CONTENTS

Introductory (p. vii-xi)

The meaning of the title of this book, “The Secrets of a Great Cathedral,” is briefly explained.

The “Secrets” include the leading questions which are often put to the writer, who is the chief custodian of a great pile, partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, as to the signification and origin of certain prominent features of an important Mediæval Church.

These questions include the meaning and history of the term Romanesque architecture, sometimes mistakenly termed Norman.

The Lady Chapel.—The circumstances are discussed at some length, which gave rise to this comparatively late addition in the planning of a great church or abbey.

The Crypt.—A reply is given to the query—whence comes this remarkable and little understood feature in many of the cathedrals, abbeys and large churches—a feature only found in the churches of Western Christendom.

The Cloister.—The history of the “Cloister” is given with some detail—a sketch of what it evidently replaced is briefly written—some of the early criticisms on the elaborate ornamentation of Cloisters are discussed.

S. Petronilla.—This strange memory of a once famous, but now forgotten Saint—a memory which belongs especially to Gloucester Cathedral—is referred to. The true history of this Saint is sketched out.

Romanesque Architecture

“Romanesque” a modern term—When first used—General signification of the word 3

Romanesque—really a falling back on the ante-classical style of Roman architecture—Freeman’s definition—Parts of Diocletian’s palace of Spalatro, the earliest known example of Romanesque, where the Greek feature of the entablature is cast away, and the arches rest on capitals of columns 4

A brief review of the architectural story of Romanesque between the fourth and eleventh centuries—How Ravenna, from days of Honorius, became a great Art capital—The splendid Romanesque churches of Ravenna in the days of her glory—A list of Ravennese churches which have been preserved 6

After the Lombard conquest, a period of darkness in the Art world of Italy and the West set in—Renaissance of Art under the Lombard Queen Theodolinda—Two hundred years of Lombard rule—Who were the builders under the Lombards 13

History and appearance of the Comacine Guild of Architects 14

The remains of earlier Comacine work under the Lombards—Lombard Comacine work under Charlemagne 19

Romanesque, or the round-arch style, develops and penetrates into Gaul and even as far as England 20

The Byzantine-domed Basilica. (A Note.) 20

England. Lombardic work traced—its slow advance and progress before the Norman Conquest 22

Germany. Little traces of early Romanesque save in the Palace-chapel of Aix-la-Chapelle 22

The rare examples in Germany before the eleventh century—a few examples quoted, however, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries 24

Gaul—France. Tells us very little of Romanesque Art for many centuries, although there were many important buildings in the fourth and fifth centuries—We learn this from Sidonius Apollinaris, Gregory of Tours, etc. Very few Romanesque remains, however, exist dating from Merovingian and Carlovingian times 24

Something had happened in Gaul between the sixth and eleventh centuries to account for the absence of remains of early churches. In truth, the country was subjected, in a special degree, to disastrous invasions—by sea and land. (1) The Saracens. (2) The Northmen—Catalogue of devastated cities at hands of Northmen—Special reason for the complete destruction of churches in these raids—Rare facilities for these raids in Gaul 25

At the end of the tenth century, comparative stillness prevailed in France—Settlement of Northmen in Normandy and Northern France—We have in the eleventh and twelfth centuries many Romanesque buildings—not a few of an elaborate type 28

Varieties of Romanesque in the different Gallic provinces—Thus we find in Aquitaine and in the South-West the influence of Byzantine art very conspicuous, especially in the domed churches 29

In Provence Romanesque was largely inspired by memories of Imperial Rome—Here we find few examples of domed churches 30

In Toulouse—and generally in Languedoc—exist fewer remains of Romanesque churches, owing to the Albigensian wars, so disastrous to the cities and their buildings 30

In Auvergne. A peculiar feature here in the Romanesque remains is the polychrome masonry of the ornamentation—The beautiful cloisters of Puy 31

Burgundy. The home “par excellence” of Monasticism so important in the eleventh century—especially in Cluny and Citeaux—The busy workshop of Cluny—The remarkable porches of certain of the churches—Progress of the new feature of vaulting—The vast Church of Cluny—Simplicity of Citeaux—its example is followed by the countless daughter Cistercian churches 31

The Royal Domain (l’Ile de France). Its narrow limits at first—Few Romanesque remains are found here owing to special ravages of the North-folk—The “Royal Domain” is greatly enlarged under Philip Augustus—It became the “cradle” of French Gothic—List of mighty Gothic cathedrals mostly completed in the thirteenth century 32

(In a Note.) Romanesque continued to hold its own in other provinces longer than in the Royal Domain—In the Royal Domain Gothic architecture superseded at an earlier date the older Romanesque type 33

Norman-Romanesque

Norman-Romanesque—Its origin and rise—William of Volpiano the Lombard, a monk of Cluny—At the end of the tenth century he became Abbot and re-builder of S. Benignus of Dijon—His fame and story—Invited by Duke Richard II of Normandy, who appointed him Abbot of Fécamp—William of Volpiano and his pupils’ work in Normandy—Lombardic style generally followed with certain differences—List of some of the work of his school in Normandy. Lanfranc further develops it—His Church of S. Etienne at Caen—Some features of Norman work—It passed over into England with the Conqueror—Great development of Norman-Romanesque work in England—The enormous number and great size of churches and abbeys built under the influence of the Norman kings of England—Reasons for this building passion here—The famous English abbeys of expiation—all built under Norman inspiration 33

A brief recapitulation of the story of Romanesque from the beginning of the fourth century—Ravenna—Coming of the Lombards—Charlemagne, and the dark age which followed—Cluny and William of Volpiano—His school of architecture 40

Norman-Romanesque—A few words on the work of the Comacine Guild is repeated—Norman-Romanesque passes into England—Its glory—Variations in its style—One novel and important feature alluded to 41

On the Comacine symbol of Solomon’s knot—The interlaced line—Its meaning—Copied but not understood by Byzantine artists 45

Comacine symbol of the Lion of Judah 47

Romanesque—The Campanile or Bell Tower

The Lombardic Romanesque Campanile Towers—the ancestors of the countless Bell Towers and Steeples of the Middle Ages—The Tower of San Satiro Milan, ninth century, probably the oldest example—The Campaniles of the ancient Ravenna churches, all of later date than the churches to which they are adjuncts 47

The Liturgical use of Bells—Goes back to the fifth century—Their use became gradually more marked—Their use at a later date in the East 48

Normandy especially famous for its Bells and Towers—Durandus of Mende on the symbolism of Bells—his fanciful derivations 50

After the eleventh century the Bell became of greater importance—A short sketch of its history in the fifteenth century—The Bell now attained its great dimensions 51

List of the more famous Bells in the present day 53

A few dates generally illustrative of Romanesque architecture 53

The Passing of Romanesque

A few memoranda on the transition of Romanesque into Gothic—The term “Gothic” a misnomer—Adopted in the Renaissance period as a term of reproach—Curious fallacy of Evelyn and others here—The term “Gothic” remained, though the old opprobrium was gradually removed—Gothic is really perfected Romanesque 54

Some of the new principles in Gothic architecture lightly sketched—The walls are slighter—The buttress now introduced—It does the work of the massive walls—The pointed arch—a principal outward and visible sign—This, however, really no new feature, for in the East it had been long used. The yet greater outward and visible feature of Gothic windows—More light needed for interiors—Glass, too, became less costly in twelfth and thirteenth centuries—Progress of art in stained glass demanded larger windows—The walls might now, owing to the support of buttresses, be safely pierced with large openings 56

Elaborate tracery in transoms and mullions of windows 58

On the deeper inner meaning of Gothic architecture—France, as the original home of Gothic, selected as example here 59

The exterior of great French cathedrals somewhat sacrificed to interior—where exceeding height was aimed at—Contrast with English great churches—The French cathedrals represent one continuous design, different to English cathedrals—Gloucester a good example here—where no one design exists, but original plan was constantly changed and added to 60

The French builders of the great cathedrals believed that in their wonderful height lay in part the secret of inspiring the worshippers with awe and reverence 62

As they built, their cathedrals were made higher and higher. The “splendid folly” of Beauvais was the climax of their striving here 62

The Beauvais Cathedral work briefly described 62

The Triforium

The question is often asked—What is the meaning and use of the great Triforium gallery? 67

Suggested derivation of the word “Triforium”—Was a Triforium ever found in the great ancient churches of the West (in Latin Christianity)? 67

The real story of the reason of its appearance in the planning of an important church 68

Note on Rivoira’s theory of a Pagan origin for this Byzantine feature of a great church 68

The inquirer must go back to the age of Justinian, when the Basilicas of Constantinople and Salonica, etc., were built. In these great churches we ever find a gallery exclusively intended for women 68

In the Eastern Church the sexes were as a rule kept separate at Divine worship—Not so in the West—This separation was never a “Latin use.” Thus we never find a women’s gallery in the churches of Gaul and Italy, except these buildings were erected under direct Byzantine influences 69

But, strangely enough, the Triforium reappears in the West, especially in Anglo-Norman Romanesque, where it is a marked feature, although the original purpose for which it was designed no longer existed 70

Suggestions as to its possible use in these great later Romanesque piles: (1) Was it an ornamental architectural device? (2) Was it connected with pilgrimage—as affording a longer and more interesting procession for pilgrims? Neither of these suggestions, however, is fully satisfactory 71

General summary of the story of a Triforium 71

The reason for the Anglo-Norman reappearance of the Triforium must remain a mystery 72

The strange but remarkable theory of Mr. Hutton in his Ravenna is quoted 73

The Lady Chapel

Position of the Blessed Virgin Mary—In the New Testament, and in the oldest Liturgies—Estimate in the Eastern Church in the first half of sixth century 77

In the Western Church, in the days of Gregory the Great, the honour paid to her became more accentuated 78

Men thought much on the state of the blessed dead—Gradual multiplication of Saints, almost deified in prayer—These were regarded as more accessible to prayer than the Persons of the ever blessed Trinity—Among these Saints, the Virgin Mary occupied naturally the chief position—Devotion to her gradually became a special cult 78

This cult was introduced into the life of the people, mainly through the Crusades—Chivalry in its religious aspect, especially in its regard for women, was one result of these strange wars, and the Virgin Mary became the object of passionate devotion to the great Crusading hosts 79

Detailed explanation of this—To her every Crusader looked for success in war—From the soldiers of the Crusading armies this passionate devotion passed to the people 80

Soon every important church after the period of the Crusades had its “Mary Chapel”—Hymns were written; Liturgies in her name were introduced—Thus a new adoration was added to Christian teaching—Ever higher and higher was the estimate conceived of her—The Lady Chapel soon became an important feature in a great church 81

The magnificent Gloucester Lady Chapel is a conspicuous and late example of this development in church planning 81

A marked impulse was given to this novel cult in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries through the teaching of the Mendicant Orders, Franciscans and Dominicans; the Dominicans especially professed an intense devotion to the Virgin Mary—The famous “Rosary” prayer, which still holds its own, was “revealed” to S. Dominic—Yet some of the greatest mediæval masters, notably S. Bernard of Clairvaux, shrank from the extreme development of this strange novel cult 82

Art—its powerful testimony to the growth of this teaching 83

The rare Catacomb pictures give it little or no support—In the very ancient Christian sarcophagi no prominent place is given to the Virgin Mary—Even in the ninth and tenth centuries, when the Crucifixion was often depicted in sculpture, the Virgin Mary and S. John are simply represented on either side of the Redeemer’s Cross 84

But in the middle of the twelfth century a marked change is noticeable—In sculpture or in painted glass, the Virgin Mary appears enthroned and crowned, with the Infant Christ in her arms 84

In the thirteenth century the Virgin Mary becomes a central figure—sometimes, though not always, with the Divine Child in her arms. But clearly it is to her that adoration was specially offered. And in the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, she appears in stained glass, in sculpture, in hymns and liturgies, portrayed as Queen of Heaven 85

A Short Appendix on certain remarkable Features in the Lady Chapel at Gloucester

The east end of this great annexe to the cathedral, different to the original east end, is square-ended, not apsidal. It possesses also two little transepts. These are peculiarly English features 85

The square-ended form for churches was the ancient British “use,” and represents an independent tradition different to the Italian Basilican tradition of an apsidal or semi-circular end 86

The square end was general in the Irish oratories or little churches of remote antiquity, a few of which still remain. These were, of course, small and rough copies of the British churches which were all destroyed by the North-folk invaders in the fifth century. The only exception to this plan of the square end seems to have been in churches frequented by the Roman colonists and officials—Silchester is an example of these 86

After the coming of Augustine, A.D. 597, naturally the Italian apsidal end was introduced—But the old vogue of the traditional square end was rooted in the hearts of the dwellers in this Island, and largely reappeared in Saxon times 88

After the coming of the Normans, again, the apsidal end was adopted. But gradually the square end superseded the Italian apsidal end re-introduced by the Normans—A list is given of great English churches which now possess the square end—The exceptions are, comparatively speaking, rare 88

On the Continent of Europe the square end is hardly ever found. The few generally unimportant exceptions are quoted, and special causes are adduced for most of these exceptions 89

In England, the Abbey (Cathedral) of Gloucester is one of the notable exceptions—It has ever possessed an apsidal end 90

But in 1457 when the present vast Lady Chapel was built, the architect determined to give it the square end—thus giving to the ancient abbey the original British form, which hitherto it had lacked 90

Another peculiar English use was the double transept. This, too, was added in the Lady Chapel, in the two little so-called Chantry Chapels of the Lady Chapel—Thus Gloucester in its latest additions became possessed of both the English special features—the square end, and the double eastern transepts 91

The recent discovery of two little churches on the north-west coast of Cornwall, hitherto buried in the sand, both dating from about A.D. 450. These lost churches are apparently the only survivors of the old British churches which were destroyed in the invasions of the North-folk—hence their importance. Some account of these long-lost Cornish churches or oratories is given. Both of these are built with the square end 91

The Crypt

Meaning of the principal terms used in this chapter, viz. Crypt, Confessio, Memoria, Cubiculum, Catacomb—the last of these terms a curious misnomer 97

All the early and mediæval crypts are a “Memory” of the Crypt or Tomb of S. Peter 97

The “Memoria” of Anacletus built over the Tomb of S. Peter 97

Of the origin of the most celebrated of the Basilicas of Rome—They were all built over some famous martyr’s or confessor’s tomb 99

Of the “vogue” of the Crypt in the early Middle Ages—A few examples are given—This popular “vogue” came to an end about A.D. 1144—Reason for this giving up of the Crypt as part of the plan of important churches 101

The Crypt was entirely an ancient Latin and Western use—It never entered into the plan of the churches in the East—Reasons for this—It belonged exclusively to the Western School of Romanesque—In the later Middle Ages there were no Gothic crypts—In the early Mediæval age, a crypt was often planned in accordance with the vogue or fashion, even if no saint’s or martyr’s remains were interred in it—Gloucester Crypt is an example of this practice 103

The Crypt of S. Peter, Rome. The Story of the famous “Mother” Crypt

The Crypt or Tomb of S. Peter with the “Memoria” of Anacletus above it, was the great object of all Western pilgrimage—it set the vogue in the planning of crypts in important churches in the West from the fourth century onwards 105

Position of Rome after the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 as the centre of Christendom, and chief object of pilgrimage from all lands 105

Position held by S. Peter (1) at Rome, (2) in all foreign Christian lands—The witness here of early Christian writers—Traditional memories of the Apostle at Rome 106

The respective estimation of the two Roman Basilicas of SS. Peter and Paul 107

Early pilgrimages to the Tomb of S. Peter—What was the “Memoria” of Bishop Anacletus of Rome?—The sacred graves prepared by Anacletus round the Tomb of S. Peter for the dead who were laid there 108

How the little “Memoria” of Anacletus grew into the lordly Basilica of S. Peter 108

The work of the Emperor Constantine in the Crypt of S. Peter 109

Description of the Crypt after the work of Constantine—How access to the sarcophagus of the Apostle was preserved for several centuries 111

S. Gregory of Tours’ account of a visit of a pilgrim to the Tomb of S. Peter—Detailed examination of S. Gregory of Tours’ account 113

Of the costly offerings to the Tomb from A.D. 579 and onwards 114

Visits of Charlemagne and of the Emperor Louis II (A.D. 845) to the Tomb 115

How the sarcophagus was concealed before the expected plundering raid of the Saracens 115

The magnificent sanctuary above the Tomb was partly restored by S. Leo IV and his successors, but never again was there any access to the Tomb itself—During the works connected with the Basilica of the new S. Peter, the sarcophagus was seen by Pope Clement VIII and three of his Cardinals 116

The little cemetery or group of graves prepared by Anacletus, discovered in the course of the works carried on under Urban VIII in the seventeenth century when the foundations of the great bronze Baldachino, or canopy over the High Altar, of Bernini were being strengthened 118

Description of the Baldachino of S. Peter’s—The care taken of the sacred graves after the discovery—A detailed description of the little cemetery of Anacletus 119

Official memoranda of Ubaldi, Canon of S. Peter’s, made during the excavation works 119

Of the present state of the cemetery of Anacletus round the Tomb of S. Peter 120

What was found there is carefully detailed in Ubaldi’s memoranda 121

The Cloister

After the Peace of the Church, in the fourth and fifth centuries, a court or open space, in the case of the principal churches, was arranged in front of the chief entrance—This was sometimes known as “Paradisus”—In time this “outer court,” for various reasons, was removed to a more secluded place at the side of the church or abbey, and then the court in question reappeared as the Claustrun (cloister, close)—Round this court were erected various buildings—such as a school—and dwellings and offices for the ministers of the church, etc., were erected 127

In the late years of the tenth century, after the great revival of monastic life at Cluny, the cloister of the Middle Ages attained its supreme importance—It was the place where the dwellers in the religious House spent much of their time in literary work, and in teaching—One general plan seems to have been usually adopted in the cloisters on the Continent as in England 129

A description of a cloister and its surroundings 130

The adornment of these cloisters was not unfrequently very elaborate—Examples are cited of such ornamentation 131

Early criticism of such elaborate adornment 131

Apologia for this beautiful monastic work 132

The great debt that men owe to the monk-scribes and scholars, who through a disturbed and war-harassed age preserved and transcribed all that we possess now of ancient classical and of early Christian literature 133

A sketch of the austere conditions under which these monk-scribes worked in these cloisters 134

Cassiodorus’ comment on the importance of monastic transcribing labours 135

Durandus, Bishop of Mende—On the symbolism of a cloister 136

Note, with sketch of the vast influence of this once widely-read author 136

Appendix

On the curious traces of mediæval popular games played by novices and pupils of the monastery, recently noticed in certain cloisters—of which the Gloucester Cloister is a notable example 137

Appendix on S. Petronilla’s Altar (the earliest historical detail existing in connection with the Abbey of Gloucester) 138

How we first hear of S. Petronilla in the monastic records of Gloucester of the year 710—and 735—Leland refers to this curious “entry” in the story of the abbey 138

Who now was S. Petronilla?—Bishop Lightfoot’s theory—Baronius and later De Rossi and other Italian scholars differ here from Lightfoot, though they, too, shrink from acknowledging her undoubted parentage 139

A probably true version of S. Petronilla’s story—Testimony of Siricius, Bishop of Rome A.D. 391, to the lofty position evidently held by this saint in the estimation of the early Church 139

The wanderings of the remains of S. Petronilla—At first they were laid in the Basilica of Siricius on the Via Ardeatina—Then on the request of Pepin the Frankish king they were removed for safety to the little Rotunda Chapel close to the side of the Basilica of S. Peter—This little chapel was an Imperial Mausoleum 141

The special veneration in which this saint was held by the Frankish people, no doubt was owing to her being considered the veritable daughter of S. Peter 142

The Rotunda Chapel, where her remains were deposited, was pulled down when new S. Peter’s was being built, and then for many years the sarcophagus of S. Petronilla lay neglected in the sacristy of the new Church of S. Peter 142

The sarcophagus now rests in the great Basilica of S. Peter at the end of the right transept—in a small chapel called S. Petronilla’s 142

The only other English reference to this saint, once so greatly honoured, is in the dedication of the Church of Whepstead, near Bury S. Edmunds, where the name is strangely abbreviated to S. Parnel 143

Index 144