CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS

ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS

ARTIFACTS[20] RECONSTRUCTION OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FEATURES RECONSTRUCTION OF RELIGIOUS, ARTISTIC, AND RECREATIONAL FEATURES

PALEO-INDIAN PHASE 50,000(?)-8000 B.C.(?)

Narrow leaf-shaped spearheads Folsom points Clovis points Stone hammer (?) Flint scrapers (?) Personal ornaments (?) Thrusting weapons Simple family (?) Lineage in male line (?) Big game hunting Roving habits following herd Temporary camps Energy sources for labor, travel and transportation wholly human Religion based on spirits, mana and on the chief game species hunted (?)

ARCHAIC PHASE 8000-2500 B.C.

Stone hammers, rough or pitted Broad barbed flint spearheads Flint dartheads Flint scrapers Flint awls Chipped choppers Spearthrower (atlatl) weights Grooved stone axes (ground) Ground stone celts Chipped flint digging tools (hoes) Small area settlement sites in the open Rock shelters Post holes in line Necklaces and pendants Plummets Copper tools Dog bones Bone-awls Whet- or abrading stones Bannerstones (with cylindrical hole) Flexed burials in Medial and Terminal subculture Projectile weapon Hunting of deer and small mammals and collecting edible plants, clams, etc. Technologies: flint-chipping, pecking, grinding and polishing of stone, grinding and polishing bone, boring bone and stone with flint drills and with tube, sand and water, making string (from hides and [?] plant-fibers), weaving (?), basket-making (?) Dog the only domesticated animal Marriage Family Extended family or lineage “Independent” local groups Windbreaks or flimsy shelters Family hunting territory Rotating hamlet Non-political tribe “Family-type” social control Puberty rites (Initiation ceremonies) Tribal elders and temporary headmen Insignia possibly as social acceptance of personal achievement, or as family crest Belief in friendly and ancestral spirits, in mana and in revelation by vision or dream Sacred tradition (“mythology”) The shaman—intercessor with spirits and healer of sick—magic medicines Fertility ceremonies—to insure abundant game and to perpetuate sacred traditions Recreational activities and creative arts practiced chiefly in connection with religious ceremonies Funeral rites for all deceased tribal members Socially important persons on death given special care and preparation for burial, and possibly buried in a specially selected place Mourning period for dead Food and grave offerings left especially for important dead

INITIAL (WOODLAND) PHASE 1500-500 B.C.

Elongated globular pots with pointed (conoidal) bases Copper ornaments Burial mounds and cemeteries Probably very similar to Archaic Copper breastplate or gorgets Socially important persons buried in mounds (?) Very similar to Archaic Dog graves in burial mounds

ADVANCED (WOODLAND) PHASE 1000(?)-100(?) B.C.

Numerous storage pits containing acorn and hickory nut remains Medium-sized settlement sites Post holes outlining a square area Post holes outlining a circular or oval area Flat-bottomed flaring-walled Woodland pots (“flower pots”) Polished stone gorgets Burials in settlement sites Storage of acorns, nuts and seeds Larger population concentrations of perhaps a 100 or 150 persons Semi- to permanent log dwellings, logs upright Possibly insignia or badges of leadership or individual prowess Religion probably transitional between Archaic and plant-raising types

CLASSIC (WOODLAND) PHASE [HOPEWELLIAN] 500 B.C.-500 A.D.

Chipped limonite hoes Charred maize kernels and cobs (and in Ohio, beans and squash seeds) Cloth and feather cloth remains Basketry, matting and colored textile impressions Marine shell vessels Tortoise shell dishes River mussel shell spoons with “handles” Excellent polished black and painted pottery with occasional variation of form—shallow bowls, beakers, effigy and globular shapes A coarser duty Woodland ware with elongated bodies and pointed or flattened bases Large areas with village refuse and numerous mounds Post holes outlining an oval or circular area (rare) Pottery statuettes showing dress and ornaments worn Jewelry of copper, silver, meteoric iron, cut and polished shell beads, small marine shells, bears teeth sometimes set with copper, pearls or colorful stones, etc. Ear ornaments of copper, etc. Marine shells from south Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of United States Mica from North Carolina Obsidian from Wyoming (?) Copper from Lake Superior region Galena from northwestern Illinois Native pearls from river clams Gorgets of stone, shell and copper (breastplates) Pearls and ground shell beads distributed over the torso of skeleton Deer antlers near human skull in grave Cut maxillaries (more rarely mandibles) of bear or man on skeletons as if worn as pendants Cassis madagascarensis shell vessels Copper hatchets and adzes etc. Platform type tobacco pipes Medium to large “dome-shaped” burial mounds enclosing Log (rarely stone) tomb chambers Bundle burials and ossuaries in mounds with central tomb (northern Illinois) Cemeteries near mounds (southern Illinois) Bodies buried generally in extended position rarely flexed and often accompanied by pots, weapons and artistic products “Pipes of Pan” Beautifully chipped broad spearheads of special subtypes Effigy dagger with sheath made from bears’ teeth Planting-raising economy supplemented by hunting and collecting Crops: Maize, beans, squash, tobacco Weaving of cloth, basket- and mat-making Clothing: Wrap-around-skirt for women, breech cloth for men, supplemented by robes in cold weather, feather cloth robes in ceremonies. Mocassins for women and probably for men. Large villages (or clusters of villages) as well as small settlements The wigwam (for lower classes?) Possibly log cabin dwellings for highest social class, logs laid horizontal as in tomb chambers Rise of wealth, rich and extensive trade Dug-out boats (?) Two or three social classes seem to be indicated by burial customs Chiefs—a political form of government, with some of the clans, possibly bear, wolverine and bobcat, predominant in certain areas A tribe organized either politically or into clans with subsidiary districts or villages and political or clan chiefs. Chiefs may have worn deer antler headdresses. Chiefs probably wore feather headdresses, feather cloth robes, mantles embroidered with pearls shells and cut shell beads, and other insignia of office. Tomb chambers probably for chiefs with relatives and retainers slain to accompany them Chief person in tomb sometimes woman (May indicate matrilineal descent or simply ranking woman of highest caste) Maxillary (jaw) pendants worn maybe as trophies of war and hunt, or to indicate clan of a chief (?) Doubtless the pipe served (as it did later) as a safe conduct to visiting officials, travellers and traders, and a signature and seal to important agreements whether economic, political or intertribal Probably a formalized religion based on the chief food plant, maize Regularly appointed priests The priest probably wore feather robes and insignia of rank and position Religion probably included ceremonies connected with plant- or maize-raising Deities or gods with special powers related to food-raising, etc. The spring or planting festival The green corn or first fruits festival The harvest festival and perhaps minor festivals revolving about the deer High-ranking priests were probably of the highest caste and their bodies given special care on death, elaborate funeral ceremonies and burial in the tomb chambers of mounds, with tribal mourning Beautiful pipes either with or without long wooden items probably figured largely in the religious ceremonies Shamans probably still practiced the healing art (and black magic). They probably used herbals instead of mineral medicines High development of art in pottery, ceramic, copper and stone sculpture, in engraving on bone in personal adornment and technological expertness

FINAL (WOODLAND) PHASE 200(?)-1000 A.D.

Boatstones and bar “amulets” L-shaped pipe, long-stemmed Crude flint arrowheads Flexed and semi-flexed skeletons in mound graves and tomb chambers Except for above, much like Initial Phase Spear and spearthrower still the chief weapon, weights tied (?) to spearthrower Small hamlets Bow and arrow known but as yet ineffective as a practical weapon Otherwise very similar to Initial Phase Religion probably with shamans rather than priests and a mixture of Initial and Classic Phase religious beliefs and practices and superstitions Some considerable sanctity probably still attached to tobacco, tobacco smoke and the pipe Shamans undoubtedly still practiced the healing arts (as well as black magic) and possibly simple religious rites

MIDDLE (MISSISSIPPI) PHASE 1000-1500 A.D.

Hoes of chipped flint and numerous digging tools Charred maize kernels and cobs Large settlement areas with flat-topped pyramidal mounds, with cabin remains on summits, surrounded by palisade remains in low ridges of earth Post holes and/or trenches outlining rectangular house floors. Fired clay from wattle and daub structure, burned house with charred thatch, timbers, rafters, mats, etc. Fire pits or fireplaces within house Fine polished black and painted wares with globular and flattened globular bodies, in many shapes—water bottles, shallow bowls, beakers, ollas or jars and effigy forms An excellent, dull-gray service ware with similar varieties of shapes An excellent storage ware of medium to large size, chiefly globular in form Busycon, marginella, olivella shells from south Atlantic and Gulf Coasts Copper from Lake Superior region Busycon dippers and drinking cups L-shaped pipe (“equal armed” and and medium long-stemmed varieties) Massive effigy stone pipes Skeletons, in extended positions, (distributed) in single and multiple graves throughout mounds and in cemeteries Pottery Vessels, weapon heads, jewelry, and polished stone discoidals, etc. associated with skeletons Shell gorgets engraved with realistic and conventional designs Repoussee copper eagle gorgets or plaques Copper sheeted ornaments and jewelry of pottery, bone, shell, wood and leather Polished stone disks or “wheels” Ground and squared astragalus bone of deer and elk Intensive maize growing with other crops supplemented by hunting Repeating weapon (bow and arrows) Energy sources for labor and transportation still entirely human The finer pottery and burials in mounds and cemeteries may reflect class differences. The extension of the pottery shapes from the fine black ware to the less decorative service ware may indicate an improvement of lower class conditions over those in Hopewellian times Clothing much like Hopewellian in general styles Large villages, small cities and small villages Large centers or cities had temples and tribal officers’ cabins on flat-topped mounds, and were protected by palisades and/or mud walls Dwellings semi- to permanent, with rectangular floors, vaulted or gabled roofs of thatch, walls consisting of vertical posts, wattle and daub construction, covered inside and out with mats, sometimes possibly bark-covered. Cabin remains numerous. Dug-out boats (?) Wealth considerable. Trade in fewer materials than in Hopewellian Two or three social classes present in population as in Hopewellian Probably a political government with tribal and war chiefs and village chiefs. Head tribal chief may have been chief priest also, or a member of his family may have filled later office. War chief probably also member of ruling caste (as among Natchez). Other war chiefs probably of other classes, rank based on their past deeds Tribal and war chief. In some villages, village chief possibly had dwellings on pyramid tops Headdresses, probably with feathers, and regalia, including feather-cloth robes were probably worn on tribal occasions of importance Calumet pipe doubtless served as safe conduct to travellers and visiting officials, as seal and signature to important agreements. Effigy stone pipes may have been Middle Phase calumet pipe since it had to be smoked with a stem War parties still of simple or no organization except leader and followers, object to take prisoners but not territory Religious ceremonial centers or cities existed to which outlying smaller village populations journeyed for religious festivals Priesthood with appropriate dress and regalia Temples or sacred groves for worship Religion with deities having special powers relating to maize-growing. Veneration or worship of ancestors Spring, first fruits, and harvest festivals Tobacco smoke, tobacco pipes used in ceremonies as incense offerings Athletic games form part of ceremonies Shamans still exist but chiefly for healing, etc. as among Hopewellians High-ranking officials and priests buried in graves in mounds. Usual preparation of body, burial, mourning periods, elaborated proportionately to the rank of the deceased. Art well developed Games of chance were probably known and played

UPPER PHASE 1100(?)-1600 A.D.

Note: These are fringe groups in relation to Middle and Lower phases, living in more wooded regions perhaps, where game was especially abundant and topography less favorable to plant-raising by a backward culture and where the social impetus for high cultural development was largely lacking Artifacts are a mixture of Woodland and Mississippi types Generally a single pottery ware with both elongated and globular pots is characteristic and there is little other specialization of form A hunting-collecting economy with plant-raising probably in garden-like plots Large and small villages A social development similar to but simpler than the Middle Phase, probably a combination of Woodland and Mississippi elements A religion based on plant-raising but probably with considerable emphasis on chief animals hunted. Sacred groves and shrines, possibly temples in some of larger villages No pyramidal mounds Dead buried in mounds and in cemeteries

CONTACT PHASE (ILLINI) 1673-1833 A.D.

Note: The artifacts of all tribes in the historic period probably became gradually much the same regardless of their prior cultural status due to deterioration of native technology and trading of furs for European tools, weapons, cloth, etc. Arrowheads of chipped flint, and native-made of European copper, brass or iron Numerous trade articles such as glass beads, gun parts, copper or brass kettles, bottles for wine, olives, etc. and other objects of European production Native stone molds and cast lead balls (for guns) and native chipped gun flints Rectangular L-shaped (“Siouan type”) pipes of catlinite and other stone. Micmac pipes after 1700. Bow and arrows preferred in war because they could be discharged more rapidly than gun could be loaded and fired. Guns and ammunition often not available Little knowledge of proper care of guns, and no attempt to manufacture guns and powder, or iron knives, copper kettles, etc. Society largely disorganized, prestige of chiefs largely a matter of personal prowess and reputation with some regard for earlier methods of appointment and succession. Religion practiced by a fraction of tribe but falling into dispute without adequate substitute Probably appointment and succession of priests more or less regular and based on earlier customs.

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