Part 2 / Book 2 — CHAPTER VII.
Henry P. (Henry Pomeroy) Horton translation
CONCLUSIONS.
What are the conclusions to be drawn from what has gone before? When we sum up the results that we have obtained it becomes plain that economic conditions occupy a much more important place in the etiology of crime than most authors have given them.
First we have seen that the present economic system and its consequences weaken the social feelings. The basis of the economic system of our day being exchange, the economic interests of men are necessarily found to be in opposition. This is a trait that capitalism has in common with other modes of production. But its principal characteristic is that the means of production are in the hands of a few, and most men are altogether deprived of them. Consequently, persons who do not possess the means of production are forced to sell their labor to those who do, and these, in consequence of their economic preponderance, force them to make the exchange for the mere necessaries of life, and to work as much as their strength permits.
This state of things especially stifles men’s social instincts; it develops, on the part of those with power, the spirit of domination, and of insensibility to the ills of others, while it awakens jealousy and servility on the part of those who depend upon them. Further the contrary interests of those who have property, and the idle and luxurious life of some of them, also contribute to the weakening of the social instincts.
The material condition, and consequently the intellectual condition, of the proletariat are also a reason why the moral plane of that class is not high. The work of children brings them into contact with persons to associate with whom is fatal to their morals. Long working hours and monotonous labor brutalize those who are forced into them; bad housing conditions contribute also to debase the moral sense, as do the uncertainty of existence, and finally absolute poverty, the frequent consequence of sickness and unemployment. Ignorance and lack of training of any kind also contribute their quota. Most demoralizing of all is the status of the lower proletariat.
The economic position of woman contributes also to the weakening of the social instincts.
The present organization of the family has great importance as regards criminality. It charges the legitimate parents with the care of the education of the child; the community concerns itself with the matter very little. It follows that a great number of children are brought up by persons who are totally incapable of doing it properly. As regards the children of the proletariat, there can be no question of the education properly so-called, on account of the lack of means and the forced absence of one or both of the parents. The school tends to remedy this state of things, but the results do not go far enough. The harmful consequences of the present organization of the family make themselves felt especially in the case of the children of the lower proletariat, orphans, and illegitimate children. For these the community does but little, though their need of adequate help is the greatest.
Prostitution, alcoholism, and militarism, which result, in the last analysis, from the present social order, are phenomena that have demoralizing consequences.
As to the different kinds of crime, we have shown that the very important group of economic criminality finds its origin on the one side in the absolute poverty and the cupidity brought about by the present economic environment, and on the other in the moral abandonment and bad education of the children of the poorer classes. Then, professional criminals are principally recruited from the class of occasional criminals, who, finding themselves rejected everywhere after their liberation, fall lower and lower. The last group of economic crimes (fraudulent bankruptcy, etc.) is so intimately connected with our present mode of production, that it would not be possible to commit it under another.
The relation between sexual crimes and economic conditions is less direct; nevertheless these also give evidence of the decisive influence of these conditions. We have called attention to the four following points.
First, there is a direct connection between the crime of adultery and the present organization of society, which requires that the legal dissolution of a marriage should be impossible or very difficult.
Second, sexual crimes upon adults are committed especially by unmarried men; and since the number of marriages depends in its turn upon the economic situation, the connection is clear; and those who commit these crimes are further almost exclusively illiterate, coarse, raised in an environment almost without sexual morality, and regard the sexual life from the wholly animal side.
Third, the causes of sexual crime upon children are partly the same as those of which we have been speaking, with the addition of prostitution.
Fourth, alcoholism greatly encourages sexual assaults.
As to the relation between crimes of vengeance and the present constitution of society, we have noted that it produces conflicts without number; statistics have shown that those who commit them are almost without exception poor and uncivilized, and that alcoholism is among the most important causes of these crimes.
Infanticide is caused in part by poverty, and in part by the opprobrium incurred by the unmarried mother (an opprobrium resulting from the social utility of marriage).
Political criminality comes solely from the economic system and its consequences.
Finally, economic and social conditions are also important factors in the etiology of degeneracy, which is in its turn a cause of crime.
Upon the basis of what has gone before, we have a right to say that the part played by economic conditions in criminality is preponderant, even decisive.
This conclusion is of the highest importance for the prevention of crime. If it were principally the consequence of innate human qualities (atavism, for example), the pessimistic conclusion that crime is a phenomenon inseparably bound up with the social life would be well founded. But the facts show that it is rather the optimistic conclusion that we must draw, that where crime is the consequence of economic and social conditions, we can combat it by changing those conditions.
However important crime may be as a social phenomenon, however terrible may be the injuries and the evil that it brings upon humanity, the development of society will not depend upon the question as to what are the conditions which could restrain crime or make it disappear, if possible; the evolution of society will proceed independently of this question.
What is the direction that society will take under these continual modifications? This is not the place to treat fully of this subject. In my opinion the facts indicate quite clearly what the direction will be. The productivity of labor has increased to an unheard of degree, and will assuredly increase in the future. The concentration of the means of production into the hands of a few progresses continually; in many branches it has reached such a degree that the fundamental principle of the present economic system, competition, is excluded, and has been replaced by monopoly. On the other hand the working class is becoming more and more organized, and the opinion is very generally held among working-men that the causes of material and intellectual poverty can be eliminated only by having the means of production held in common.
Supposing that this were actually realized, what would be the consequences as regards criminality? Let us take up this question for a moment. Although we can give only personal opinions as to the details of such a society, the general outlines can be traced with certainty.
The chief difference between a society based upon the community of the means of production and our own is that material poverty would be no longer known. Thus one great part of economic criminality (as also one part of infanticide) would be rendered impossible, and one of the greatest demoralizing forces of our present society would be eliminated. And then, in this way those social phenomena so productive of crime, prostitution and alcoholism, would lose one of their principal factors. Child labor and overdriving would no longer take place, and bad housing, the source of much physical and moral evil, would no longer exist.
With material poverty there would disappear also that intellectual poverty which weighs so heavily upon the proletariat; culture would no longer be the privilege of some, but a possession common to all. The consequences of this upon criminality would be very important, for we have seen that even in our present society with its numerous conflicts, the members of the propertied classes, who have often but a veneer of civilization, are almost never guilty of crimes of vengeance. There is the more reason to admit that in a society where interests were not opposed, and where civilization was universal, these crimes would be no longer present, especially since alcoholism also proceeds in large part from the intellectual poverty of the poorer classes. And what is true of crimes of vengeance, is equally true of sexual crimes in so far as they have the same etiology.
A large part of the economic criminality (and also prostitution to a certain extent) has its origin in the cupidity excited by the present economic environment. In a society based upon the community of the means of production, great contrasts of fortune would, like commercial capital, be lacking, and thus cupidity would find no food. These crimes will not totally disappear so long as there has not been a redistribution of property according to the maxim, “to each according to his needs”, something that will probably be realized, but not in the immediate future.
The changes in the position of woman which are taking place in our present society, will lead, under this future mode of production, to her economic independence, and consequently to her social independence as well. It is accordingly probable that the criminality of woman will increase in comparison with that of man during the transition period. But the final result will be the disappearance of the harmful effects of the economic and social preponderance of man.
As to the education of children under these new conditions it is difficult to be definite. However, it is certain that the community will concern itself seriously with their welfare. It will see to it that the children whose parents cannot or will not be responsible for them, are well cared for. By acting in this way it will remove one of the most important causes of crime. There is no doubt that the community will exercise also a strict control over the education of children; it cannot be affirmed, however, that the time will come when the children of a number of parents will be brought up together by capable persons; this will depend principally upon the intensity that the social sentiments may attain.
As soon as the interests of all are no longer opposed to each other, as they are in our present society, there will no longer be a question either of politics (“a fortiori” of political crimes) or of militarism.
Such a society will not only remove the causes which now make men egoistic, but will awaken, on the contrary, a strong feeling of altruism. We have seen that this was already the case with the primitive peoples, where their economic interests were not in opposition. In a larger measure this will be realized under a mode of production in common, the interests of all being the same.
In such a society there can be no question of crime properly so called. The eminent criminologist, Manouvrier, in treating of the prevention of crime expresses himself thus: “The maxim to apply is, act so that every man shall always have more interest in being useful to his fellows than in harming them.” It is precisely in a society where the community of the means of production has been realized that this maxim will obtain its complete application. There will be crimes committed by pathological individuals, but this will come rather within the sphere of the physician than that of the judge. And then we may even reach a state where these cases will decrease in large measure, since the social causes of degeneracy will disappear, and procreation by degenerates be checked through the increased knowledge of the laws of heredity and the increasing sense of moral responsibility.
“It is society that prepares the crime”, says the true adage of Quetelet. For all those who have reached this conclusion, and are not insensible to the sufferings of humanity, this statement is sad, but contains a ground of hope. It is sad, because society punishes severely those who commit the crime which she has herself prepared. It contains a ground of hope, since it promises to humanity the possibility of some day delivering itself from one of its most terrible scourges.
Notes in this chapter
Note 1 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon the whole subject of this chapter: J. Makarewicz, “Einführung in die Philosophie des Strafrechts.”] Note 2 · [The author disregards the legal distinction between the words crime and délit as being “without interest in a sociological work.” The latteNote 3 · See upon this subject: Post, “Die Geschlechtsgenossenschaft der Urzeit und die Entstehen der Ehe”, p. 156; Steinmetz, “Ethnologische StudienNote 4 · The so-called offenses of omission are so few and unimportant that they may be left out of account. ↑Note 5 · Albrecht, “Actes du Ier congrès d’anthr. crim.”, pp. 110 ff.; Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 201, 202; “Genesi e funzione delle lNote 6 · A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 224. ↑Note 7 · Steinmetz, “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle” (“Compte rendu du Ve Cong. d’anthr. crim.”, p. 105). ↑Note 8 · It is unnecessary to treat of the origin of punishment. For this subject the works of Steinmetz and Makarewicz already cited may be consulteNote 9 · [Note to the American Edition: Recent works of importance are: P. Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid”; L. T. Hobhouse, “Morals in Evolution”; K. KautskyNote 10 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Ch. Vallon and G. Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).] ↑Note 11 · See, among others, Spencer, “Principles of Sociology”, I, p. 79, where he says “Sociality, strong in the civilized man, is less strong in thNote 12 · Chap. iv, pp. 97–99. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1883); Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, ppNote 13 · “Eskimo Life”, p. 101. ↑Note 14 · Op. cit., p. 106. ↑Note 15 · Op. cit., p. 158. ↑Note 16 · Op. cit., p. 187. ↑Note 17 · Op. cit., II, pp. 342, 343. ↑Note 18 · “Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians”, pp. 9, 10. ↑Note 19 · “Ancient Society”, pp. 85, 86. ↑Note 20 · “Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines.” For the facts with regard to the North American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains, seeNote 21 · “The Malay Archipelago”, II, p. 283; see also Waitz, op. cit., III; Spencer, “Descriptive Sociology”, No. 6 (“American Races”), pp. 31, 32. Note 22 · Pp. 225, 226. ↑Note 23 · “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle”, pp. 100, 101. ↑Note 24 · “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, p. 56. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der MenschenweltNote 25 · See Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 505. [Note to the American Edition: Upon the origin of slavery cf. H. J. Nieboer: “Slavery as an IndustriaNote 26 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Kautsky, op. cit., pp. 99, 100.] ↑Note 27 · See Maine, op. cit., pp. 227, 228. ↑Note 28 · P. 50. ↑Note 29 · See Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt”, and also “Die Indianerfrage” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885) by the same author. ↑Note 30 · See Steinmetz, “Classification des types sociaux et catalogue des peuples” (“Année sociologique”, III). ↑Note 31 · Upon the dualism of ethics see: Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern” (“Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie”, 1885); KropotkinNote 32 · See Sutherland, op. cit., I, x, for example, and compare Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, p. 55. ↑Note 33 · In the discussion which follows I have made large use of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt.” ↑Note 34 · See Galton, “Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development”, pp. 68–82. ↑Note 35 · See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 102; Sutherland, op. cit., I, x; Ammon, “Der Ursprung der sozialen Triebe” (“Zeitschr. f. SocialwissenschafNote 36 · See the quotation from Darwin earlier in this section, in which he speaks of cases of self-sacrifice among animals. ↑Note 37 · I make great use here of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt.” ↑Note 38 · See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 105. [Note to the American Edition: Upon the social origin of man see Müller-Lyer, “Die Familie”, pp. 12 ffNote 39 · “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt”, p. 27. ↑Note 40 · See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, pp. 95, 96, 106. ↑Note 41 · See Maine, “Village Communities”, p. 68. ↑Note 42 · Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 100, 101. ↑Note 43 · See Dargun, op. cit., p. 34. ↑Note 44 · See Letourneau, “L’évolution de la propriété”, pp. 72–75. ↑Note 45 · See Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 552, 553; and Sutherland, op. cit., I, vi. ↑Note 46 · See Kropotkin, op. cit., pp. 553, 554. ↑Note 47 · Pp. 335, 336. ↑Note 48 · Compare Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 527. ↑Note 49 · See Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 36, 37; Jhering, “Der Zweck im Recht”, I, p. 117. ↑Note 50 · Lassalle, “Die Feste, die Presse und der Frankfurter Abgeordnetentag”, II, p. 646; Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, pp. 46Note 51 · P. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, p. 80; Cuénoud, “La criminalité à Genève au XIXe siècle”, pp. 93–96; Aubry, “La cNote 52 · P. 242. ↑Note 53 · “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51). ↑Note 54 · From “Crimineele Statistiek” for the years given, and “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling” and “Uitkomsten der beroepstellNote 55 · This number is below the reality; they have classed among persons without trade those whose trade was unknown. ↑Note 56 · [Note to the American Edition: For North America cf. Fehlinger, “Erwerbsarbeit und Kriminalität von Kindern u. Frauen in den Vereinigten StaNote 57 · See “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, I, pp. 52 ff., and “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–189Note 58 · [Note to the American Edition: For Germany the “Kriminalstatistik” of 1891, 1901, and 1902 contain data upon this point; see II, p. 32. For Note 59 · “Die berufliche und soziale Gliederung des Deutschen Volkes nach der Berufszählung vom 14 Juni, 1895” (“Stat. des Deutschen Reichs. Neue FolNote 60 · Op. cit., pp. 143 and 144. ↑Note 61 · “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896. Erläuterungen”, I, pp. 22, 23. ↑Note 62 · [Note to the American Edition: Juvenile criminality in Germany increased up to 1906, when a fairly regular decrease began. The law upon the Note 63 · Calculated from the work cited, I, pp. 18–21. ↑Note 64 · “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich”, 1896, p. 5. ↑Note 65 · Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 5. ↑Note 66 · [Note to the American Edition: According to recent statistics juvenile delinquency in England has decreased rather than increased.] ↑Note 67 · “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Part I, Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 64. ↑Note 68 · The “Summary Jurisdiction Act” gives the English judges the right not to convict, even though the proof may be sufficient, when they deem thNote 69 · Op. cit., p. 65. ↑Note 70 · P. L., “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899.” ↑Note 71 · [Note to the American Edition: After the period cited juvenile crime in Austria has increased further. Cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 107 ff. See aNote 72 · Op. cit., pp. l–li. ↑Note 73 · Calculated from “Administration de la Justice criminelle et civile de la Belgique, période de 1881–1885. Résumé statistique”, p. 81. [Note tNote 74 · Figured from p. cix, Table No. 3 of the “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.” (Compte général de l’adminisNote 75 · Figured from op. cit., p. cxvi, Table No. 8. ↑Note 76 · See Grosmolard, “Criminalité juvénile” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XVIII), and Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, p. 194. ↑Note 77 · [Note to the American Edition: Upon France cf. especially Dr. G. Jacquetty, “Étude statistique de la criminalité juvénile en France.” AccordNote 78 · According to the “Compte Général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, p. 32, Table XVI. ↑Note 79 · According to op. cit., p. 54, Table XXIX. ↑Note 80 · “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1899”, p. cxvii. ↑Note 81 · “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. xli. In the period from 1896–1900 juvenile criminality Note 82 · Op. cit., p. xlvii. ↑Note 83 · I have not been able to get data for the United States. The American criminologist, A. Drähms, says that the criminality of the young is incNote 84 · From “De Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden” for the years 1896 to 1899, and from “Bijdragen tot de Statistiek van Note 85 · Taken from “Crimineele Statistiek over het jaar 1901.” In the criminal statistics of the Netherlands the system was changed in 1901. Before Note 86 · See also Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, Bk. I, ch. 2; Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”Note 87 · See also Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England,” pp. 118, 119. ↑Note 88 · See: Brace, “The Dangerous Classes of New York”, pp. 51 ff.; O. S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, pp. 120 ff. (“Zeitschr. f. d. gesammte Note 89 · P. 10. ↑Note 90 · P. 12. ↑Note 91 · P. 12. ↑Note 92 · See Laspeyres, pp. 86–91. ↑Note 93 · Laspeyres, op. cit., pp. 19 and 21. ↑Note 94 · See Engels, “Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 76 ff. ↑Note 95 · “Condition of the Working Class in England”, p. 116. ↑Note 96 · For the different opinions see Dr. L. DelBaere, “De invloed van opvoeding en onderwijs op de criminaliteit”, pp. 23 ff., and Földes, “EinigeNote 97 · The figures for prisoners are from Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 74; those in the last column from “The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1902, p. 1203. Note 98 · From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii. ↑Note 99 · Taken from the “Judicial Statistics of England and Wales”, Part I, Criminal Statistics, 1894–1900. The last two columns are taken from “The Note 100 · Figured from the table F. A II of the “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1899. ThNote 101 · Taken from Jacquart, op. cit., p. 104. ↑Note 102 · “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 31. ↑Note 103 · The last two columns are taken from “l’Annuaire Statistique de la France,” xvi ff.; the others from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1882–18Note 104 · From 1886 to 1891 women and men are reported together under this heading. ↑Note 105 · After Table XXIV of the “Report of the Judicial Statistics of Scotland for the Year 1910.” ↑Note 106 · “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.” ↑Note 107 · “Judicial Statistics, Ireland”, 1905, I, “Criminal Statistics,” p. 24. ↑Note 108 · The last two columns are taken from the “Annuario Statistico Italiano”, 1900, p. 214; the others from the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1Note 109 · Men playing a larger part in crime than women, I have thought it well to give the figures for illiterate men also. ↑Note 110 · Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1889.] ↑Note 111 · From the “Year-Book of the New York State Reformatory”, for the years in question. In “The Dangerous Classes of New York” (p. 32), Brace menNote 112 · Taken from the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Rijk in Europa”, 1901, p. 47. ↑Note 113 · de Roos, op. cit., p. 108. ↑Note 114 · Figured from Table II of the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900. ↑Note 115 · Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen” (“Zeitschr. des Kön. Preuss. Stat. Bureaus”, XXXIX), p. 197; the last figure fromNote 116 · “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 38 (“Schweizerische Statistik”, Pt. 125). ↑Note 117 · Ibid. ↑Note 118 · [Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan states see Wadler, op. cit., pp. 176 ff.] ↑Note 119 · Taken from “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1887, 1888, 1889. ↑Note 120 · Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1889. ↑Note 121 · From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii. ↑Note 122 · Figured from Table F. a. II in “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899Note 123 · [“Fortune” here has not exactly the connotation of our English word, but as “money” and “property” would be equally inexact it seems better Note 124 · [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 8 ff.] ↑Note 125 · Figured from the table on p. 199 of Evert’s “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.” ↑Note 126 · From “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 37. ↑Note 127 · Concerning Hungary Prof. Földes says (without giving the year) that 92% of the crimes are committed by persons without fortune, while these Note 128 · Taken from Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität” (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw. XXII). The figures for criminality are the average fNote 129 · Servants only. ↑ a b c dNote 130 · Taken from “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896” (Erläuterungen) II, pp. 38, 39. ↑Note 131 · This category includes the unskilled workmen, as the author of this table says himself, this heading is not very exact, since it includes thNote 132 · Pp. 585, 586. ↑Note 133 · Figured from the “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900. [Note to the American Edition: The English Note 134 · From the “Rapport au Président de la république française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxvi. ↑Note 135 · From the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895. ↑Note 136 · Furnishing trade only. ↑ a bNote 137 · Vagrants and prostitutes. ↑ a bNote 138 · “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. lxi. As the calculations are based upon the census of 1Note 139 · Op. cit., p. lxxxii. ↑Note 140 · Op. cit., pp. lxxxiii–lxxxiv. ↑Note 141 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. the recent works upon the relation between occupation and criminality: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. ciNote 142 · “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. lxviii. ↑Note 143 · Prinzing, “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 41; and “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe” (“ZeitNote 144 · “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. lii. ↑Note 145 · “Rapport au Président de la République française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, p. xxiii. ↑Note 146 · Figured from “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling”, and the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek over 1899.” ↑Note 147 · “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 21. ↑Note 148 · Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 556–557. ↑Note 149 · “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 42. ↑Note 150 · Op. cit., p. 117. The figures for criminality are the average figures for the years 1882–1893. They all give the number to 100,000 persons oNote 151 · Op. cit., p. 117. ↑Note 152 · Op. cit., p. 119. ↑Note 153 · Op. cit., p. 111. ↑Note 154 · Op. cit., p. 112. ↑Note 155 · Op. cit., p. 109. ↑Note 156 · Op. cit., p. 113. ↑Note 157 · Op. cit., p. 114. ↑Note 158 · Op. cit., p. 114. ↑Note 159 · Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 559. ↑Note 160 · “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe”, p. 437. ↑Note 161 · This table and those which follow all belong to the period from 1882 to 1893, and are figured for 100,000 of each category. They are taken fNote 162 · [“Rebellion” has a wider significance in French than in English, any violence to public officials being so designated. The word is retained,Note 163 · Cf. F. Prinzing, “Ueber frühzeitige Heiraten, deren Vorzüge und Nachteile.” See also Durkheim, “Le suicide”, pp. 186 ff. ↑Note 164 · P. 40. ↑Note 165 · Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works upon the relation between marriage and criminality: for Germany: Aschaffenburg,Note 166 · “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, Erläuterungen, II, p. 33. ↑Note 167 · [Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1903” contains very important data bearing upon the period 1882–1902, witNote 168 · “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I, Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 55, with separate calculations made for 1900. ↑Note 169 · “The Statesman’s Yearbook, 1902”, p. 14. ↑Note 170 · “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Criminal Statistics, 1894”, p. 19. ↑Note 171 · “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlix. ↑Note 172 · “Rapport au président de la république française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, pp. xix, cxvi. ↑Note 173 · Figured from “Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, pp. 30–31. ↑Note 174 · Op. cit., pp. 54–62, Tab. XXIX. ↑Note 175 · For the years 1884–1889 taken from the “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, and for the years following from the “Notizie compleNote 176 · The fact that a new penal code went into effect in 1890 makes a noticeable change in the total figures. ↑Note 177 · Op. cit., p. xxxvii. ↑Note 178 · “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 948. ↑Note 179 · Taken from “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”, 1896–1899, and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900. For more detaiNote 180 · Figured from “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901.” ↑Note 181 · “Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 27. See in the same place the reason for thinking that the figures quoted for the number of women acquitted Note 182 · “Rapport”, etc., p. xxxiv. ↑Note 183 · Op. cit., p. lvi. ↑Note 184 · See Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 83; Földes, op. cit., pp. 630, 631; and Morrison, op. cit., p. 46. ↑Note 185 · “Criminal Statistics of England and Wales, 1899”, p. 54. ↑Note 186 · Loosjes, op. cit., p. 50. ↑Note 187 · Figured from Tables 23 and 24 of the “Rapport au président de la république française”, etc. [Note to the American Edition: Wadler tells us Note 188 · “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, II, p. 73. ↑Note 189 · “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 47. ↑Note 190 · “Die Straffälligkeit des Weibes”, p. 253 (Archiv f. Krim. Anthr. u. Kriminalstatistik, V). ↑Note 191 · Galicia, Western and Eastern separately. ↑Note 192 · Tyrol and Vorarlberg separately. ↑Note 193 · From “Kriminalstatistik”, 1888, 1894, 1896, 1898, and 1900. ↑Note 194 · “Die Ergebnisse, etc.”, p. xlviii. ↑Note 195 · [Note to the American Edition: Wadler points out that in the Balkan States the percentage of feminine criminality is rapidly increasing.] ↑Note 196 · See Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 11, 12. ↑Note 197 · See Loosjes, op. cit., p. 12, where he demonstrates that the decrease in the percentage of female criminality is in great measure due to theNote 198 · For opinions of other authors see Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 75–108. [Note to the American Edition: Upon feminine criminality in general see furNote 199 · Liszt, “Die gesellschaftlichen Ursachen des Verbrechens”. (See discussion of this work in Pt. I of the present work.) ↑Note 200 · P. 96, chap. IV. ↑Note 201 · “Nos jeunes détenus”, pp. 24, 25. ↑Note 202 · See what is said in criticism of Professor Ferri in Pt. I of this work. ↑Note 203 · “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 34. See the whole section “L’hypocrisie dans l’éducation” (pp. 29–49), where the author criticises cNote 204 · See Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 327, 328, and Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 284–295, 372, 373. ↑Note 205 · There are other reasons for this, of course, besides better education: the absence of poverty, pleasures within easy reach, etc. ↑Note 206 · Taken from Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 160. ↑Note 207 · Figured from “L’annuaire statistique de la France”, V–IX. ↑Note 208 · Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1890–1895. ↑Note 209 · Raux (“Nos jeunes détenus”) and Grosmolard (“Criminalité juvénile”, p. 199) come to the same conclusion. ↑Note 210 · “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 76 and 440. ↑Note 211 · Plasz, “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51). According to the statistics upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” there were between 1901 and 1906 amonNote 212 · L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 279–280. ↑Note 213 · Op. cit., p. 320. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. W. Feld, “Die Kinder der in Fabriken arbeitenden Frauen und ihre Verpflegung.” ↑Note 214 · Braun, op. cit., p. 278. ↑Note 215 · See Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, pp. 199 ff., and Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 330–332. ↑Note 216 · Op. cit., p. 9. ↑Note 217 · In the following list I do not give the statistics for Germany as a whole, as I have been able to procure them for certain states, only. ForNote 218 · “Statistisches Uebersicht der Verhältnisse der Oesterreichischen strafanstalten und der Gerichtsgefängnisse”, 1883 and 1884, Table IV and IVNote 219 · “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1896 and 1899. ↑Note 220 · Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197. ↑Note 221 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria, cf. Baernreither, op. cit.] ↑Note 222 · J. S., “Zur Verwahrlosung der Kinder in der kapitalistischen Gesellschaft” (“Neue Zeit”, 1893–94, II). ↑Note 223 · Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197. ↑Note 224 · Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, pp. 122–147. ↑Note 225 · Tönnies, “Jugendliche Kriminalität und Verwahrlosung in Gross-Britannien”, p. 904 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XIII). ↑Note 226 · Morrison, op. cit., pp. 148–151. ↑Note 227 · W. H. Douglas, “The Criminal; Some Social and Economic Aspects”, p. 106 (“Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow”, vol. XNote 228 · Lenz, “Die Zwangserziehung in England”, p. 38. ↑Note 229 · With regard to England see also: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18–19, 37–42. ↑Note 230 · Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895. ↑Note 231 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 197. ↑Note 232 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. ↑Note 233 · A. von Oettingen says that in 1864 there were in France, out of 8,006 young prisoners, 60% who were illegitimate children or orphans, and 38Note 234 · P. 17. ↑Note 235 · Op. cit., p. 48. ↑Note 236 · Op. cit., p. 201. ↑Note 237 · Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, p. 37. See the whole of chap. III. ↑Note 238 · “Le crime dans la famille”, pp. 27, 38. ↑Note 239 · Motet, “De l’éducation correctionnelle”, p. 186 (“Actes du IIe Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”). ↑Note 240 · Raux, op. cit., p. 181. ↑Note 241 · Raux, op. cit., p. 211. See also the following authors with regard to France: Joly, “La France criminelle”, Ch. VI; Corre, “Crime et SuicideNote 242 · Lenz, op. cit., p. 70. ↑Note 243 · From Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 107, and the “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, p. CXV. ↑Note 244 · “Annuario statistico italiano 1900”, p. 95. ↑Note 245 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. ↑Note 246 · P. 164. ↑Note 247 · P. 76. ↑Note 248 · “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, pp. 237 and 250. For Italy see also: Carrara, “Les petits criminels de Cagliari” (“Compte rendu du Ve CongrèsNote 249 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 197. ↑Note 250 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. ↑Note 251 · P. 85. ↑Note 252 · See Drähms, “The Criminal”, Ch. XI. ↑Note 253 · “Beretning om Rigets Strafarbeidsanstalter for 1897–1898, 1898–1899”, and for 1899–1900 from Weinberg, “Der werdende Verbrecher”, p. 16. (“NNote 254 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 197. ↑Note 255 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. ↑Note 256 · Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 105. ↑Note 257 · Mayr, op. cit., pp. 197 and 282. ↑Note 258 · Based on Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.” ↑Note 259 · “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 34. ↑Note 260 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. ↑Note 261 · “Die Ergebnisse etc.”, pp. 35, 37, 38. ↑Note 262 · Weinberg, op. cit., p. 19. ↑Note 263 · Mayr, op. cit., p. 283. The other data are taken from Sichart, “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens.” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. StrafrwNote 264 · P. 298. ↑Note 265 · P. 10. ↑Note 266 · Richelot, “La Prostitution en Angleterre”, p. 571. ↑Note 267 · Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Table CXVIII. ↑Note 268 · Parent-Duchatelet, “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”, II, p. 612. [Note to the American Edition: The “Criminal Statistics, IrelandNote 269 · G. S., “Die weibliche Lohnarbeit und ihr Einfluss auf die Sittlichkeit und Kriminalität”, p. 751 (“Neue Zeit”, 1899–1900, II). ↑Note 270 · After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–95.” ↑Note 271 · P. 173. ↑Note 272 · See further: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., pp. 139–142; Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 77, 78; C. L. Brace, “The Dangerous ClasseNote 273 · Upon “souteneurs” and the part they play in crime see: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I, Chap. II, § 12; Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses”, INote 274 · P. 138. See also: Engels, “Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats”, p. 63; Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 28, 29; Faure, “SNote 275 · See among others: Krauss, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechens”, pp. 68, 69; Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 87. ↑Note 276 · “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 411, 413, 415 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”, 1896). ↑Note 277 · “La prophylaxie et le traitement du criminel récidiviste”, p.64 (“Compte rendu Ve congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”). ↑Note 278 · Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, p. 511 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII). ↑Note 279 · Dalhoff, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, pp. 40, 41. (“Actes du Congrès pénitentiaire internat. de Bruxelles”,Note 280 · For the years 1858–1862 taken from Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Tab. CXNote 281 · In these tables the term “drinker” is used for one who drinks to excess. ↑Note 282 · Upon England see further: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 17, 20–22; J. Baker, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisNote 283 · “Actes,” p. 112. ↑Note 284 · “Actes”, p. 106. See also upon France: Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 297 ff.; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, pp. 182 ff., anNote 285 · “Der Alcoholismus”, p. 348. ↑Note 286 · Op. cit., p. 351. ↑Note 287 · “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI). ↑Note 288 · “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, p. 296. ↑Note 289 · [Note to the American Edition: “The criminal statistics of the Netherlands for 1904” contain data upon the subject in question. Cf. further Note 290 · P. 66. ↑Note 291 · “The Jukes”, p. 85. ↑Note 292 · Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 198. ↑Note 293 · Wieselgren, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p. 164 (“Actes du Congr. pénit. de Bruxelles”), cf. Kinberg, “Alcool et criminNote 294 · Schaffroth, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p. 128 (“Actes du Cong. pén. intern. de Bruxelles”). ↑Note 295 · “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 36. ↑Note 296 · “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 42. ↑Note 297 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. besides the works of de Roos, Verrijn Stuart, Ariëns, and Kinberg, already cited, the following of recentNote 298 · The question must be looked at from the other side also, and it must be admitted that military service can have a favorable effect upon totaNote 299 · Quoted by Oettingen in his “Moralstatistik”, p. 481. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: upon Germany: H. Dietz, “Die MilitärstrafreNote 300 · See also Oettingen, op. cit., p. 687; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp. 572–589; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, p. 337; Lux, “SozialpolNote 301 · See also: Corre, “Essai sur la criminalité”, p. 78 (“Journal des Economistes”, 1868); Colajanni, op. cit. II, pp. 572–589; Aubry, “La contagNote 302 · Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, p. 70; see also Ch. III, and Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 229. ↑Note 303 · “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1895”, I, p. 31. ↑Note 304 · “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1900”, I, pp. 18–19. ↑Note 305 · “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1895”, I, p. 25. ↑Note 306 · Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 228, and “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XXXV. ↑Note 307 · After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table IX. ↑Note 308 · “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. li. ↑Note 309 · The figures for 1850–1880 are taken from Bournet, “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 31, for the Assizes, and from Joly, “La FraNote 310 · “Rapport etc.”, pp. lxiv and lxv. ↑Note 311 · After Bournet “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 32, and “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1881–1889. The criminal statistics forNote 312 · After the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”, 1901, p. 121. [Note to the American Edition: The general percentage of recidiviNote 313 · On short imprisonments for minor offenses see von Liszt, “Kriminalpolitische Aufgaben”, V, “Die kurzzeitige Freiheitsstrafe” (“Zeitschr. f. Note 314 · See Gautier, “Le monde des prisons” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, III) p. 563; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp. 671–679;Note 315 · Pp. 142, 143. ↑Note 316 · Op. cit., p. 22. ↑Note 317 · I will mention the following: Prins, “Criminalité et répression”, Ch. V; Ferri, “La sociologie criminelle”, pp. 546–554, and “Eine VerirrungNote 318 · See the Reports already cited, and Winter, “The New York State Reformatory in Elmira.” ↑Note 319 · As was pointed out in Part I, Tarde is the author who has drawn attention to the rôle of imitation in the etiology of crime; but see also: SNote 320 · P. 37. ↑Note 321 · See Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 120 ff. ↑Note 322 · “Criminal statistics”, 1894 and 1898, pp. 24 and 31. [Note to the American Edition: In the “Crim. Stat. England and Wales, 1905” there is a Note 323 · Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 565, 566. ↑Note 324 · “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxix. ↑Note 325 · “Rapport etc.”, p. xxx. ↑Note 326 · “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901”, pp. xvii and xviii. ↑Note 327 · See also A. Mayer, “Die Verbrechen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit den wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen im Kanton Zürich.” [Note to theNote 328 · See, among others, de Vries, “Eenheid in Veranderlijkheid”, pp. 3–6. ↑Note 329 · [Note to the American Edition: In present day sociology it is almost universally accepted that there is only a quantitative difference betweNote 330 · I speak neither of all the crimes nor of all the motives of those of which I do treat. For a complete enumeration of the motives of crimes, Note 331 · After the “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1900”, II, pp. 7–13. ↑Note 332 · After the “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, Tables 1, 2, and 7. ↑Note 333 · After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, pp. x and xi. ↑Note 334 · After the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1897–1899, and the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900–1901. ↑Note 335 · “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, p. xxxvii. ↑Note 336 · Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, p. 328, for 1880, and for 1881, from “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1881Note 337 · [There seems no better way to designate a classification that does not exist in English than by taking over this French term.—Transl.] ↑Note 338 · Pp. 6, 14–18. ↑Note 339 · “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, pp. 40, 41. On the relation between vagrancy and mendicity, and criminality see also: ColajanNote 340 · “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 443. ↑Note 341 · Ostwald, “Das Leben der Wanderarmen”, p. 313 (“Archiv f. Kriminalanthr. u. Kriminalstat.” XIII). ↑Note 342 · “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 58. ↑Note 343 · Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313. ↑Note 344 · Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. xl and xli. ↑Note 345 · See the works of Fornasari di Verce, Tugan-Baranowsky, and G. Mayr, cited in Part I. [Note to the American Edition: In his “Statistik und GeNote 346 · [Note to the American Edition: Upon Bavaria, cf. F. Knoblauch, “Bettel und Landstreicherei im Königreiche Bayern”, 1893–99.] ↑Note 347 · For France see also Bérard, op. cit., pp. 607, 608. ↑Note 348 · Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313. Cf. upon the periods 1866–1870 and 1877–1884, H. Bennecke, “Bemerkungen zur Kriminalstatistik des GrossherzogtumsNote 349 · Cf. K. Böhmert, “Die Sächsische Kriminalstatistik mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Jahre 1882–1887.” ↑Note 350 · See Bérard, op. cit., pp. 605, 606. ↑Note 351 · Flynt, op. cit., p. 170. ↑Note 352 · “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXI). ↑Note 353 · See Ostwald, op. cit., pp. 306, 307. ↑Note 354 · After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XIII. In studying these figures it must not be lost sight of that in general a workman is soonNote 355 · After “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1896–1899 and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1901. ↑Note 356 · After pp. 30, 31. ↑Note 357 · Pp. 40, 41. ↑Note 358 · “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, p. 208. ↑Note 359 · Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 22. See also the whole of Sec. 5, IV, Chap. 2, of the same authors. [Note to the American Edition: Note 360 · See Dugdale, “The Jukes”, pp. 47 and 49; and Flynt, op. cit., p. 6. ↑Note 361 · See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 34, 35, 177, 178. ↑Note 362 · See Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 55–76; Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, pp. 217–230; Albanel, “Le crime dans lNote 363 · Op. cit., pp. 31, 32. ↑Note 364 · Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 52. See also: Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, pp. 1Note 365 · Op. cit., p. 2. ↑Note 366 · Flynt, op. cit., p. 49; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and Problems of London Police Courts”, p. 64; and others. ↑Note 367 · Upon vagrancy and mendicity of children see further: J. Délie, “Le vagabondage des mineurs”; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144–1Note 368 · See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 11–14. ↑Note 369 · See, for example, Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 17 and 92. ↑Note 370 · See Bérard, op. cit., p. 605. ↑Note 371 · See Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 177 ff., and “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 460 ff. ↑Note 372 · Op. cit., pp. 97, 103, 110, 182, and 244. ↑Note 373 · Op. cit., p. 38. ↑Note 374 · Op. cit., I, pp. 111, 112. ↑Note 375 · Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 151–154. Tomel and Rollet, op. cit., pp. 24–27. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Haury, “La pareNote 376 · “Die Vagabondage und ihre Behandlung”, p. 715 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XI). ↑Note 377 · [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon vagrancy and mendicity we would call attention to the following: K. Wilmanns, “Note 378 · Marx, “Kapital”, I, ch. XXLV, pp. 699 ff. ↑Note 379 · Upon the impossibility of innate moral concepts see Näcke, “Die neueren Erscheinungen auf kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre BedeutNote 380 · “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und Ungerechten”, pp. 470, 471. (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II.) ↑Note 381 · “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53. ↑Note 382 · The figures in the line a are the absolute figures (annual averages), those in the line b the relative numbers, i.e. what the daily average Note 383 · “Marche de la criminalité en France, 1825–1880” (“Revue scientifique”, 1881), to be found also in Levasseur’s “La population française”, II,Note 384 · Taken from the “Kriminalstatistik”, 1895, 1907, 1908 and 1911, and from the “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich.” ↑Note 385 · The figures from 1906 on are comparable with those preceding, only with reserve. ↑Note 386 · The figures from 1907 on are not comparable with those preceding. ↑Note 387 · [Note to the American Edition: The English criminal statistics for 1905 show an interesting diagram upon the connection between the trend ofNote 388 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Jacquart, op. cit. pp. 109 ff.] ↑Note 389 · [Note to the American Edition: For the period 1896–1908 I have shown in my study “Crime et Socialisme” the striking parallel between economiNote 390 · There are still to be mentioned as authors who have treated the dynamics of criminality: J. Sacker, “Der Rückfall” (pp. 39, 40); AschaffenbuNote 391 · Cf. further: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; Eggert, “Not und Verbrechen”; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 395 ff.; v. Rohden in “Zeitschr. fNote 392 · Cf. the recent study of Prinzing, “Die soziale Lage der Witwe in Deutschland” (“Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, III). ↑Note 393 · In general, criminals are distinguished as occasional, habitual, and professional. Habitual criminals, however, are also occasional criminalNote 394 · See the passage from Mably, Pt. I, p. 14; also Lassalle, “Offenes Antwort-Schreiben” (“Reden und Schriften”, II, pp. 426–427). ↑Note 395 · Cf. Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p. 548. ↑Note 396 · Cf. Ryckère, “La servante criminelle”, ch. III. ↑Note 397 · As to the literature upon theft in stores, etc., see especially Lacassagne, “Les vols à l’étalage et dans les grands magasins” (“Compte rendNote 398 · An interesting proof of the truth of this assertion may be found in an article by Dr. P. v. Gizycki, entitled “Wie urteilen Schulkinder überNote 399 · Upon the bad surroundings of the childhood of thieves see further: Raux, “Nos jeunes détenus”, p. 42, and Ferriani, “Minderjährige VerbrecheNote 400 · Op. cit., p. 28. ↑Note 401 · “Das Verbrechen, etc.”, p. 123. ↑Note 402 · Op. cit., p. 42. ↑Note 403 · Cf. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 39, and Sighele, “Psychologie des sectes”, pp. 141, 142. ↑Note 404 · Ferriani, op. cit. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894). ↑Note 405 · “Aus dem Zuchthause”, p. 122. ↑Note 406 · “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, I, p. 14. ↑Note 407 · “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. viii. ↑Note 408 · Tönnies, “Das Verbrechen als soziale Erscheinung”, p. 334 (“Arch. f. Soz. Gesetzgeb. u. Stat.”, VIII). ↑Note 409 · Tarde, “Les délits impoursuivis”, p. 207 (“Essais et mélanges sociologiques”). ↑Note 410 · “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1894”, p. lxxxii. See also the detailed statistics cited by Ferriani, op. cit., pp. 112–118. ↑Note 411 · “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, 5. 139. ↑Note 412 · “Les transformations de l’impunité”, p. 167 (published by Professor Lacassagne in “Vacher l’éventreur et les crimes sadiques”). ↑Note 413 · “Betrachtungen über ein Sammeln der verbrecherischen Motive”, p. 278 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XVII). See also Földes, op. cit., pp.Note 414 · In a work upon the etiology of crime it is unnecessary to set forth in detail the numerous ruses that professional criminals make use of to Note 415 · Cf. the following passage from “Tramping with Tramps”, by Josiah Flynt: “One more regret which nearly all criminals of the class I am considNote 416 · Op. cit., pp. 131, 132. As regards the education of children in thieving, see also: Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 89 ff.; TomelNote 417 · Although there are some works upon this subject, criminal sociology would derive great profit from the publication of a great number of biogNote 418 · See, among others, G. Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande Roquette”, I. p. 27, and “Le monde des prisons”, pp. 11, 16; L. GordonNote 419 · Op. cit., pp. 21, 22. ↑Note 420 · Op. cit., p. 22. ↑Note 421 · Op. cit., pp. 23, 24. To the same effect see O. S., op. cit., pp. 136, 137. ↑Note 422 · Op. cit., pp. 5, 6; see also pp. 11–12. To the same effect: Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 221; Havelock Ellis, “VerbreNote 423 · [Note to the American Edition: Muller mentions further as a result of his researches that criminals by profession show in general an adventuNote 424 · “Actes du IIe Congrès d’Anthr. Crim.”, p. 163. ↑Note 425 · IV., pp. 386–388. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté”, pp. 385 ff. ↑Note 426 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further (besides the works of Muller and Kauffmann): Wulffen, II, pp. 284 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 124Note 427 · Cf. A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 293, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, pp. 421 Note 428 · In his “Grundriss, etc.”, II, p. 213, Dr. Post names different peoples who do not consider theft as blamable but as praiseworthy. It is veryNote 429 · To the same effect see Kovalewsky, op. cit., pp. 88, 89, note. ↑Note 430 · “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 286, 287. See by the same author, “Grundriss etc.”, II, p. 429, and “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, pp. 114, 115. Cf. StNote 431 · Cf. the quotation from Morgan on p. 386 of this work. ↑Note 432 · See Dargun, “Ursprung und Entwicklungsgeschichte des Eigenthums”, pp. 81–83. ↑Note 433 · Cf. Post, “Bausteine etc.”, I, p. 288 ff. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der MoralbegrifNote 434 · Cf. v. Liszt, “Das gewerbmässige Verbrechen”, pp. 126, 127 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI). ↑Note 435 · “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, pp. cliv–clv. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon Austria: Herz, op. cit., pp. Note 436 · “Della statistica dell’omicidio negli stati Uniti d’America” (“Bulletin de l’Institut intern. de statistique”, X), pp. 40 ff. ↑Note 437 · Cf. Niceforo, “Les transformations du crime et la civilisation moderne”, pp. 642 ff. (“Scuola Positiva”, XI). ↑Note 438 · “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53. ↑Note 439 · H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp. 10, 18. [Note to the American Edition: After 1898, also, the influeNote 440 · P. 47. See plate, pp. 40, 41. ↑Note 441 · [Note to the American Edition: Wadler has shown the connection of these two phenomena for Servia (op. cit., p. 83).] ↑Note 442 · Taken from Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, pp. 122–125. ↑Note 443 · Taken from “Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie und Kriminalstatistik”, XI, pp. 307 ff. ↑Note 444 · Baer, “Ueber jugendliche Mörder und Todtschläger” (“Archiv f. Krim.-Anthr. und Krim.”, XI). ↑Note 445 · Op. cit., pp. 166, 167. ↑Note 446 · “Les enfants en prison”, p. 215. ↑Note 447 · Cf. Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 279 ff. ↑Note 448 · Taken from Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande Roquette”, II, ch. VIII. See also Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 97 ff. ↑Note 449 · Cf. Manouvrier, “Les crânes des suppliciés” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I), where he shows that the conformation of the skulls of assassins is Note 450 · Pp. 47–48. ↑Note 451 · “Tramping with Tramps”, p. 24. Cf. Moreau, “Le monde des prisons”, p. 621, and Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 163, 164 and 203–206. ↑Note 452 · Cf. Post, “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 116, “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 300–302, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 444. Note 453 · P. 318. ↑Note 454 · For Germany see also H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, p. 18. ↑Note 455 · Pp. 375, 376. ↑Note 456 · Where capitalism is beginning to develop, adulteration, etc., is the order of the day (e.g. in Japan in our day. See “Zeitschr. f. SocialwisNote 457 · See Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894); also Ferriani, “Glückliche und schlaue Verbrecher”, IV. ↑Note 458 · Laschi, op. cit., pp. 72, 73. ↑Note 459 · Laschi, op. cit., p. 106. ↑Note 460 · Laschi, op. cit., pp. 97 ff. ↑Note 461 · Pp. xx and xxi. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. B. Kritschewsky, “Die Korruption in der französischen Demokratie” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVIII2),Note 462 · See Laschi, op. cit., p. 107. [Note to the American Edition: Upon the way in which great fortunes have been amassed, see F. Kummer, “Die GesNote 463 · For descriptions of cases see Zola, “L’argent”, and Wulffen, op. cit., II, p. 334. ↑Note 464 · Laschi, op. cit., p. 180. ↑Note 465 · Pp. 147, 148. ↑Note 466 · P. 128 (in the original, p. 131). ↑Note 467 · Cf. Post, “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 359; Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 257; Lafargue, Note 468 · “Les criminels dans l’art et la littérature”, p. 141. Cf. also Letourneau, “Évolution du mariage”, pp. 282, 283. ↑Note 469 · Pp. 444, 445. ↑Note 470 · Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 13. Cf. A. v. Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, pp. 221, 222; Prof. Tardieu, “Étude médiNote 471 · “Das Verbrechen in seiner Abhängigkeit von dem jährlichen Temperaturwechsel” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, II). ↑Note 472 · See G. v. Mayr, “Gesetzmässigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben”, pp. 239 ff., and “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, pp. 170, 171. ↑Note 473 · “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France”, p. 60. Dr. A. Bournet, in “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 6Note 474 · Socquet, op. cit., pp. 61 and 69. See also Ferri, op. cit., p. 43. ↑Note 475 · Socquet, op. cit., p. 60. ↑Note 476 · Cf. Bournet, op. cit., p. 68, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 567. ↑Note 477 · The first two columns are taken from Bernard, op. cit., p. 569; the last is figured from the “Annuaire statistique de la France”, VII, p. 52Note 478 · “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen in Deutschland in kriminalstatistischer Beleuchtung”, p. 266. Cf. Wittenberg and Wagner, “Die geschlechtlich siNote 479 · See among others Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, pp. 53 and 86. ↑Note 480 · “Actes du congrès pénitentiaire international de Bruxelles.” ↑Note 481 · Loeffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 518–521 (“Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII). ↑Note 482 · P. 113. See also Bournet, op. cit., p. 69. ↑Note 483 · “Crimineele Statistiek voor het jaar 1901”, p. xxvii. ↑Note 484 · “Actes etc.”, p. 167. [Note to the American Edition: Upon the influence of alcohol upon sexual crimes see further Geill, op. cit., p. 362; ANote 485 · “Die Ergebnisse der schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896.” ↑Note 486 · See “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 112; “Die Grundlagen des Rechts etc.”, p. 377; and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 382Note 487 · See among others Garraud and Bernard, “Des attentats à la pudeur et des viols sur les enfants”, pp. 404–405 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I). ↑Note 488 · See Lafargue, p. 293; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., pp. 408–409. ↑Note 489 · Cf. “Reports on the law relating to the protection of young girls”, 1882, p. 37; Dr. Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alNote 490 · Cf. Tardieu, op. cit., pp. 21, 22; Levasseur, “La population française”, II, p. 448; Starke, op. cit., pp. 172, 173. ↑Note 491 · Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 68. ↑Note 492 · In his “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, Bebel gives almost the same proportion for Germany without indicating the source from which he takes Note 493 · Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 432. ↑Note 494 · Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 69. ↑Note 495 · Cf. Bournet, op. cit., pp. 66–68; Socquet, op. cit., p. 73; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 435. ↑Note 496 · The author makes the mistake of omitting here the words “of children.” Statistics show that it is especially the country, where the sexual lNote 497 · P. 43. ↑Note 498 · Op. cit., p. 24. Cf. Tarde, “Penal Philosophy”, p. 355, and Leuss, op. cit., p. 106. ↑Note 499 · Op. cit., p. 36. ↑Note 500 · Cf. Bérard des Glajeux, “Les passions criminelles”, pp. 121, 122. [Note to the American Edition: Additional works that have appeared recentlNote 501 · For a complete enumeration of the motives of crime see: Liszt, “Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”, pp. 490–494 (“Zeitschr.Note 502 · Upon the psychology of vengeance see Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 99 ff. ↑Note 503 · Upon the instinct of vengeance see: A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, pp. 140 ff.; Colajanni, “Sociologia cNote 504 · Cf. Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 558, and Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 135. [Note to the AmNote 505 · See Ferriani, “L’amore in tribunali”, and L. Holtz, “Les crimes passionels”, upon crimes of this class. ↑Note 506 · II, p. 131. ↑Note 507 · “Eskimo Life.” ↑Note 508 · See Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 275. ↑Note 509 · See Steinmetz, op. cit., II, p. 303, and Sutherland, op. cit., I, chap. VIII. ↑Note 510 · It is plain that this influences also those relationships that are not sanctioned by law. ↑Note 511 · There is almost no mention of sexual jealousy where men and women both occupy an independent position. Cf. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 431Note 512 · Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 52–54. ↑Note 513 · Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 147–149. ↑Note 514 · “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 52. ↑Note 515 · In his “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland”, H. Berg shows that crimes against persons in Germany were not influenced by economiNote 516 · [Note to the American Edition: The same is true in the Netherlands. In Austria, Herz has shown a certain relation between the phenomena in qNote 517 · The figures for homicide, etc., are taken from Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, pp. 246–248. The figures for illiterNote 518 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 176 ff., upon the Balkan States, where the crimes in question are very freNote 519 · From Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, p. 49 (“Revue Socialiste”, 1901). ↑Note 520 · The first column is taken from “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1898”, II, pp. 27–30; the second from “Statistisches Jahrbuch f. d. Deutsche ReNote 521 · I have chosen the crime of serious assault, because it is committed especially out of revenge, and because the figures for homicide are too Note 522 · Later I will explain why these figures are added. ↑Note 523 · From Boies, “Science of Penology”, Appendix B. ↑Note 524 · From Ferri, “Atlante dell’omicidio”, pp. 250, 251; the figures for illiteracy are from “Annuario statistico italiano, 1900”, pp. 177, 178. ↑Note 525 · To my regret I have been unable to procure the figures for 1880–1883; the differences between the provinces were, however, probably the sameNote 526 · The first column is from “De crimineele statistiek van 1901”, the second from “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1901”, p. 47Note 527 · Cf. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, pp. 53 and 77; Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, pp. 73 and 167, and “Minderjährige Note 528 · Cf. E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, p. 149. ↑Note 529 · Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 299 ff. ↑Note 530 · Cf. Colajanni, op. cit., p. 39. ↑Note 531 · For Italy, in addition to the official statistics already cited, see Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, pp. 43, 44, 51–52. I have not been aNote 532 · Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 236, and Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp. 34 ffNote 533 · Cf. Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 152. ↑Note 534 · [Note to the American Edition: Later it has been shown that the last remark is perfectly correct. In recent years (about the beginning of thNote 535 · “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 57. Cf. O. Lang, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 50, 51. ↑Note 536 · See A. Baer, “Der Alcoholismus”, pp. 30 ff.; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 52 ff.; Aschaffenburg, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 73–77 (“ZeitNote 537 · “Sociologie criminelle”, p. 222. [Note to the American Edition: Cf. for Germany Bonger, op. cit., pp. 807 ff.; for Austria: Herz, op. cit., Note 538 · The first two columns have been taken from Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 533, 534; the third from Lang, op. cit., p. 43; and the twNote 539 · P. 92. See also Merens, “Over het onderzoek naar den invloed der dronkenschap op de criminaliteit”, pp. 170–200. ↑Note 540 · See the criticism of these methods in Merens, op. cit., pp. 128 ff. ↑Note 541 · Löffler, op. cit., pp. 518–521. ↑Note 542 · Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 85. ↑Note 543 · Masoin, “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 410–414 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”, 1896). [Note 544 · “Actes etc.”, p. 113. [Note to the American Edition: For France see also M. Yvernès, “L’alcoolisme et la criminalité” (“Archives d’anthr. crNote 545 · “Actes etc.”, p. 58. ↑Note 546 · Merens, op. cit., p. 126. ↑Note 547 · Merens, op. cit., p. 107. ↑Note 548 · “Crimineele Statistiek, 1901”, pp. xxvi–xxvii. ↑Note 549 · Wieselgren, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité” (“Actes du Congrès pénitent. de Bruxelles”). ↑Note 550 · P. 36. ↑Note 551 · [Note to the American Edition: In his “Anthropologie der nichtbesitzenden Klassen”, Niceforo defends the thesis that the crimes in question Note 552 · Cf. Steinmetz, op. cit., I, Pt. III. ↑Note 553 · T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend und die besitzenden Klassen in Oesterreich”, p. 171. ↑Note 554 · Socquet, “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France, 1876–1880”, p. 41. ↑Note 555 · Op. cit., p. 36. ↑Note 556 · Cf. Dr. Audiffrent, “Quelques considérations sur l’infanticide”, p. 5 (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, XVII). ↑Note 557 · Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 156; Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp. 164, 165;Note 558 · In his “L’évolution de la morale”, Letourneau points out that in countries where public opinion is very indulgent to female frailty, infantiNote 559 · Cf. Brissot de Warville, “Théorie des lois criminelles”, I, p. 95. Of a literature that has long been copious may be named, especially, the Note 560 · Cf. Sutherland, “Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct”, I, pp. 113 ff. ↑Note 561 · [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon infanticide I would call attention to: W. Gleispach, “Ueber Kindesmord”; A. AmsNote 562 · It seems to me that Lombroso and Laschi extend the conception of political crime too much in making it any revolt against the authorities, aNote 563 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Vallon and Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVIII).] ↑Note 564 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon political crimes in Russia: E. Tarnowsky, “Les crimes politiques en Russie” (“Archives d’anthr. crimNote 565 · See Dubois, “Le péril anarchiste”, pp. 25 ff.; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 256 ff.; and Enthoven, “Het anarchisme van de daad”, chNote 566 · Cf. Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, p. 116. ↑Note 567 · Cf. Hamon, “Psychologie de l’anarchiste-socialiste”, ch. IV. ↑Note 568 · Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, pp. 143, 144. ↑Note 569 · Cf. Seuffert, “Anarchismus und Strafrecht”, pp. 12 ff. ↑Note 570 · Cf. Hamon, op. cit., ch. V, and Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, pp. 131 ff. ↑Note 571 · Some authors claim that active anarchists are ordinary criminals. But see Hamon, op. cit., p. 15. ↑Note 572 · With regard to Caserio see Lacassagne, “L’assassinat du président Carnot”, pp. 535 and 539, and the unsigned article, “Caserio en prison”, bNote 573 · An exposition of the anarchistic theories has been given by Dr. Eltzbacher, “Der Anarchismus”, and a very just critique of this subject is tNote 574 · Tarde, “Les crimes de haine” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, IX, reproduced also in “Essais et mélanges sociologiques”). ↑Note 575 · It is impossible to fix the percentage of these cases, the judges in general not being enough in touch with modern ideas etc. ↑Note 576 · See Benedikt, “Biologie und Kriminalstatistik”, p. 489 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, VII); Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. Note 577 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. R. Gaupp, “Ueber den heutigen Stand der Lehre vom ‘geborenen’ Verbrecher”, and J. Longard, “Ueber ‘Moral Note 578 · See above, pp. 439 ff. Also Patijn, “Atavisme en Misdaad” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafr.”, V). ↑Note 579 · P. 106, “Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, VI. ↑Note 580 · P. 339. In further refutation from the anthropological standpoint see Ch. Féré, “Dégénérescence et criminalité”, ch. V; Manouvrier, “L’ataviNote 581 · Upon the criminal as morally insane see: Baer, op. cit., pp. 380 ff.; Näcke, op. cit., p. 341; and Dallemagne, op. cit., ch. III. Upon the cNote 582 · Cf. Lacassagne and E. Martin, “Des résultats positifs et indiscutables que l’anthropologie criminelle peut fournir à l’élaboration ou l’applNote 583 · Kurella is one of the rare authors who denies this (see “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, pp. 258 ff.). ↑Note 584 · Upon page 107 of the article cited Professor Jelgersma shows that certain really atavistic stigmata found in some criminals are very well exNote 585 · [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: K. Birnbaum, “Die psychopathischen Verbrecher”, and Stelzner, op. cit.] ↑Note 586 · “La famille névropathique”, p. 10. ↑Note 587 · “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 168. ↑Note 588 · Op. cit., p. 102. See also Kende, “Die Entartung des Menschengeschlechts”, p. 34. ↑Note 589 · [Note to the American Edition: Upon the relation between disease and society see the fundamental work “Krankheit und soziale Lage” (edited bNote 590 · “Les causes de la folie”, p. 34. ↑Note 591 · Stinca, “Le milieu social comme facteur pathologique”, p. 148 (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894). ↑Note 592 · See Féré, “La famille névropathique”, pp. 133 ff. ↑Note 593 · “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 155. ↑Note 594 · Cf. Maudsley, “The Physiology and Pathology of Mind”, pp. 232, 233. ↑Note 595 · Quoted by Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 71, 72. ↑Note 596 · Cf. Zadek, “Die Achtstundentag eine gesundheitliche Forderung”, pp. 12 ff. ↑Note 597 · Quoted by Lux, p. 173. See also Toulouse, op. cit., p. 68. ↑Note 598 · See Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 312 ff. ↑Note 599 · Cf. Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 196. ↑Note 600 · Upon the relation of the condition of the poorer classes to degeneracy, cf. Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose” (“Devenir Social”, I) and “LesNote 601 · Cf. Toulouse, op. cit., p. 86, and Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose”, p. 630. ↑Note 602 · Pp. 103, 104. ↑Note 603 · Op. cit., pp. 233–235. ↑Note 604 · Cf. Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, p. 412; Näcke, op. cit., p. 156; Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose”, p. 629. Toulouse, op. cit., p.Note 605 · Cf. Toulouse, op. cit., pp. 224 ff. ↑Note 606 · “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 33; see also by the same author, “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”, pp. 7 ff.Note 607 · “Hygiene der Prostitution etc.” p. 35. Above we have seen that prostitution increases and diminishes with the fluctuations of economic condiNote 608 · Cf. Hellpach, “Der Kampf gegen die Geschlechtskrankheiten”, p. 197 (“Sozialistische Monatshefte”, VII). ↑Note 609 · Blaschko, “Die Prostitution etc.”, p. 32. ↑Note 610 · “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 167. ↑Note 611 · Some authorities are of the opinion that children conceived during a state of intoxication run the danger of being degenerates; others, howeNote 612 · “Conséquences sociales de l’alcoolisme des ascendants au point de vue de la dégénérescence, de la morale et de la criminalité”, pp. 160–165 Note 613 · See Toulouse, op. cit., pp. 163–167; and Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 220. ↑Note 614 · See Toulouse, op. cit., p. 178. ↑