PART X. MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES. (continued 6)

“The Norwich University differs from most colleges in two respects. These are its double system of study, consisting in an Academic and a Scientific course; and its department of Military Science. The Academic course comprises those studies usually pursued in other colleges; the Scientific embraces Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Belles-Lettres, Surveying, and Engineering. Four years are required to complete the former, and three, the latter course of study. Students are also allowed to take a partial course in either department. The students of all departments are regarded as equals.

“The feature, however, which more than any other distinguishes Norwich University from other Collegiate institutions, is the department of Military Science and Tactics.

“Agreeably to the provisions of its charter, the students are all under Military discipline—are called Cadets—dress in uniform, and are instructed in Infantry, Rifle, and Artillery Drill, Bayonet Exercise, Fortification, Reconnoissance, Castrametation, Guard and Out-Post duty, &c., &c. All the arms and equipments necessary for drills are furnished by the State of Vermont. ***

“The military feature of this institution is one which should particularly commend it to the notice, and patronage of the public at this time. The want of men skilled in Military Science and Tactics, to take command of volunteer forces, and discipline them into effective soldiers, has been severely felt in organizing the present army of the United States. The reverses with which it has met are, without doubt, owing largely to this cause. To guard against this defect in the future, it is now generally felt that young men should be educated thoroughly in every department of Military Science. In times of peace this knowledge would not incapacitate men for nor interfere with any other business;—while in times of war, it would become invaluable to the country in training an army for efficient service.”

The following persons constituted the Faculty in 1862. Rev. Edward Bourns, LL. D., President, and Professor of Moral Sciences, Ancient Languages, and Literature; Alonzo Jackman, A.M., Brigadier-General Vermont Volunteer Militia, Professor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Military Science, and Tactics; Thomas R. Crosby, M.D., Professor of Anatomy, Physiology, and Natural History; Clinton S. Averill, A.M., Acting Professor of Natural Sciences; George Baillard, Professor of Modern Languages, and Linear and Architectural Drawing; Samuel W. Shattuck, B.S., Tutor in Mathematics and Military Tactics; Alonzo Jackman, A.M., Librarian.

MILITARY ELEMENT IN SCHOOLS OF ALL GRADES.

INTRODUCTION.

In all ages and in all countries there have been educators who recognized the importance of the physical, and more specifically, of the military element in their schemes of individual and collective teaching. No higher authority in English pedagogical literature of the liberal type, can be named in this connection, than John Milton, who, in his brief but masterly outline of “a virtuous and noble education,” includes this in the means of a complete and generous culture, that is “to fit a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.” In the outset he demands that the number of pupils, for whose accommodations a spacious house and grounds were to be provided, should be large enough for “the convenience of a foot company or interchangeably two troops of cavalry,” so that systematic exercise could alternate with the studies and diet. In his general programme he includes studies which shall “stir up their spirits to manly and liberal exercise,” and “inflame their hearts with high hopes of living to be brave men and worthy patriots.” In the enumeration of studies he specifies mathematics, the practical aid of instruments in surveying and engineering, and their application to fortification and navigation. Living in the midst of a civil war like our own, when the preservation of constitutional liberty had summoned troops from the field, the shop, and the study, and placed men in command who had not been trained to the profession of arms, Milton directs or points out the value of studies, the mastery of whose general principles “may at some time or other save an army, and not let the healthy and stout bodies of young men rot away under them for want of this discipline, which is a great pity, and no less shame to the commander.” In treating specially of physical culture, Milton assigns to military drill, and use of sword and other weapons, at least an hour and a half each day, that his pupils may be equally good both for peace and war. “The exercise which I commend first is the exact use of these weapons to guard and strike safely with edge or point. This will keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in breath; is also the likeliest means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage, which being tempered with seasonable lectures and precepts to make them of true fortitude and patience, will turn into a native and heroic valor, and makes them hate the cowardice of doing wrong.” With the use of the sword Milton would associate all athletic sports “wherein Englishmen are apt to excel.” And after the day’s study has been thoroughly done, “with minds in good tune and satisfaction,” he would occupy the “two hours before supper in military motions, under sky, or cover, according to the season, as was the Roman wont; first on foot, then as their age permits, on horseback to all the art of cavalry; that having in spirit, but with much exactness and daily muster, served out the rudiments of their soldiership in the skill of embattling, marching, encamping, fortifying, besieging and battering, with all the helps of ancient and modern strategems, tactics, and warlike maxims, they may, as it were, out of a long war come forth renowned and perfect commanders in the service of their country. They would not then if they were trusted with fair and hopeful armies, suffer them for want of just and wise discipline to shed away from about them like sick feathers, though they be never so oft supplied; they would not suffer these empty and unrecruitable colonels to quaff out or convey into secret hoards the wages of a delusive list and miserable remnant. No, certainly, if they knew aught of that knowledge which belongs to good men or good governors, they would not suffer these things.” To these school studies and practical exercises, Milton would add excursions “to all quarters of the land, learning and observing all places of strength, all material for building, all soil for towns and tillage, harbors and ports of trade. These ways would try all their peculiar gifts of Nature, and if there is any secret excellence among them, would fetch it out and give it fair opportunities to advance itself by.”

The views of Milton in favor of military exercises can not be attributed to any professional bias, for his tastes and his habits of life were in the shaded walks of the academy, “contemplating the serene countenance of truth in the still air of delightful study.”

The example of Switzerland can be cited on the side of their practicality, on a scale as liberal and much more popular than their author at the time contemplated; and quite recently (1871), the Federal war authorities propose that the older boys in the secondary and superior schools shall be instructed in outpost and skirmishing duties.

X. PHYSICAL AND MILITARY EXERCISES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. A NATIONAL NECESSITY

BY EDWARD L. MOLINEUX

Major and Inspector in New York Militia.

From a long and unexampled period of political and commercial prosperity we suddenly find ourselves called upon to struggle for national existence, and while a noble response from the people to the necessity of the struggle has strengthened the hand of government with an intelligent army, and developed the resources of the country, yet the occasion has laid bare defects which call for correction.

Without a standing army of any magnitude we have found our militia laws defective, and have been obliged to create ourselves a military people by the sufferings and bitterness of an experience bought on the field of active warfare.

Military necessity has compelled the loss of invaluable time in the organizing and preparing of our troops, which would not have been required had we been able to meet the rebellion at the commencement with well trained officers and an experienced and carefully drilled militia.

“The first object” says Daniel Webster, “of a free people is the preservation of their liberty:” a noble truth which must speak home to the heart of every American, and if, as it is asserted, “the future life and character of a nation is to be seen in its system of schools,” then we may well listen with some degree of alarm to the warnings and unmistakable evidences by which we are surrounded, that the American race is physically deteriorating.22

The question arises, has our National system of Education been such as to qualify and prepare us to maintain successfully, the noble inheritance which was won by the physical energies of the men of the Revolution, and with our success in the field of intellectual culture, have we kept the physical advantages possessed by our forefathers?

Let us not mislead ourselves in this matter, but calmly look at the facts, that as a rule, our present system of Public Education is devoted solely to the mental and moral improvement of the scholars, and that the encouragements and rewards held out by committees and teachers, stimulate to the overexertion of the brain, and sacrifice in too many instances, the health and growth of the body.

Although great improvement has been made of late by the shortening of the time devoted to study, and by the introduction of more frequent periods of recreation, yet still little has been attempted for giving exercise and activity to the body; this important training being left to the care of parents or the pupils themselves.

Is it not too true that the increase of ill health, broken constitutions, and early deaths, among the growing portion of our population, especially in cities, warns us, year after year, that the thirst for knowledge, and the restless seeking after mental and intellectual improvement, have been bought at the expense of the vital energies of the great body of youth who throng the colleges and public schools of our land?23

If any one denies this, let him visit our institutions of learning, and while he may well admire the wisdom and forethought which has established our prosperity on a noble system of National Education, he can not but notice the debility evinced in the frames of so many youthful votaries of intellectual training; the exceptions making the contrast still more strikingly painful. Then let him go to the counting-house or the close confinement of some mechanical employment, where the evils from mental activity, unaccompanied by physical recreation, are yet more strongly developed. These evils assail not only the happiness of families, but the prosperity of the nation and the well-being of the race. Is this right or necessary? Can it be avoided?

The solution of these momentous questions may well engage the serious attention of the reflecting teacher, parent and patriot; and to them we assert that, unless physical exercises are enforced upon our system of Public School education, our intellectual culture will be of little avail, and that our nationality stands in danger of sinking a prey to designing opponents.

That enfeebled races are invariably conquered by those more powerfully developed, is proved by innumerable instances in history. That physical training was an important branch of education among the Greeks and Romans, is well known. The system inculcated by the iron-hearted Lycurgus, among the Spartan youth, was of a nature admirably adapted to fit them for all the sterner realities of life, whilst the athletic games and exercises of the youth of Rome, comprising, as it did, walking, running, wrestling, swimming, and military drill, were the means of improving, to the utmost, their physical powers. Upon reaching manhood, the advantage of this training was indicated by the robustness of form, and the constitutional vigor which enabled them to undertake labor, fatigue and hardship of every kind, with perfect indifference.

The Spartan and the Roman soldiers were by this early training, not only qualified to surmount with ease the various obstacles and difficulties incident to a state of active warfare, but they also became gifted with precision and rapidity in every movement, and each man was likewise endowed with that confidence in himself, and that unbounded reliance upon order, subordination and combined action, which nourish audacity, yet temper it with coolness and steadiness.

Unfortunately this system, by which the vigor and valor of a Spartan or a Roman has passed into a proverb, fell into disuse, and as it was neglected for more intellectual pursuits, so the grand empires founded by its vigor crumbled before the assaults of more athletic barbarians.

The influence of health upon the faculties of the mind is acknowledged by all, and yet how few in this country devote attention to those all important exercises which are necessary to the preservation of health, and without which intellectual power can not be applied to its highest use. The talents, the experience of our best educators of youth, are taxed to devise exercises to develop the mental faculties, forgetting that too close application to study is detrimental to the growth of the body.

But few thoughtful teachers will deny the extent to which this evil has reached, or be unwilling that the strain upon the intellectual powers of children, by absorbing studies, should be counteracted by cheerful and relaxing exercises by which the mind will be relieved and at the same time strengthened. The testimony of physicians, the valuable works on health by Dr. Warren, Miss C. E. Beecher, and many other able writers, furnish incontestable evidence of the necessity of systematic exercise for children. To accomplish this it is absolutely necessary to adopt it in our course of education, for in the majority of cases it can not, or will not, be attended to at their homes.

What then is the most simple, feasible and useful plan to adopt for physical exercises in our Colleges, Normal and Public Schools?

We unhesitatingly say, that the only successful, orderly, and systematic method is, to engraft them upon the course of studies during school hours, and to carry it out under strict military discipline; the exercises being such as are best suited to the age, strength and capabilities of the pupils, namely: calisthenics and walking for the girls and younger children, and military exercises for the elder boys.

Let not the kind hearted parent exclaim against his boy learning the military drill, for fear of his acquiring a taste for warfare; or the lover of peace imagine we would re-establish the stern laws of Lycurgus. We would have moderation, in this respect as in mental studies, and while we would not, as some may imagine, displace the bust of Howard in our school rooms for a Napoleon, yet we would impress upon the minds of boys the image and example of Washington, and in cultivating their intellectual faculties, likewise prepare them in mind and body to develop in manhood those virtues and powers which constitute a true and noble citizen;—a sincere love of country, of national probity and justice, beyond selfish considerations or personal aggrandizement They should be brought up to a sense and knowledge that it will be their honorable duty and privilege to protect their native land, that she fosters and educates them in their youth, and that upon their manhood her nationality depends.

We can never become an aggressive military people; the fields for successful enterprise in art, science, commerce and agriculture, are too broad and inviting to render military pursuits very attractive, and unless we cultivate such exercises and discipline in youth, they will be, as they have been, neglected when engaged in the active pursuits of business. The clear, common sense of the American parent will acknowledge, not only the national necessity, but the moral advantages of this; for what fond mother is there but would prefer to see in her son a manly, patriotic spirit, rather than a timid, mercenary one, which, shunning danger, would sacrifice the honor and greatness of his country to the base love of gain and ease.

We have suggested that the exercises be conducted under strict military discipline, because it is impossible for a large body of children to be exercised in the usual school limits, unless the greatest decorum and order is observed; and if conducted under the supervision of a teacher, dangers and accidents will be avoided, which always occur when children are rash and thoughtless in attempting to accomplish too much. Thus conducted, they will prove an invaluable aid to the teacher in the enforcement of discipline in the school room, and teach that invaluable lesson which it seems so difficult for children to learn,—unhesitating obedience.

For the advantages of this system let us examine the practical testimony afforded in the European schools, where considerable attention has been paid to this important matter.

On the continent the advantages of physical training are appreciated to their fullest extent, especially in the Industrial Reform schools, where the admirable principle has been adopted of teaching “what they will have occasion to use when they become men,”24 and thus render them useful members of society. To Dr. Barnard’s National Education in Europe, we are indebted for the following extracts and illustrations of this position.

In the Reform School of Rauhen Haus, near Hamburg, “they are taught to develop their bodily and mental powers in various practical ways; to use the fire engine, to swim, to save persons from drowning, and use remedies to recover them, to climb a mast and handle the sail, of a ship. They act as a jury among themselves. Their chief reward is to be enrolled in the table of honor. In the great fire of Hamburg, their conduct was physically, as well as morally, heroic, and while bravely saving life and property, they steadily refused rewards.” Parents who, perhaps justly owing to the numerous accidents in Gymnasiums, are timid of their children becoming injured by these exercises, should carefully read the system pursued in Fellenberg’s celebrated establishment at Hofwyl. “A great variety of exercises of the body and the senses are employed, so that every boy shall acquire a knowledge of his physical strength, and attain confidence with regard to those efforts of which he is capable, instead of that foolhardiness which endangers the existence of many who have not learned to estimate their own powers correctly.” At Ruysselde, Belgium, the following plan was pursued: In summer, from 5½ to 6½ A.M., Exercises and Manœuvres; from 7½ to 8¾ P.M., Gymnastics. In winter, several hours were devoted to these exercises, and the result found (as in this report,) was, that “rickets, scrofula, want of elasticity in the limbs, difficulty of walking, all rapidly disappeared under the drill, which confirmed the health and increased the strength and activity of the children, and accustomed them to discipline. It predisposed the pupils to sleep, and was an effective safeguard against shameful habits and secret vices. The battalion movements were performed with as much precision as that of the army, a platoon armed with condemned carbines, marched at the head. The bayonet exercises and skirmishing were as good as play to the boys.” A remarkable instance of the moral effects of military discipline upon the lads of the Colonie Agricole, at Mettray, is related by M. Demetz, and was published in Barnard’s Journal, Vol. 1, p. 623. “During the revolution of 1848, a band of workmen came to Mettray, with flags flying and trumpets sounding, and meeting the youths returning, tired from field labor, their pickaxes on their shoulders, thus addressed them:—‘My boys, do not be such fools as to work any longer. Bread is plentiful; it is ready for you without labor.’ The chef, who was conducting the boys, and who behaved with the greatest calmness and tact, immediately cried, ‘Halt! form in line,’ The lads, being accustomed to march like soldiers, immediately formed. The chef then said to the men, ‘My friends, you have learned to labor; you have a right to rest; but leave these lads: let them learn now, and when their turn comes they may rest as you do.’ The men gave way, the youths marched home, and Mettray was saved,—saved, as I believe, by our habit of military discipline.” It was the heroic exertions of these young colons during the inundation of 1856, which won for them the praises of all France. These instances might be multiplied, but are sufficient to show the moral and physical benefits of military exercises and discipline upon boys, even of the lowest class.

The governments of Europe being upheld by the bayonets of large standing armies, and requiring, as they do, in many of the kingdoms, the compulsory service of all young men, renders it unnecessary for the daily public schools to teach military exercises to that extent, which it is well for our Republican government to do. Yet in Europe they watch with the greatest assiduity and care the bodily powers of the children, knowing its great advantage not only in health, but the maintenance of order.

In Great Britain much interest has of late been evinced on this subject, and Mr. Edwin Chadwick becoming convinced that the studies and confinement in their schools were generally prolonged beyond the powers of the children, and in violation of the laws of health, devoted himself to collecting testimony respecting the advantages of the military drill upon the health of children. His investigations have elicited much valuable information, the more interesting to us as they mark its advantages to a nation which, like our own, depends for its defence mainly upon a volunteer force.

The following synopsis of his pamphlet we extract from the N.Y. Evening Post, November 1st:

Mr. Chadwick considers “In a sanitary point of view that a systematized drill is good, and for defective constitutions requisite for the correction of congenital bodily defects and taints, with which the youth of a very large proportion of the population, especially among the poorer town populations, are affected: and that for these purposes the climbing of masts, and other operations of the naval drill, and swimming, are valuable additions to the gymnastic exercises of the military drill, and when properly taught are greatly liked by boys. From a moral point of view, also, this drill will give the pupil an early initiation into all the acquirements of discipline—namely, duty, order, obedience to command, self-restraint, punctuality and patience.”

The evidence furnished by English drill officers shows its national value, and “That at school it maybe taught most economically, as not interfering with productive labor, and that thirty or forty boys may be taught the naval and military drill at one penny farthing (two and a half cents) per week per head as cheaply as one man, and the whole juvenile population may be drilled completely in the juvenile stage, as economically as the small part of it now taught imperfectly on recruiting or in the adult stage; and that, for teaching the drill, the services of retired drill sergeants, and naval as well as military officers and pensioners, may be had economically in every part of the country.

That the middle and higher class schools should have, in addition to the foot drill, the cavalry drill, which the parents of that class of pupils may afford.

That the drill, when made generally prevalent, (without superseding,) will eventually accomplish, in a wider and better manner, the objects of volunteer corps and of yeomanry, which, as interrupting productive occupations now becoming more absorbing, is highly expensive, rendering all volunteer forces dependent in fitful zeal, and eventually comparatively inefficient; that the juvenile drill, if made general, will accomplish better the objects even of the militia; that the juvenile drill will abate diffidence in military efficiency, and will spread a wide predisposition to a better order of recruitment for the public service, will tend to the improvement of the ranks of the regular forces, whether naval or military, and will produce an immensely stronger and cheaper defensive force than by the means at present in use or in public view.

And, finally, that the means of producing this defensive force, instead of being an expense, will be a gain to the productive powers and value of the labors of the country.”

Lieutenant-General Shaw Kennedy, in a letter expressing his high approval of the plan, states, “that the inferences drawn can not be controverted.” He is of opinion that if the measure is carried out it will be the means of bringing two million of men actually under arms in Great Britain alone, that is, excluding Ireland. He conceives that the effects of military drill and exercises, and the use of fire-arms taught at schools, would never be forgotten; that a youth so trained would, at any future period, with a slight degree of practice, renew his knowledge of what he had been taught.

Nor has the training of a better class of seamen been neglected. This is of vital importance to the well-being of a commercial people, and it is well for us to see what steps England is taking in the matter.

For the purpose of giving instruction in the naval drill, old masts and tackle have been obtained for some of the training schools in England, and Mr. Taffnell has received expressions of satisfaction from naval men of the way in which some of the boys have by these means been tutored as seamen in pauper schools. In order to form sailors, it is necessary to have masts and sails rigged in the playground, and a regular seaman must be engaged to drill the boys.

Mr. Baker has observed that the naval drill as given at Greenwich, is highly effective. “He states that he was on board the Ganges and the Conway at a time when many boys came on board who had been taught the naval drill at Greenwich naval schools; and that they proved to be as ready and well trained as man-of-war’s men; they were clean and orderly, and as a class were first-rate seamen, becoming petty and warrant officers in greater proportion than others.”

Of its consequence upon the national health and industry, Professor Owen has stated that even in the best-warmed and ventilated schools, five or six hours’ enforced stillness of growing children is a violation of the primary laws of physiology; whilst Miss Nightingale and others agree that, under the present system, children are placed under conditions which impair good bodily health and generate epidemic disease. Mr. Rahnson, a school commissioner at Amsterdam, states that the physical evils attendant upon the present amount of sedentary confinement in schools, required from young children, is beginning to attract attention in Holland, and that they have under trial a system of exercises for schools advocated by Dr. Schrieber, of Leipsic. ‘The chief question,’ says the latter gentleman, ‘is, How are our children to be brought up? Is it according to the laws of nature? The answer is, No; or we should not see so many children who were rosy and healthy before going to school, become pale and bloodless after school has begun;’ and he prescribes the limitation of the hours of school confinement.

Mr. Robert Rawlinson, civil engineer, gives the following as his opinion of the advantages of school drill in connexion with manual labor:

“In my opinion, based on experience and observation, I think school drilling and training would prove of the utmost consequence to the boys in after life. I may give a few instances. In all engineering and building, tradesmen are frequently required to use their strength in concert, lifting, carrying and drawing; men, to use their joint strength not only effectively but safely, must have confidence in each other. Two trained men will lift and carry more easily and safely than four untrained men. I have frequently seen trained men weed out unskilled men where heavy lifting has been required, because they dare not risk the danger arising from unskilled strength, and few have performed with more safety work which would have been lighter and easier if all had been equally skilled. Men frequently reject the assistance of unskilled men, as there is absolutely danger in having them near. Frequent accidents arise from using men unskilled in lifting, in hoisting, and at capstan work. *** Boys should not only learn to march, but to lift, carry and pull in concert. There are many necessary feats of strength in all trades, which are more matters of knack and tact than of brute strength. Brute strength frequently fails to do that which comparative weakness can accomplish easily with skill and confident concert. There is no regular system of training in concert to use human strength in the best manner in any trade, so far as I know; acting in concert is a matter of necessity, and practice gives facility and confidence. Drill and training would probably double the effective human power of any establishment, especially if numbers are instructed in joint feats of strength. That which is taught to youth is never forgotten in after life.”

“As regards its fitness as an appendage to the highest branches of education, we have the testimony of experienced examiners at the University of Oxford, England, who state that six hours mental work, instead of ten or twelve, for adults, was the time of the great majority of the prizemen; and it was always found that those who were the foremost in mental labor were commonly the foremost in boat-rowing and physical exercise. The Vice-Chancellor of Oxford testifies that the institution of the systematized exercise of the volunteer drill in that college had been attended by an improvement of the mental labors, and of the whole of the order and discipline, as well as of the health of the University; and that, encouraged by these results, he was considering of making provision for cavalry exercises.”

Mr. Chadwick has also furnished incontestable proofs of the absolute necessity of more active physical training for females and of its bearing upon the future welfare of the race. But this subject has been rendered so familiar to American readers by the able pen of Miss Catherine E. Beecher, that we need not touch upon the European view, except to say that the noble labors of Professors Ling and Branting, of Sweden, have been ably seconded by very many of the governments of Northern Europe, where a method of gymnastics for females, has been systematized and practically adopted. From this brief sketch of the practical working of physical military exercises in Europe, let us turn to what has been accomplished among our own countrymen, whose activity in behalf of public education called forth the compliment from Prof. LeRoy, which we wish was better deserved, especially by the class which he specifies. that “the improvement of schools is, so to speak, the fixed idea, the constant preoccupation of the statesmen of America.”

We have indeed a noble and liberal system of education, but we would see its fostering care so extended as to invigorate the bodies as well as develop the mental faculties and intellectual powers of the pupils. The military exercises would best accomplish this, and at the same time form our public schools into a NURSERY FOR A BRAVE AND EFFECTIVE MILITIA.

Early in October last a communication was addressed by the writer to the different governors, and various other persons connected with the executive departments of the Northern States, in regard to the advantages to be derived from the introduction of infantry drills in the public schools, and by early preparation in school-days to strengthen the militia of the different States. At the same time it was placed before the New York and other City Boards of Education, and referred by them to special committees. The subject was also agitated through the columns of the daily press. The warm responses which have been accorded to these communications, prove the deep interest which is felt in this important matter, and it is to be hoped by the time this article appears in print,25 some legislative action will have been taken.

In New York, the energetic Judge Advocate General, William H. Anthon, being engaged in a report upon the militia laws, and taking a warm interest in all matters relative to the efficacy of the militia, thus speaks of the importance of some alteration in the present system, in a letter addressed to Mr. Curtis, President of the Board of Education in the city of New York:

“The entire system, in my judgment, needs revision and reform, in order to make the militia what the Father of the Republic intended it should be.

It has been suggested by several persons, and among others Col. Richard Delafield, U.S. A., and Maj. E. L. Molineux, that an excellent foundation for an improved militia system would be the introduction of ‘The Manual of Arms,’ and ‘The School of the Soldier and of the Company,’ into our public schools.

I am disposed to consider these suggestions as valuable, and shall feel obliged to you if you will, as early as may be convenient, inform me how far you deem them practicable, and how they may be most conveniently introduced into the institutions under the charge of your Board.”

Mr. Curtis, whose personal observations on the European school systems, and whose long experience at the head of the Educational Board of the largest city in the Union, renders his views of the greatest value, replied:

“It has been my opinion for years that military instruction should, under certain restrictions, and to a certain extent, be given to the older boys in all the schools and institutions that are supported or draw funds from the public treasury. It is but just to the State whose munificence sustains these schools, that the pupils should be instructed in those branches of knowledge that will make them useful and effective in defending and protecting the State. A well organized militia, receiving from year to year into its ranks the disciplined and instructed youth who have passed through the public schools, and to whom the duties of the soldier are familiar, will always be sustained by the public confidence and esteem.”

Military discipline and exercises are by no means an untried experiment in the annals of American education; some of our best private schools and institutes having long since adopted it, and with a good degree of success as it will be our endeavor now to show.

To the admirable regulations of our National Military and Naval Academies, we need not refer; the systematic course pursued by them for the development of health, for discipline of mind and body, being well known to the majority of our readers.

One instance which came under the writer’s personal observation, will sufficiently illustrate the dependence which can be placed upon well-drilled boys in case of emergency.

In April last, when Washington was defenceless, Baltimore in riot, and all Maryland in a state of revolt, communication being cut off at Annapolis, there was great fear of attack upon that important strategetic point. The pupils were prepared for any exigency, and slept with their loaded rifles over their cots. At an alarm of a night attack, there was no hesitation among those gallant little fellows. They were up directly; fell in their ranks and off at a double-quick for the point of danger, in an almost incredible short space of time. The elder boys dragged their howitzer with them. Had an attack taken place, those pupils would have given a good account of themselves and have stood their ground with courage and steadiness. The secret of this is the discipline, for which they are indebted to the assiduity of their brave and experienced superintendent, Captain Blake of the Navy.

Let us read the opinion of this able officer in respect to the applying of this discipline to public schools:

“My experience at this institution long since impressed me with the importance of this subject, and I intended to have given my views publicly, but you have left nothing more to be said upon it, and I can only hope that those who have the control of our public schools will view the subject as we do. We have received about a hundred and forty acting midshipmen this year, some of them very young, and although they have not been here two months, they present a beautiful example of such results as the system would produce all over the country.”

It must be acknowledged that the States now in rebellion have devoted much more attention to military instruction in special schools, than we have, many of them pursuing the European plan of State Academies devoted to military science. Thus while we have been obliged to create officers from the small nucleus afforded us from West Point, they have had the students from State Colleges to officer their regiments.

For a long time back Virginia has annually expended upon her Military Institute nearly $50,000; South Carolina, $30,000; Kentucky and other States have likewise institutions, founded in whole or part, upon a military basis.

Although several attempts have been made to obtain legislative action for similar institutes in the Northern States, they have not, up to the present time, been successful, owing, we think, to the groundless opinion that it would prove a heavy tax, without a corresponding advantage. We shall endeavor to prove in this article how economically an academy could be supported. It is, therefore, to private enterprise, we are indebted for any experiments which have been made in this respect.

Several of our best boys’ boarding-schools in this portion of the country, have for a long time employed a military instructor for the pupils and been managed on a semi-military organization; they have been well sustained by the patronage of the public. We instance two or three schools of the present time.

Dr. Russell’s Collegiate and Commercial Institute of New Haven, is one which has already been of national advantage to us, for according to Prof. Daniel C. Gilman, “the scholars were of great service in drilling the recruits of Connecticut at the outset of the war, and many of them now hold important posts in the army. The scholars formerly trained as infantry and are now at artillery practices.” Mr. Gilman very justly observes, that in a country like ours with no standing army, every able-bodied man should learn to bear arms, and there can be no cheaper or efficient way of doing this than by teaching boys in schools.

The Eagleswood Collegiate and Military School, near Perth Amboy, N.J., has been recently organized on the military plan. The scholars are formed into a battalion under a superintendent and colonel commanding, the rest of the officers being taken from the scholars. The State of New Jersey has supplied the institute with arms, and the military regulations apply to the conduct of the pupils in their general deportment. The reasons given for employing this discipline are the same that apply in every instance, that it is the most orderly and effective, increases the energy, vigor and manly attitude of the boys, and induces cheerful obedience.

To Major J. P. Prall, Military Instructor, we are under obligations for the following account of Mr. Tracy’s Military Boarding School, at Tarrytown, N.Y.:

“There is no question, in my mind, of the utility of military instruction in schools, and if I had any doubts, they would speedily be removed by the fact that the very exigency you propose to provide for is being developed, only in a less degree, in the volunteer army now fighting our country’s battles. There are a number holding honorable positions in the army of the Potomac, and elsewhere, who have more particularly come under my own observation, that have passed through a course of similar instruction to what you propose, in private military boarding schools, who give evidence of superior knowledge as soldiers, and with a little preparation were ready to assume the duties and responsibilities of the field and camp. They have more particularly distinguished themselves as drill masters and thorough disciplinarians, the very ground you proposed to cover in your articles in the N.Y. Tribune of Nov. 20. I have especially noticed, of late, the facility with which youth acquire military knowledge since the outbreak of the rebellion, when the occasion seems to impress them more strongly with its importance.

Independent of the military availability of youth thus instructed, the promptness and precision that the system induces is apparent. A simple sketch of the routine of duties in a school over the military department of which I have the supervision, may give an idea of its utility, as well as its usefulness. This department is conducted in such a way as to make the military feature an auxiliary to the classical and preparatory. Part of two days in each week is more especially devoted to military drill and instruction, when the flag is raised on the flag-staff on the parade ground with the roll of the drum, and the sunrise gun is fired. At sunset it is lowered with the same ceremony by a file of boys, in charge of an officer, or non-commissioned officer. On other days of the week a drill of about an hour is held, in command of the company officers,—always in presence of the Principal. The utmost strictness is required in all the military features. The “Assembly,” when beaten for drill or parade, occupies one minute—immediately after, “fall in” is given by the orderly, when entire silence is required. Boys being naturally playful, much more care in these particulars is necessary than in grown persons. Tattoo begins at 9 o’clock precisely, when the minute of its duration expires every cadet is required to be in line for “roll call,” and the three squads, each in charge of an officer, are marched by flank to their quarters, (the whole not occupying more than two minutes.) They halt opposite their beds, and salute their officer as he passes out;—in five minutes the lights are extinguished. Their clothing is uniformly arranged, and in such way that if called up at night they can dress without lights and without loss of time. The officer in command of each, being held responsible for the condition of his squad. The military instructor inspects at unexpected times, and directs the chiefs of squads to report the result to the officer of the day, through whom all reports to the Principal must be made at 9 o’clock A.M. each day. Reveille at day break, and they march by squads to wash room, where twenty minutes is allowed for necessary ablutions, blacking boots, &c., and then the march to the Assembly-room for “roll call.” Inspection of boots twice a week, at unknown times.

The squads for the mess-room march in order, filing each side of the tables, face inward, and “sit down” by command; rise, march out and break ranks, observing the same military precision. These various duties are performed with pleasure and pride by the cadets, and the same promptness and regularity is apparent in every movement.

The armory and arms are in charge of a detail of four, and are inspected in turn on the roll, each week, and reports are made of disabled pieces, and the general condition of the arms and armory, to the officer of the day, and through him to the Principal. The various reports are embodied into one, by this officer, so that the Principal is not burdened with the details unless he calls for them.

Orders are issued from time to time, by the Military Instructor, and engrossed in a book, which is open for inspection of visitors, announcing promotions, results of inspection, and noting cases of military merit and demerit, &c. This has a tendency to stimulate to exertion, and to efforts to avoid unfavorable notice.

Military classes 1st, 2d and 3d, graduated according to military merit are established, and promotions to them made after strict examinations. All company officers are selected from the 1st class.

A class of Honor, consisting of members of the First class who have escaped being reported for disobedience and improper conduct, is also formed. A given number of military demerits reduces a cadet, and the badge which is worn on the left breast is taken from him. He may, however, be reinstated.

Military demerits are punished by military penalties.

Cadets are taught to observe the position of the soldier when off duty also; the benefit of this is very marked. When the machinery is properly set in motion, the labor generally attending the minutiæ of school duties is greatly reduced, and much more pleasantly and thoroughly performed.

I have not entered into all the details, (and have given the military only) but enough to give a general idea of the plan adopted by this school. There are different modes in use in other schools. Some partaking more of the military, and some less. I think there is danger, often, of too much military being engrafted so as to make it burdensome; great care should be taken in this particular, as the cadet wearies of it when the novelty is past.”

Mr. N. W. Taylor Root, in his admirable book on School Amusements, furnishes practical testimony “that it fosters habits of promptness, exactness, and unanimity of action; teaches implicit obedience to commands, erectness of carriage, a neat and clean appearance, and a gentlemanly and respectful behavior.”

It will thus be seen that a system of military drill has been tested morally and physically, in private schools, and found of decided advantage.

Why should these benefits be denied to the pupils of Public Day Schools?

Why should this vast defensive power be lost to the Government?

As a national military necessity; as a protection to the health and constitutional vigor of American youth; and as a powerful agent upon their moral behavior, their energy, self-reliance and spirit of enterprise, let Physical training be engrafted on the course of studies for all the pupils educated at the expense of the State. Let us not hesitate at the magnitude of the undertaking, for it is a necessity, and under proper regulations and restrictions can be successfully and economically accomplished.

The greatest difficulty to be surmounted is the successful working of a system at once applicable to the requirements of a small district school, with a limited number of scholars, attending only at certain seasons of the year, and of those of the larger cities, with numerous schools, in which a great number are under instruction.

Let us commence at the foundation, in the Primary Schools.

The moment the child enters the school care should be taken that the mental exercises which are given should be relieved by frequent intermissions for running and playing, under the supervision of the teacher. This we are glad to say is the case in very many of our best primary schools; but it is when the child becomes more advanced, when there are lessons to commit to memory at home, that some simple physical exercises should be taught him every day; exercises calculated to develop the growth and expand the muscles. The calisthenics recommended in Miss Beecher’s work are excellent, simple, and easily fitted to the limits of the school house. The report of Mr. W. H. Wells, Superintendent of Public Schools for Chicago, for 1860, gives some interesting particulars of simple exercises which have been attempted in that city.

There would be but little difficulty experienced in selecting movements and gymnastics suitable for the strength and ability of the classes of younger boys, and girls under instruction, provided the method was established as an imperative duty which must be regularly put in practice, and that no lack of interest on the part of teachers, or laziness of the pupils would be accepted as an excuse for non-compliance with the regulation. We trust if Physical Training is carried out in our system of education, that a carefully prepared Manual of all kinds of exercises, embracing the military drill, will be compiled for the use of schools; in a word, a text-book to which our teachers can turn with confidence to find exercises suitable for all classes of pupils.26

From the Girls and Primary, we pass to the Boys Grammar departments, for which we propose military exercises, as being the most economical and advantageous for public schools; for tactics manœuvre large bodies in a small space, in an orderly manner, whereas gymnasiums are too expensive, and can not be made large enough to accommodate many scholars at once. This opens to us our most difficult, but at the same time most useful, field for prompt and energetic action.

Suppose we take for an example one of our large cities. The lower and female departments having simple physical exercises in use, it is wished to introduce military exercises into the grammar schools. Let us see how simply it can be organized, and how far it is possible to extend these studies if desired.

The following interesting letter from the Mayor of Bangor, will show the movement in that city, an example well worthy of being imitated.

City of Bangor, Mayor’s Office, Dec. 21st, 1861.

Dear Sir:—In reply to yours of the 19th inst., I would say that, upon my recommendation, through a communication I made to our City Council, on the first Monday of the present month, an Order was passed directing the military drill to be introduced into a portion of the Public Schools of this city.

I had given the subject some thought and investigation, and was prepared to recommend the adoption of the drill for the physical training, no less than for the military instruction it might impart. The prevalent idea that education consists in training the intellect only, is gradually becoming superseded by the more rational theory that true education consists in training the moral and physical, no less than the intellectual faculties.

For the physical training of boys, I think the military drill has much to recommend it besides the military instruction it imparts. It will tend to give them a better command of their muscles, and impart a manly gait and bearing. It will also, if properly conducted, teach them self-control, and give them true ideas of order, discipline, and subordination, and whilst it will relieve them from the monotony of their ordinary studies will, by a grateful change, enable them to return to them with renewed interest.

We are entering upon the new experiment with caution, and have commenced by devoting an hour, twice a week, to the drill. We began in the school rooms, but found, after a few lessons, that the space these afforded was too small, and for the present shall use the large Gymnasium Hall. In summer, the grounds in connection with our school houses may be found well adapted for the purpose.

The boys, with scarcely an exception, manifest much interest in their drills, and receive the instruction much more readily than men. Two or three of our public spirited citizens, well qualified for instructors, have generously consented to devote the necessary time for drilling the boys, for the present winter, without compensation.

Some of our teachers are also disposed to qualify themselves for drill masters, and we are thus enabled to try the experiment without much expense.

I have had no communication with Gov. Washburn in relation to this subject, and was quite unaware of your interest in the matter. I however noticed the article in regard to it in the Evening Post of Nov. 8th, and was gratified with the important facts which it contained. I shall be glad to receive any further communication you may make to the public on this important subject, and should you wish, will be pleased to communicate to you the further progress of our experiments.

Yours respectfully,

ISAIAH STETSON, Mayor

Edward L. Molineux, Esq., New York.

To establish thoroughly and economically this military culture, the Board of Education should appoint some competent person as Chief of the Staff to organize and carry out a system of instruction and drill; he to have under him two or three assistant instructors of experience, under whose guidance a teacher, or teachers from each school, should be fully instructed in the tactics, so as to be able to superintend the drill of the boys, which should always take place during school hours, and thereby form a recreation from mental study, and not encroach upon their play time. These are the only persons connected with the department beyond the scholars themselves, as it should be managed on the principle of obtaining the whole working force of the military organization from among the pupils.

The grammar department of each school should be formed into a company, or where the size of the school rendered it necessary, two companies: the officers to be selected from the most deserving and competent boys.

The officers thus selected to be instructed theoretically and practically by extra drills, in their respective duties. This would not occupy much time, and any boy objecting to devote this time would not be worthy of holding his position, and should be replaced by some one more deserving. Every school should possess within its limits space for a parade ground and for a few simple fixtures for gymnastic exercises. In stormy weather the exercises could be carried on indoors; for the drill possesses the advantage of affording exercise to a great number in a small space without disturbance and noise.

No uniform would be required, and the only expense would be the loan or purchase of 500 or 1000 short muskets, which could be used in turn at the different schools for drill or parade. A simple musket can be manufactured very cheaply, which will answer for all purposes.

The care and cleaning of the arms, the escorting and carrying them from school to school, or point to point, as required, should be the military duty of the pupils; thus expense will be saved, and the duty of prudent soldiers to take care of their equipments and do their own work inculcated.

These different school drills, always in charge of the teachers, should be visited in turn by the instructors, who would exercise a close and careful supervision over them.

Every ten companies or schools should be formed into a regiment, officered by those selected as the most capable, and who had passed the necessary examination.

Occasionally on Saturdays the regiments, in rotation, should be exercised by the instructors, in battalion movements, field manœuvres, skirmish drills, camp duties, &c. These Saturday exercises should not be compulsory, but would be eagerly looked for by the boys as an amusement.

In the proper seasons they could be marched to the suburbs for their exercises, and thus a pleasant holiday, with healthy amusements, be given them under proper guidance. Any father will appreciate the advantages of such exercises and enjoyment to his boys.

In the summer season it should be found out which of the boys could not swim, and had no parents able to teach them. All such should be classed together, and means taken to instruct them in this most requisite art.

If found desirable to teach them to move together in large masses, (in which our militia are certainly deficient,) it can be accomplished by organizing two, three, or more regiments, into a brigade, to be commanded by the chief instructor, he selecting for his staff the most intelligent of the scholars who could relieve him of much of the labor which the systematic working of this large military department would render necessary. Thus those assigned to the staff would be learning the technicalities of the department and the duties of aids, secretaries, &c.

These staff officers, and any other of the pupils who showed a decided talent, should be assisted in acquiring knowledge in the military science by means of lectures, &c., from the chief instructor. An orderly system once organized, with the incentive to improvement by promotion for correct deportment, and of military disgrace for ungentlemanly and unsoldierly conduct, would soon render this military instruction of great assistance to teachers in the schools. Let the boys understand that disobedience or improper behavior debarred them from military honors and the whole tone of their conduct would be improved.

Of the exigencies of this war, if complicated by foreign interference, it is impossible to foresee, but every one is aware of the importance of early training upon the destinies of nations, and but few will deny the value of a well-trained battalion of selected elder boys, in case of INVASION or trouble, by their relieving the fatigue of regular troops in mounting guard at the least exposed positions, at the camps, on baggage, or for convoys; likewise to act as drill-masters for the recruits.

The above plan, which was submitted to several Boards of Education last fall, was offered as being the best adapted for immediate use, and is therefore provided for the instruction of the teachers. If, however, the Normal Schools and Colleges would provide systematically for this instruction, it would be far better as they are the proper fields for permanent benefit, as each graduate would there become fully prepared to instruct in these exercises in the public schools.

The views of the Hon. Joseph White, of Massachusetts, respecting military studies in colleges, are well worth noting. He says, “let the drill be regular and compulsory, taking the place of the very irregular and insufficient physical exercises now taken, and our colleges would be vastly improved in their educational power, and the commonwealth would in a short time have a numerous body of educated men well skilled in the military science and art, who will become teachers in our lower grades of schools and in our military companies and associations, and be competent when the alarm is sounded, to lead our citizen soldiers to the field.” New Jersey has just offered a noble example by making an appropriation for military instruction in her State Normal School.

But we must look at the practical working of physical and military training in small district schools. Of necessity they are far behind, in intellectual culture, those in the cities, and owing to the small and uncertain attendance, physical and military drill would also have to be simplified. The duties of a country life are such as not to render these exercises so necessary on the score of health, nor are the pupils wearied by such constant application to study. But how beneficial it would be in smoothing the rough, clownish manners of the country pupil by teaching him the position of a soldier, and correct walking. In respect to this, it should be the duty of the trustees to see that the drill was taught as far as practicable to the boys (calisthenics to the girls) by the teacher himself, who, if he were not already instructed from a Normal School, would find but little difficulty in mastering the details of tactics sufficiently for his purposes. With as small a number as twelve boys, company and skirmish drills could be taught; the latter is admirably suited for country schools, and would be a delight to the boys. If near the water they should be taught to swim.

It is thus we would teach our public school boys when they reach a certain age, to act together as citizen soldiers and be prepared when called upon, to do yeomen service in the country; to make it their pride as well as their duty, to defend the Country and State which so liberally educates them, let us cultivate in them a lofty and noble patriotism, which shall have its effect upon future generations, for it is upon these qualities, their intelligence and enterprise, aided by physical strength and health, that the Future of our country depends.

Although a course of military training in the public schools would soon furnish our State with an intelligent class of soldiers and line officers, yet the art of war in many of its branches, such as artillery, engineering, &c., requires a scientific education, which can not be given in a private institution. Our colleges undoubtedly could, to a certain degree, supply this want. New York city possesses in its Free Academy a college which needs but the addition of two or three professorships to carry out in part this requirement, yet a State Military and Scientific College seems a necessity to which early attention should be given, but to prevent its becoming a tax upon the State, it should be managed somewhat upon the plan of the Polytechnic of France, namely, that pupils at large may be admitted upon passing an examination and paying the annual fee.

Offer inducements in the way of superior education and careful training, and sufficient income would be received from the paying scholars to cover the expense to the State. Thus, from this college, might annually graduate men educated for the most scientific and skillful pursuits of life, and who, in time of war, would richly repay the State for the care devoted to their culture.

As an incentive to the public-school boys, several of the most deserving should annually be sent to this college by the State, and to the National Military and Naval Academies.

There is yet another important matter to be considered in physical exercises for public education, more particularly in sea ports, viz., Naval Training.

A late report of the Shipmaster’s Association has shown us that the reputation of our American vessels is deteriorating so rapidly, that unless something is done, quickly and effectually, to provide a remedy, foreign vessels will supersede ours in freighting. The necessities of our navy are too well known to need notice here, and surely these evils which assail the country at this trying moment of peril, should arrest attention.

In large seaboard cities the naval training school, which has worked so advantageously in England and Belgium, could be established very economically by the fitting up of some hall, at a slight expense, with spars, sails, &c. Here of an evening, lectures and classes for instruction in navigation and seamanship could be formed. This would be the means of improving our sailors and of forming useful citizens from those who now idle away their time around the streets and docks. The expense would be but light, and the advantages obvious to our merchant marine and navy. This would soon improve our class of sailors and officers, reduce the rate of insurance upon American vessels, and relieve us from the stain which is being cast upon us as a commercial and naval power.

The evening schools of New York city cost $73,000 per annum; a small per centage of this sum would place in successful operation an evening nautical school, which would enable, in less than three months, American sailor boys to acquire sufficient knowledge of navigation to aspire to the quarter deck. The handling of heavy guns and the principles of naval gunnery could also be taught. If a war with Great Britain breaks out, are we to be found slumbering in this respect, and must we wait for the first gun before taking active measures!

We are a peace-loving and domestic people, and we have indulged in the delusive fancy that peace was to shine over us forever, until rudely awakened from our dreams by a formidable attack at the very foundation of our nationality. Every family circle is represented in that mighty army which is battling for the Union, and we know that much of the suffering caused to our brothers by this new and unexpected calling, is due to the defects of their physical education, and to the want of a sufficient number of well trained officers. But the war is upon us and we must meet it as may best become a free nation and be better prepared for the future.

It is the proud boast of England that in time of war she is “Ready, aye Ready,” but a much prouder and nobler cry for us would be, the prompt “Here” at the roll-call of our militia when summoned, like the minute men of the Revolution, to the defense of the country. We want no large standing army. In times of peace let our merchants, artisans, farmers, and mechanics, enrich and develop the resources of the country. It needs their industry and will amply repay their toil. But let them be trained and educated from school-days to their military duties, and at the first note of war let that response of “Here” come cheerfully from our rich prairie lands, from our counting-houses, from our machine shops, from the decks of far off vessels and from our public schools,—one mighty cry of POWER and SELF-RELIANCE from a noble militia, possessing a thorough knowledge of its duties; intelligent and earnest in the right; patriotic and strong in its devotion to freedom.

A few words to those who fear the tendency of these exercises to instil a warlike and blood-thirsty spirit, and we will close. To them we say, we would emulate the ancients only so far as we can obtain from them some of their earlier and nobler traits of patriotism, courage, strength, endurance, and health. Let us picture what effect this training would have upon individual character.

Let us take the example of a young lad, entering the public school in the primary department, with perhaps a sickly, indolent disposition, and somewhat careless and slovenly in his appearance.

We know very well from the present system of studies, that his mind will be well cared for, and therefore pass to the effect of the physical training upon him.

The first lesson then is to stand in an erect and commanding attitude, with his chest well expanded, then his careless, slouching steps, with hanging head, are soon changed to the brisk, smart walk of a young gentleman, Calisthenics and exercises proportionate to his strength, and tending to develop his limbs very soon improve his health and impart a youthful vigor and energetic purpose to his motions, which are so much to be admired in young lads and give such rich promise of the future manhood. He soon learns exact and unhesitating obedience, and is taught by precept and example, that no small advantage in appearance is to be derived from a clean face and well brushed clothes. Is it to be denied that he thus learns habits of order, activity and cleanliness which will be invaluable to him in after years?

But his greatest ambition, the goal of all his hopes,—the reward for which he studies diligently, is active and neat in his deportment, docile and obedient to his teachers,—is to be promoted to the grammar department or higher classes, where the boys have military exercises. He looks with longing eyes at their neat, orderly ranks, as they form for drill or parade; their brightly polished shoes, neatly brushed clothes and well kept arms. All this is something to look forward to, and when he has accomplished it, has he not to strive by activity to win his grade and by self-control and obedience prove himself deserving to command others? Manhood, when it arrives, finds him bright, active, self-reliant and ready to become a public spirited member of society.

Let the necessity of military exercises be placed before the boy in a patriotic light and it will induce him not only to take greater care in the execution, but likewise implant a still greater love of country from the very knowledge that some day he may be of use to her,—of use to her in the pulpit, in the legislative forum, in the busy pursuits of industry and the various walks of life. And if the necessity again calls for action, or if the present war is of long duration and tests the strength and perseverance of our national character, let us not shrink from the ordeal, but with a firm reliance upon an Almighty God and a righteous cause, let us go forth in this good fight, we of this generation and our children, and faithfully discharge the duties of Christian soldiers in defense of truth, justice, and our country.

U.S. MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE SCHOOLS.

NAVY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS.

By the Constitution of 1789, Congress is empowered “to regulate commerce, to provide and maintain a navy, and make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces.” The initiatory steps for establishing and regulating a navy were taken by the Continental Congress in November and December, 1775. The management of naval affairs was first assigned to a Marine Committee of Congress, appointed Dec. 11, 1775, which in 1779 (June 9), was converted into Commissioners, and before the close of that year, into a Board of Admiralty, which consisted of five members, two of whom were members of Congress, with a secretary, who was appointed by Congress. In 1781 (Feb. 7), a Secretary of Marine was created to execute all the duties and powers of the Board of Admiralty. In the condition of the public treasury, and “in the dilatory and parsimonious action of the several States in forwarding funds for the construction of ships, docks, and naval arsenals, and for the support of the naval service,” Congress voted in August, 1783, “that it was not advisable to purchase ships for the present.”

The necessities of a disordered commerce, and of a sufficient naval force to protect the navigation of the country, and repel the first approach of a hostile army from abroad, were among the motives for establishing a more efficient federal government. But until the danger of war with England became imminent, a large party in the country, in and out of Congress, opposed the necessary appropriations for putting the Navy of the United States on a respectable footing.

In constituting the executive departments of the national government under the Constitution, the administration of the navy and naval affairs were committed to the War Department, where it remained till 1798, when (April 30) an Act was passed “to establish an executive department to be denominated the Department of the Navy.”

The Act of March 27, 1794, by which the construction and manning of four ships of 44 guns each, and two of 36 were ordered, was called for by the depredations on our commerce, and particularly in the Mediterranean Sea. In this Act the appointment of eight midshipmen, to rank with the warrant and petty officers, was authorized, and the Navy Register bears the names of only eight officers holding that rank prior to 1800. In 1801 the naval force of the United States consisted of 13 ships, viz.: 4 of 44 guns each (United States, President, Constitution, and Philadelphia); 4 of 36 guns each (Chesapeake, Constellation, Congress, and New York); 5 of 32 guns each (Benton, Essex, Adams, and John Adams); and by an Act of that year all others were ordered to be sold, and the completion of any more in the yards, was suspended. But the insults to our flag and destruction of our commerce by the Barbary powers, and the privateers of England and France, aroused such a feeling in the country that Congress ordered a squadron to be fitted out for the Mediterranean in 1803, which proved to be the school in which the seamanship of the Navy was trained, and the gallantry of its officers signally displayed. In the legislation of this period originated the “gun-boat” policy as an auxiliary means of harbor defense. In 1805 the first vessel of this class was added to the Mediterranean squadron, and in 1806 the President announced that 50 more could be relied on for the naval service. Gun-boats, properly constructed and armed, are now part of the system of harbor defense in all countries.

By an Act of Congress approved April 21, 1806, the whole number of able seamen, ordinary seamen and boys, for the United States Navy was not to exceed 925. March 3, 1807, the President was authorized to employ 500 additionals, increasing the authorized number to 1,425. January 31, 1809, the President was authorized to employ 3,600 able seamen, ordinary seamen and boys, in addition to the number of petty officers, seamen, etc., previously authorized, which increased the number of enlisted men allowed to 5,125.

In 1810 an appropriation was made to test the value of torpedo or submarine explosives, as engines of war, and in 1842 to test the submarine battery ignited by a submerged electric wire, devised by Samuel Colt. The introduction, of these “engines of war” into the defense of Southern harbors, in 1861-65, demonstrated their efficiency and inaugurated a new system of not only harbor defense, but of attack.

March 30, 1812, the President was further authorized to increase the seamen, etc., and as far as necessary to equip the frigates Chesapeake, Constellation, and Adams, any law to the contrary notwithstanding. In this Act provision was made for the appointment of a schoolmaster to each ship having a complement of 12 midshipmen.

March 3, 1813, he was authorized to have built six sloops-of-war, and to have them manned and equipped, and to employ the number of seamen which were necessary for such vessels as were authorized by law to be put in commission.

In 1816, in the appropriation annually of $1,000,000 for eight years to the gradual increase of the Navy by nine 74 gun-ships, and twelve 44 gun-frigates, provision was made to procure the steam-engines and build and equip three steam-batteries for the defense of ports and harbors—the introduction of a new element into the naval service. In 1839 the Secretary was authorized to construct three steam-vessels of war, “according to the best advices that could be obtained.”

In 1837, after strenuous efforts to enlist Congress in some systematic plan for supplying the navy with well instructed and thoroughly disciplined seamen, the Secretary was authorized to enlist under certain conditions, boys between the ages of 13 and 18, who should receive special opportunities for school and professional training.

In 1844, $100,000 was appropriated to build at Pittsburg an iron steamer (the Alleghany); and the appearance and exploits of the Merrimac and the Monitor, in the waters of the Chesapeake, in 1863, introduced a new system of naval construction and armament, not only into our navy, but in less than ten years revolutionized the ship-yards and ordnance foundries of the world.

By Act of March 3, 1845, it was provided “that the whole number of petty officers, seamen, ordinary seamen, landsmen and boys, in the naval service, shall not exceed 7,500 at any one time during the fiscal year,” for which appropriation was then made.

By Act of March 3, 1857, the Secretary of the Navy was authorized to enlist 8,500 men for the Navy, instead of 7,500. During the late civil war the limitation of enlisted men was suspended; and in his annual report, December, 1862, the Secretary states the number of persons employed on board our naval vessels, including receiving ships and recruits, as about 28,000; and in his report of December, 1865, he says the number was increased to 51,500 at the close of the war, which in 1867 had been reduced to 11,900.

In 1864 the Secretary of the Navy revived the system of naval apprenticeship, which was inaugurated under the Act of March 2, 1837, but suspended because the favorable results anticipated from a fair trial were not realized at once, under various disadvantages of a new enterprise, and because Congress, in 1845, by limiting the whole number of persons employed in the naval service, compelled the Department to discharge boys instead of men.

By Act of June 17, 1868, the number of persons enlisted into the Navy, including apprentices and boys, was limited to 8,500—a limitation actually below the maximum which existed prior to the war, and compelled the department to reduce the number of naval apprentices, and finally to again abandon that system.

The number of line officers is now (1871) limited by law to one admiral, one vice-admiral, 10 rear admirals, 25 commodores, 50 captains, 90 commanders; total flag and commanding officers, 177. To these are added 80 lieutenant commanders, 280 lieutenants, 200 masters and ensigns—making the total line officers of all grades, excepting midshipmen (309 including those at Annapolis), 737.

The medical staff consists of 180, viz.: 15 medical directors (captains); 15 inspectors (commanders); 50 surgeons (Lieut.-commanders), and 100 passed assistant and assistant surgeons.

The engineers’ department (total 250) includes 10 chief engineers (captains); 15 do. (commanders); 45 do. (lieut.-commanders); 100 assistants (masters and ensigns). There are 126 paymasters, 13 ranking as captains; 13 as commanders; 50 as lieut.-commanders. The number of chaplains is limited to 24, and of professors to 12.

Although, strangely enough, not under the administration of the Navy Department, the inauguration of the Coast Survey in 1807, and its thorough prosecution since 1844, when the employment of officers of the army and navy in the work was authorized; the recognition of the Naval Observatory at Washington city, and authorizing the making astronomical and meteorological observations, in the Act of August 3, 1848; the assignment of a competent officer of the navy to the preparation of the Nautical Almanac; the institution of the bureau of Hydrography and Ordnance, in 1842; the employment of three suitable vessels of the navy to test and perfect the plans of Lieutenant Maury in his investigations of the winds and the currents of the ocean, by Act of March 3, 1849; the concentration of the teaching staff of the corps of midshipmen preparatory for their examination at the Naval Asylum at Philadelphia, and their removal to separate accommodations at the old military station of Fort Severn, in Annapolis, by order of Secretary Bancroft in 1845, and the formal recognition of the institution as the Naval School, in the appropriations for the navy in 1847—these and other acts of Congress, and the action of the Department under them, are important data in the history of the Navy and Naval Education—especially of their scientific character.

GROWTH IN SHIPS, OFFICERS AND MEN.

The following Tables, prepared by Capt. George H. Preble, U.S.N., which are copied from the Army and Navy Journal for Nov. and Dec., 1871, exhibit in a condensed view the expansion of the military and merchant marine of the United States, from 1816 to 1871 inclusive, as well as its condition in each year from 1816.

Table I.—Naval Vessels, Tonnage, Officers, Seamen, and Cost. Tonnage.

NV Number of Vessels United States Navy.

NG Number of Guns.

TV Tonnage of Vessels belonging to the United States Navy.

TNO Total Number of Navy Officers, including Midshipmen and Mates.

TPO Total Number of Petty Officers, Seamen, etc.

Exp Total Expenditures for the Navy and Marine Corps.

Total = Total Tonnage of U.S. Enrolled, Licensed and Registered.

Year. NV NG TV TNO TPO Exp Total

1816 . . . . 40,032 838 unknown. $3,908,278 1,372,219

1817 111 1,267 39,642 954 . . 3,314,598 1,399,911

1818 115 1,383 39,682 948 . . 2,953,695 1,225,184

1819 90 1,243 36,512 926 . . 3,847,640 1,260,752

1820 88 1,384 38,057 895 . . 4,387,990 1,280,166

1821 36 1,017 33,851 876 . . 3,319,243 1,290,959

1822 38 1,047 34,413 848 . . 2,224,459 1,324,670

1823 45 1,085 36,039 812 . . 2,503,766 1,336,566

1824 49 1,122 36,338 843 . . 2,904,581 1,389,163

1825 44 1,107 36,174 856 . . 3,049,087 1,423,111

1826 46 1,104 39,577 859 . . 4,218,902 1,534,190

1827 49 1,163 42,708 877 . . 4,263,878 1,620,608

1828 53 1,243 44,149 898 . . 3,918,786 1,741,392

1829 52 1,315 40,865 996 . . 3,988,643 1,260,798

1830 51 1,287 40,865 1,051 . . 3,239,429 1,191,776

1831 50 1,269 41,953 990 . . 3,856,183 1,276,846

1832 52 1,292 42,147 987 . . 4,947,718 1,439,450

1833 53 1,872 60,002 1,022 . . 4,274,184 1,606,149

1834 53 1,872 67,804 1,012 . . 4,613,657 1,758,907

1835 53 1,872 66,479 1,035 3,627 4,209,836 1,824,940

1836 51 1,969 66,281 1,044 3,804 6,252,145 1,882,685

1837 55 1,982 69,043 1,048 5,201 6,646,915 1,886,684

1838 55 1,982 69,233 1,104 5,650 6,131,581 1,985,649

1839 56 2,022 71,396 1,157 6,932 6,182,294 2,096,479

1840 62 2,106 74,776 1,171 7,072 6,113,896 2,180,764

1841 67 2,106 72,418 1,222 7,419 6,001,077 2,130,744

1842 69 2,044 73,895 1,482 9,784 8,397,243 2,092,391

1843 71 2,022 77,031 1,493 10,321 3,727,712* 2,158,603

1844 74 2,464 78,221 1,448 10,000 6,498,199 2,280,095

1845 76 2,400 79,592 1,434 7,500 6,297,178 2,417,002

1846 76 2,345 80,992 1,398 7,500 6,455,014 2,562,084

1847 81 2,398 86,456 1,391 7,500 7,900,636 2,839,046

1848 92 2,401 95,755 1,425 7,500 9,408,477 3,154,042

1849 78 2,380 92,391 1,465 7,500 9,786,706 3,334,016

1850 77 2,370 91,591 1,423 7,500 7,904,725 3,535,454

1851 74 2,336 90,786 1,416 7,500 8,880,582 3,772,439

1852 75 2,346 90,992 1,432 7,500 8,918,842 4,138,440

1853 75 2,329 91,814 1,417 7,500 11,067,790 4,407,010

1854 73 2,115 91,787 1,423 7,500 10,790,096 4,802,902

1855 78 2,355 112,715 1,433 7,500 13,327,095 5,212,001

1856 76 2,359 111,803 1,196 7,500 14,074,835 4,872,652

1857 73 2,332 109,224 1,206 8,500 12,651,695 4,940,842

1858 78 2,231 113,765 1,287 8,500 14,053,265 5,049,808

1859 86 2,273 132,489 1,351 8,500 14,690,927 5,145,038

1860 91 2,329 133,832 1,436 8,500 11,514,650 5,353,868

1861 90 2,309 133,842 1,497 10,000 12,387,157 5,539,813

1862 383 2,876 284,377 3,493 28,000 42,674,569 5,112,165

1863 449 2,926 333,841 4,613 . . 63,211,105 5,155,055

1864 617 4,088 463,107 6,170 51,500 85,733,293 4,986,401

1865 681 4,662 470,362 7,296 . . 116,781,676 5,096,783

1866 320 2,688 336,874 2,847 13,600 43,324,526 4,310,778

1867 273 2,235 313,056 2,770 11,900 31,034,011 4,304,486

1868 229 1,704 281,629 2,420 8,500 20,120,395 4,351,758

1869 203 1,701 255,217 1,921 8,500 18,985,165 4,144,639

1870 186 1,443 183,217 1,853 8,500 15,870,531 4,246,507

1871 177 1,446 181,738 2,020† 8,500 19,431,027 4,111,412

* Change of the fiscal year.

† From this number should be deducted 130 mates not permanent officers of the Navy.

Table II. Line Officers—1816 to 1871.

A Admirals.

VA Vice-Admirals.

RA Rear Admirals.

Cm Commodores.

Cp Captains.

MC Master Command’ts or Commanders.

LC Lieut. Command’rs.

Lt Lieutenants.

Mr Masters.

PM Passed Midshipmen or Ensigns.

Mm Midshipmen.

Cm Cadet Midshipmen.

Mt Mates.

Total = Total Line Officers.

Year. A VA RA Cm Cp MC LC Lt Mr PM Mm CM Mt Total

1815 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1816 . . . . . . . . 32 18 . . 150 . . . . 495 . . . . 695

1817 . . . . . . . . 31 22 . . 157 87 . . 415 . . 4 716

1818 . . . . . . . . 34 26 . . 182 83 . . 404 . . 7 736

1819 . . . . . . . . 35 23 . . 213 76 . . 362 . . 7 716

1820 . . . . . . . . 34 22 . . 202 76 . . 350 . . 4 688

1821 . . . . . . . . 32 21 . . 193 62 . . 364 . . 2 674

1822 . . . . . . . . 31 31 . . 196 58 . . 336 . . 1 653

1823 . . . . . . . . 30 30 . . 183 53 75 249 . . 1 621

1824 . . . . . . . . 28 30 . . 172 51 71 312 . . . . 664

1825 . . . . . . . . 24 30 . . 228 48 . . 356 . . . . 680

1826 . . . . . . . . 32 29 . . 209 43 15 361 . . . . 689

1827 . . . . . . . . 31 27 . . 228 36 . . 374 . . . . 696

1828 . . . . . . . . 33 29 . . 229 33 . . 392 . . . . 716

1829 . . . . . . . . 35 33 . . 263 30 10 435 . . . . 806

1830 . . . . . . . . 37 39 . . 258 32 41 435 . . . . 842

1831 . . . . . . . . 37 34 . . 255 31 54 377 . . . . 788

1832 . . . . . . . . 40 37 . . 259 32 74 345 . . . . 787

1833 . . . . . . . . 37 41 . . 259 31 94 356 . . . . 818

1834 . . . . . . . . 37 41 . . 259 29 133 317 . . . . 807

1835 . . . . . . . . 37 41 . . 257 27 178 272 . . . . 812

1836 . . . . . . . . 38 40 . . 257 27 199 251 . . . . 812

1837 . . . . . . . . 40 41 . . 258 27 200 241 . . . . 807

1838 . . . . . . . . 50 49 . . 276 27 181 247 . . . . 830

1839 . . . . . . . . 52 55 . . 285 27 196 249 . . . . 844

1840 . . . . . . . . 55 55 . . 290 29 191 231 . . . . 851

1841 . . . . . . . . 55 55 . . 288 28 195 262 . . . . 883

1842 . . . . . . . . 68 96 . . 328 30 103 460 . . 4 1089

1843 . . . . . . . . 67 94 . . 324 31 133 410 . . 7 1066

1844 . . . . . . . . 67 96 . . 324 30 147 356 . . 12 1032

1845 . . . . . . . . 68 96 . . 327 31 159 314 . . 11 1006

1846 . . . . . . . . 67 97 . . 326 28 181 264 . . 11 974

1847 . . . . . . . . 64 97 . . 324 31 206 240 . . 9 970

1848 . . . . . . . . 67 97 . . 327 31 208 228 . . 8 966

1849 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 327 31 270 181 . . 8 982

1850 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 327 32 208 152 . . 5 940

1851 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 327 33 233 171 . . 3 932

1852 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 325 32 205 144 55 3 929

1853 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 327 32 197 122 76 3 892

1854 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 326 18 198 89 94 2 892

1855 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 326 32 190 66 128 2 912

1856 . . . . . . . . 68 97 . . 326 19 . . 46 124 1 681

1857 . . . . . . . . 64 96 . . 311 24 24 30 145 1 696

1858 . . . . . . . . 76 106 . . 319 1 23 45 174 1 745

1859 . . . . . . . . 81 116 . . 338 20 . . 47 187 . . 789

1860 . . . . . . . . 80* 114 . . 325 34 . . 49 238 . . 840

1861 . . . . . . . . 79* 114 . . 321 36 . . 55 267 . . 872

1862 . . . . 4 18 40 91 144 90 . . . . 67 220 . . 664

1863 . . . . 4 14 37 72 144 96 . . 30 9 382 . . 788

1864 . . . . 6 18 36 72 144 96 . . 88 2 457 . . 913

1865 . . 1 5 19 35 67 139 113 . . 53 31 458 . . 931

1866 . . 1 4 19 35 71 142 90 11 39 84 450 . . 946

1867 1 1 10 24 46 90 165 22 53 54 72 421 . . 959

1868 1 1 9 24 49 90 136 45 29 52 157 344 . . 937

1869 1 1 10 25 50 89 171 46 80 154 77 286 . . 990

1870 1 1 10 25 50 90 180 64 99 160 74 251 . . 1103†

1871 1 1 12 25 50 89 178 141 151 69 69 246 . . 1256‡

* One senior flag officer.

† Including 98 mates, temporary officers not eligible for promotion and not properly belonging to the Regular Navy, and should be classed as Volunteers.

‡ Including 130 mates, temporary officers not eligible for promotion and not properly belonging to the Regular Navy, and should be classed as Volunteers.

Table III. Warrant or Forward Officers, and Marine Corps, 1816 to 1871.

B Boatswains.

G Gunners.

Cr Carpenters.

S Sailmakers.

C Colonels.

LC Lieut-Colonels.

M Majors.

Cp Captains.

L Lieutenants.

SL Second Lieutenants.

Warranted or Forward Officers, 1815 to 1871 inclusive. Officers of the United States Marine Corps, 1815 to 1871 inclusive.

Year B G Cr S Total. C LC M Cp L SL Total.

1815 28 24 18 12 82 1 . . 2 20 21 18 62

1816 28 24 6 2 60 1 . . 1 20 21 18 61

1817 28 22 6 2 58 1 . . 1 16 19 13 50

1818 22 22 17 11 72 1 . . . . 9 23 16 49

1819 22 22 16 11 71 . . . . . . 9 23 16 48

1820 19 22 17 12 70 . . 1 . . 9 24 9 43

1821 14 18 12 8 52 . . 1 . . 8 24 16 49

1822 16 17 13 10 56 . . 1 . . 8 21 15 45

1823 16 18 13 11 58 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1824 15 18 14 12 59 . . 1 . . 9 24 15 49

1825 16 16 10 10 52 . . 1 . . 9 24 14 48

1826 13 12 10 9 44 . . 1 . . 9 23 17 50

1827 15 14 11 9 49 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1828 14 18 14 11 57 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1829 17 19 13 14 63 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1830 18 20 16 16 70 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1831 18 19 13 17 67 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1832 21 16 12 18 67 . . 1 . . 9 24 16 50

1833 16 19 15 13 63 . . 1 . . 10 24 16 50

1834 18 17 16 14 65 . . 1 . . 10 24 16 50

1835 18 20 20 19 77 1 1 4 13 20 19 58

1836 21 20 20 19 80 1 1 4 13 20 19 58

1837 22 23 20 19 84 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1838 25 29 23 24 101 1 1 4 13 19 20 58

1839 32 35 27 26 120 1 1 4 13 20 19 58

1840 32 37 24 25 118 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1841 29 36 28 27 120 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1842 32 41 36 33 142 1 1 4 13 20 19 58

1843 37 40 38 35 150 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1844 32 39 35 33 139 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1845 30 42 36 34 142 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1846 31 42 36 34 143 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1847 32 42 36 31 141 1 1 4 13 20 20 59

1848 38 44 40 29 151 1 1 7 14 23 24 70

1849 39 44 42 33 158 1 1 7 18 24 24 75

1850 39 43 42 34 158 1 1 7 18 23 23 73

1851 43 46 45 37 171 1 1 7 17 23 21 70

1852 41 45 45 38 169 1 1 7 16 21 21 67

1853 44 46 49 41 180 1 1 7 16 20 20 65

1854 38 48 51 41 178 1 1 7 14 20 20 63

1855 37 45 32 40 174 1 1 7 14 19 20 62

1856 39 40 48 39 166 1 1 7 14 20 20 63

1857 38 40 48 39 165 1 1 7 13 19 20 61

1858 38 44 47 42 171 1 1 7 14 19 20 62

1859 40 44 48 41 173 1 1 7 15 20 19 63

1860 41 46 46 42 175 1 1 7 14 20 20 63

1861 43 47 45 40 175 1 1 7 14 20 20 63

1862 54 93 60 46 253 2 2 7 24 30 30 95

1863 53 84 56 45 238 2 2 7 20 28 29 88

1864 49 71 53 40 213 2 2 7 21 30 22 84

1865 46 65 47 36 194 2 2 7 22 30 24 87

1866 39 63 43 32 177 2 2 7 22 30 24 87

1867 52 59 40 30 181 2 2 7 22 30 30 93

1868 52 55 36 31 174 . . 2 7 21 30 27 88*

1869 51 50 32 30 163 1 2 7 22 30 23 86*

1870 46 52 38 31 167 1 2 7 23 30 26 90*

1871 46 57 39 34 176 1 2 7 22 30 30 93*

* One brigadier-general since 1868. The senior officer has always been styled the lieutenant-colonel-commandant, colonel-commandant, or brigadier-general commandant. Since 1868, in the number of majors and captains is included those of the staff ranking with the line. At present there are three staff officers holding the rank of major, and two that of captain.

S Surgeons.

PAS Passed Ass’t Surgeons.

AS Assistant Surgeons.

SM Surgeons’s Mates.

PP Pursers or Paymasters.

CPT Chaplains, Professors of Mathematics, and Teachers.

Total = Total Staff Officers.

STAFF OFFICERS, 1815 TO 1842 INCLUSIVE.

Year Medical Dep’t. PP CPT Total

S PAS AS SM

1815 43 . . . . 44 39 4 130

1816 45 . . . . 44 40 4 133

1817 48 . . . . 72 53 7 180