; the usual military drills; skeleton squadron and regimental drills; rides in the country; finally, in the summer, frequent “carousels” or tilts are held.

The veterinary surgeons of the lowest grade are sent here upon their first appointment to receive instruction in equitation, to profit by the study of the model stud, and to learn the routine of their duties with the regiments. They form a distinct class.

In the Model Stud, the number of animals varies. There are usually two stallions and about twenty mares, (Arabs, English, Norman, &c.,) in addition to those selected from time to time from among the riding-animals. Attached to it is a botanical garden, more especially for useful and noxious grasses and plants.

School for Breaking Young Horses.—The best horses purchased at the remount dépôts are selected for the officers, and sent to this place to be trained. The number is fixed at 100 as a minimum. These, as soon as their education is complete, are sold or given, according to the orders of the Minister of War, to those officers who need a remount—in preference, to officers of the general staff and staff corps, those of the artillery, and mounted officers of infantry. These officers may also select from among the other horses of the school, with the approval of the commandant.

School of Farriers.—This is attached to the cavalry school, and is under the direction of the commandant. It is composed of private soldiers who have served at least six months with their regiments, and are blacksmiths or horse-shoers by trade. There are usually two men from each mounted regiment. The course lasts two years; it comprises reading, writing, arithmetic, equitation, the anatomy of the horse, thorough instruction as to all diseases, injuries, and deformities of the foot, something of the veterinary art in general, the selection of metals, making shoes, nails, tools, &c., shoeing horses. The establishment has a large shoeing shop and yard, a recitation-room, museum, and store-rooms. In the recitation-room there are skeletons of horses, men, &c., as well as some admirable specimens of natural preparations in comparative anatomy, a complete collection of shoeing-tools, specimens of many kinds of shoes, &c.—Annuaire de l’Instruction 1861, and “Observations.”

THE SCHOOL OF APPLICATION FOR THE STAFF. AT PARIS.

DUTIES OF THE FRENCH STAFF.

The staff is the center from which issue and to which are addressed all orders and military correspondence.

The officers of the staff are divided into chiefs of the staff, sub-chiefs, staff-officers, and aides-de-camp.

The colonels and lieutenant-colonels are employed as chiefs of the staff in the different military districts of France, and in the divisions of the army on active service. The ordinary posts of the majors and captains is that of aides-de-camp to general officers.

When several armies are united together under a commander-in-chief, the chief of the general staff takes temporarily the title of Major-Général, the general officers employed under him that of Aide-Major-Général.

The duties of the chief of the staff are to transmit the orders of the general; to execute those which he receives from him personally, for field-works, pitching camps, reconnaissances, visits of posts, &c.; to correspond with the commanding officers of the artillery and the engineers, and with the commissariat, in order to keep the general exactly informed of the state of the different branches of the service; to be constantly in communication with the different corps, so as to be perfectly master of everything relating to them; to prepare for the commander-in-chief and for the minister of war, returns of the strength and position of the different corps and detachments, reports on marches and operations, and, in short, every necessary information.

The distribution of the other officers of different ranks, when it has not been made by the minister of war, is regulated by the chief of the general staff.

In every division of the army an officer of the staff is specially charged with the office work; the others assist him when necessary, but they are more usually employed in general staff duties, in reconnaissances, drawing plans of ground, missions, the arrangement of camps and cantonments, superintending the distribution of the rations, &c.

The officers of the staff may further be charged with the direction of field-works thrown up to cover camps and cantonments.

Staff officers of all ranks may be employed on posts and detachments. On special missions they command all other officers of the same rank employed with them. When a staff officer is charged with the direction of an expedition or a reconnaissance, without having the command of the troops, the officer in command concerts with him in all the dispositions it may be necessary to make to ensure the success of the operation.

The staff of generals of artillery and of engineers is composed of officers of their respective arms.

The war depot (Dépôt de la Guerre) was founded for the purpose of collecting and preserving military historical papers, reconnaissances, memoirs, and plans of battles; to preserve plans and MSS. maps useful for military purposes, and to have them copied and published.

It is divided into two s—one charged with trigonometrical surveying, topography, plan drawing, and engraving; the other with historical composition, military statistics, the care of the library, the archives, plans, and maps. Each of these s is under the direction of a colonel of the staff corps, who has under his orders several officers of his corps.