Part 2 — ASSOCIATIONS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT IDEAS
Reading edition
BY BIRD T. BALDWIN
The purpose of the following investigation was to study the influence of two or more starting-points on the train of associated ideas. It was begun in October, 1902, and concluded in January, 1905. Nineteen graduate students acted as subjects, and the experiments were conducted with each individually for one hour per week, except in a few instances where two subjects were present together. Occasionally the experimenter acted as subject in order to get a clearer insight into introspective data. There are recorded here thirteen groups of one hundred and eight sections, including eight hundred and fifty-five separate experiments, with a sum total of eleven thousand, one hundred and thirty-five named associations.
So far the field has not been studied experimentally, although Cordes,[133] while attempting to observe the effect of an unconscious intermediating factor in 'mediate association,' noticed that the accompanying factor (particularly with a tone) sometimes combined with the starting-point in determining the associated series. The fact is simply mentioned, and Scripture's[134] conclusions from the same are inadequate when he states, "In general we may say that two simultaneous ideas have an effect that depends on their relative masses; if one of the ideas is over-poweringly weighty the next idea will be chiefly influenced by it, but if the two are nearly balanced the next idea will be the result of the two." Miss Calkins[135] makes a near approach to the problem in a study of "Mental Combination," where auditory words were given as nearly simultaneously as possible and the subject was required to remain for four seconds in silence and then to write the train of imagery which passed in six following seconds; the words as auditory starting-points were finally excluded from the experiments "because the first word pronounced tends often to establish itself so firmly that its association-images are proof against the intrusion of the second word, which has therefore no chance to be grasped with the first." These results differ from the ones here recorded which were obtained independently and under different conditions. In her valuable monograph on Association[136] there is in one instance a suggestion of the problem, but no results are given.
The two or more starting-points were nonsense syllables, concrete or abstract words, pronounced by the investigator or shown on cards, or finally, pictures. The associations continued for a period of fifty seconds unless otherwise indicated. The same letters denote the same subjects throughout all the experiments, K. and R. being women. In the examples given, Roman numbers have been used, in place of the letters, as it was found impossible to get representative series which were entirely devoid of personal references.
After the associations had been "jotted down," the subjects in each case copied them, noting also the suggesting ideas, and giving, in many cases, a number of introspective notes. It is important to mention that in all of the work these records of suggesting ideas were made by the subjects without any questions on the part of the investigator.
GROUP I. TWO NONSENSE SYLLABLES
In order that a standard might be obtained that would serve as a basis for subsequent experiments, two nonsense syllables were pronounced with equal emphasis, as starting-points, and the subject was asked merely to wait until both had entered consciousness and not to favor nor inhibit either. If the subject stated that associations arose between the pronunciation of the starting-points the results were discarded.
Turning to the notes we find that K. reported, "The first just hovered around," and the associations followed the second, or as V. states it, "Sof was carried subconsciously for a while without influence," while By. frequently noticed that "The first may be in the background on the point of breaking in but be inhibited involuntarily," or in another, "It was frequently present but exerting no influence." A. "forgot what the other word was, but felt it trying to get a hand in." Ro. goes further and states in terms similar to A., "The words which might have been suggested by 'taf' were wholly inhibited, though I am sure 'taf' was present to me throughout the series, but was not efficacious as against the other syllable." It is unnecessary to multiply instances to show that the wraith, so to speak, of one may linger for a short time, or occasionally for the entire series, but that the associations are determined by the other. Or the lingering wraith of a starting-point may hover ineffectively in consciousness and exert no determining influence on the series until toward its close; then, however, although both starting-points still persist, they exchange places so far as effectiveness is concerned, and the former wraith becomes the primary factor in effecting the series of associations. For example, "The two syllables were present all the way through, but the former exhausted itself as a word-suggester after a few words." Again Ro. gives examples where "One alone may be in consciousness and determine the associations when the other may enter without effect upon the series, or may determine the series, the first persisting but losing its effect"; and a case of both ideas persisting and each alternately exerting an influence was noted by M. These last two conditions are exceptional.
Studying carefully the notes and graphic representations as given in the tables, it is apparent that one starting-point may be followed independently and exclusively; we find "'fef' suggesting 'theft,' and the subsequent associations monopolizing the field of consciousness and 'tuz' not again appearing." (V.) The results show that in the one hundred and seven experiments one was followed exclusively only twenty times. The following would be an example:
III. Naf-Tam
—tambour tam
—experiment tambour
—psychology experiment
—laboratory experiment
—space psychology
—time space
—ego space and time
—Ebbinghaus ego
—discussion psychology
—posted notice psychology
—door posted notice
—gray door
—stairs door
—fishes laboratory
—water fishes
—decay fishes
—animal fishes
—meat fishes
—odor meat
In other cases one starting-point may be followed and then the other for a few or many associations, each "occupying the mind to the exclusion of the other for a number of words, when suddenly the other appears and suggests a new series," which V. calls "a curious zigzagging in consciousness." This may take place at any point along the series. As Ro. indicates, "There was rivalry here; 'yud' wholly inhibited all the 'zid' associations, even 'zid' itself for the time, then, 'yud' apparently being exhausted, 'zid' entered again into the focus."
In contrast to the above forms, the tables indicate and the notes verify that while the associations primarily follow one there can be traced the modifying effect of the other; "The nature of the words was influenced by a fringe of consciousness which contains the other starting-point," M.'s comment runs, while J. adds, "The other helped in the mental picture but had no special significance." There are no experiments in the first group where this partial fusion took place throughout the series, and there are only six examples where it took place before the sixth word and continued to the end. While there are no cases here of alternating partial fusion, yet it sometimes happens, that is, the predominating influence is sometimes transferred from one to the other. The modifying influence may reach such a degree at any point in the series that the identity of each point of departure of the association is lost and there is total fusion, resulting in one idea or one train of thought. For example, 'rel' and 'mem' gave 'realm' for V.; for Ht. 'fef' and 'tuz' gave 'fezz'; for M. they gave 'fez'; for Ro. 'fuz.'
Of the twenty-one experiments where one starting-point was followed exclusively, there were two cases for the first and nineteen for the second. There were but two cases of alternating groups, a third one being unique in that after the first three words there was a persistent alternation between two apparently independent series of inter-related words and inter-related visual images. There were three cases of complete fusion throughout the series and nine where total fusion started before the fifth word and continued.
In a number of cases the initial starting-points were forgotten before the end of the series and the subjects were sometimes unable to recall them.
As the subjects were kept ignorant of the characteristic persistence of either starting-point in forming separate associations, and of the tendency towards fusion, as well as of the preponderance of influence of one over the other, it is to the tabulated results that we must look for quantitative measurement of these. 76.2% of the associations are due to the independent influence of one or the other of the starting-points; 23.9% are due to the combined influence; for the first starting-point we have 18.7%, for the second 57.5%. In 15.3% of all the associations the combined influence was the result of total fusion; in 4.1%, the result of a union where the first starting-point predominated in influence; in 4.4%, the second predominated. The following graphic representation indicates the order of influences for the first pair of syllables. The table gives the results for the ten pairs.
TABLE I. TWO NONSENSE SYLLABLES SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds.
Characters: | represents the influence of the first, - the second, + complete fusion, α fusion with the first predominating, β fusion with the second predominating.
1) Taf—Coz
M. | – – – – | | | | | – – – –
F. – – | | + + + + | | | + + β β β β β β
H. – | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
R. | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
K. – – – – – – –
V. | | – – – – | – – | + + + +
Ro. | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Bl. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
By. | – | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Bs. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. – – | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Starting-points:
(1) Taf—Coz. (6) Fef—Tuz.
(2) Cim—Bef. (7) Sar—Nef.
(3) Yud—Zid. (8) Sek—Lub.
(4) Sof—Deb. (9) Hov—Bes.
(5) Naf—Tam. (10) Rel—Mem.
| – + α β
M. { 20 69 26 4 3
16.5% 56.6% 21.2% 3.3% 2.4%
F. { 28 22 37 0 39
22.2% 17.5% 29.4% 30.9%
H. { 39 98 0 11 0
26.3% 66.2% 7.5%
R. { 9 102 32 0 0
6.3% 71.4% 22.3%
K. { 47 58 1 14 0
39.1% 48.3% .7% 11.9%
V. { 30 79 54 0 0
18.4% 48.4% 33.2%
Ro. { 32 111 0 5 0
21.4% 75.1 3.5%
Bl. { 5 131 15 15 0
3.1% 78.9% 9.0% 9.0%
By. { 43 102 23 15 22
16.8% 52.6% 11.7% 7.7% 11.2%
Bs. { 9 72 31 0 6
11.4% 58.5% 25.3% 4.8%
Ht. { 32 58 20 0 0
29.0% 52.8% 18.2%
Totals { 294 902 239 64 70
18.7% 57.5% 15.3% 4.1% 4.4%
Number of subjects, 11; number of sections, 10; number of experiments, 110; number of associations, 1569.
GROUP II
Two concrete nouns with apparently equivalent connotation were pronounced. In order that the subject get no clue as to the preponderance of one starting-point over the other, the nine sections were given at irregular intervals in connection with other experiments.
The tables show few cases of fusion, there being but one case in the eighty experiments where all the associations were the result of the combined influence of both starting-points. There was no other instance where complete fusion took place before the sixth association and continued throughout, and only six cases where any form of fusion took place in the eighty experiments within the first five words (7.6%), while in the one hundred and seven experiments of Group I there were twenty-five (23.9%).
The tables show a tendency which was noted when two syllables were used and which is emphatically brought out here, namely, it is the position or sequence which determines which of the two equivalent starting-points shall produce the greater influence. When the two starting-points are given in immediate succession, it is the second which predominates in influence. This preponderance may be clearly demonstrated by the tables alone, though there are many notes which show "the greater influence of one" (the second). A. seems to have realized this when he wrote, "While the first was uppermost the second hovered in subconsciousness, resting content, knowing that it would have its turn soon." In corroboration the tables give—abstracting from all cases of fusion—268 words (23.2%) for the first, 721 words (62.3%) for the second. In fifty-five of the eighty experiments the last had full control at the end of the series. Taking the cases where one was followed exclusively throughout the series, starting between the first and the sixth named association, we find eight for the first and twenty-nine for the second. This greater influence is again to be found in the cases of partial fusion; the first predominating in 2.6%, and the second in 4.3%.
The results of both groups show that the starting-points tend in a high degree toward independent influence, and also that such a method of presentation is one of sequence rather than simultaneity, as the two words show unequal influence. The former must in a manner be reproduced to become a point of departure for associations, while the latter acts directly. Is it then a condition of mind that when similar impressions are presented the one in the presence of which consciousness is reacting directly has a greater influence in arousing associations than one which is just past? This we are forced to conclude is the case, but the proof of the conclusion will be supplemented by later results.
TABLE II. TWO WORDS SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Library—River
M. | + + β – – – – – – – – – – – –
F. | – – – – – – – – – | | | |
H. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ro. | | | | – – – – – – – – –
J. | – | | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Bl. | | – – – – | | | | | | | | | – – /
By. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Bos. | – – – – – – –
Bur. – + – – – – – – – – – – –
(1) Library—River. (6) Store—Church.
(2) Hat—Road. (7) Soldier—House.
(3) Newspaper—Medicine. (8) Ship—Boy.
(4) Bicycle—Drum. (9) Furniture—Tree.
(5) Theatre—Magazine.
TABLE II.—continued
| – + α β
M. { 32 66 26 0 13
23.4% 48.2% 18.9% 9.5%
F. { 32 67 13 5 1
27.2% 56.7% 11.0% 4.3% .8%
H. { 59 79 5 0 0
41.3% 55.2% 3.5%
Ro. { 44 85 0 0 0
34.1% 65.9%
J. { 21 121 8 5 0
13.5% 78. % 5.3% 3.2%
Bl. { 22 83 6 0 1
19.7% 74.1% 5.4% .8%
By. { 16 97 18 14 23
9.5% 57.8% 10.7% 8.3% 13.7%
Bs. { 26 64 3 7 1
25.8% 63.5% 2.9% 6.9% .9%
Bur. { 16 59 8 0 10
17.2% 63.4% 8.6% 0 10.8%
Total { 268 721 87 31 49
23.2% 62.3% 7.6% 2.6% 4.3%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 19; number of experiments, 80; number of associations, 1156.
GROUP III
For two syllables and like words the second strongly predominates in awakening associations; will the same be true when two simple outline pictures are shown in the same order? The following results show in attestation of the above conclusion percentages remarkably similar to those of the words. There are 23.7% for the first and 61% for the second; 84.7% of the associations show no sign of fusion and only 15.3% for fusion and the different forms of partial fusion, the second still holding the ascendency. When the two pictures did fuse, R. tells us, "All the associations were more elaborate pictures than when mere words were given."
A comparative study, inadequate though it is, offers a partial parallelism between the predominating memory type and stimulation. The subjects who are preëminently of the visual, K., visual motor, M., H., V., and visual lingual motor, Ht., find the pictures more suggestive than the syllables, while those of the pure motor, F. and By., reverse the order and find that the syllables offer more numerous and "more vivid" (F.) associations.
Common experience, however, immediately shows the limitations of reaching conclusions, when considering prolificacy as criteria of suggestiveness, inasmuch as starting-points which are abundantly rich in associations tend to produce so many points of departure that they tend to inhibit one another. Again there is to be considered the kind of associations, those of the syllables being of a very elementary character and in serial form.
A few experiments were given in which colored slips of paper were used as starting-points. These proved very suggestive for the subjects. Also a few tones were given, but these were soon discontinued, as other tones, which could not be recorded, were frequently suggested. The sentence which forms a very satisfactory starting-point where one is used could not be used to an advantage where several were given. As we are here interested in the mutual influence of the starting-points, our remaining study will be confined to a quantitative and qualitative variation of the forms used in the previous groups.
TABLE III. TWO PICTURES SHOWN
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Boy Rolling Hoop—Blacksmith
M. | | | – – – – – – | | | | |
F. | | – – | + +
H. – – – – – – – – – – – –
R. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
K. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
V. – – | | + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
S. – – – – – – – – – | | | | | | |
By. | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Bs. – – – – – – – – –
Ht. | | – – – – – – – –
(1) Boy Rolling Hoop—Blacksmith. (5) Horse—Dog House.
(2) Old Man With Umbrella—Bird House. (6) Shoemaker—Fisherman.
(3) Carpenter—Mower. (7) Little Girl—A Chicken.
(4) Children Playing—Boy with Basket. (8) Boy—A Sheep.
| – + α β
M. { 41 65 2 0 1
37.6% 59.7% 1.8% .9%
F. { 11 42 21 0 5
13.9% 53.2% 26.6% 6.3%
H. { 37 52 11 26 9
27.4% 38.5% 8.1% 19.3% 6.7%
R. { 41 58 8 0 15
33.4% 48% 6.5% 12.1%
K. { 32 82 0 0 0
27.1% 72.9%
V. { 12 95 21 3 5
8.8% 70% 15.4% 2.1% 3.7%
S. { 36 44 0 0 0
45% 55%
By. { 8 111 12 0 13
5.4% 77.2% 8.3% 9.1%
Bs. { 13 40 7 0 0
21.7% 66.7% 11.6%
Ht. { 22 72 7 0 4
20.9% 68.6% 6.7% 3.8%
Totals { 253 661 89 29 52
23.7% 61% 8.2% 2.7% 4.4%
Number of subjects, 10; number of sections, 8; number of experiments, 76; number of associations, 1084.
GROUP IV
The previous experiments suggest the conclusion that that starting-point in the presence of which consciousness is reacting exerts a greater influence than one just past. The proof of this anticipated result is supplemented by subsequent consectary data.
It is necessary to test the outcome when the nature of the impressions is varied and the starting-points are given simultaneously. An outline picture and a word may be so given. These experiments verify from a different standpoint the statement that the picture establishes itself more permanently and is more influential, there being 47.8% of the associations produced by the picture alone, 14.8% by the words alone, 25% of a fusion of the two, and 12.4% of a uniting influence with the first predominating. The subject R. is an exception in that she favors the word when not favoring a combination of the two, a fact which I am unable to explain except to add that the subject stated that the æsthetic pleasure connected with the picture was sufficient to inhibit the associations. K. has 100% for the pictures, which is partially explained by the fact that she is a remarkable visualizer who reproduces all situations in visual terms.
TABLE IV. PICTURE SHOWN AND WORD SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Characters same as Table I.
(1) (a rabbit)—Table
M. | – – | | | | | | | + – – – –
R. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
K. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
S. | | | | | – | | | | |
J. | – – | | | | | | | | | – – – | | | | | | | | |
Ht. | – | | | | | | | | | | | | – – – –
(1) (a rabbit)—Table.
(2) (horse)—Book.
(3) (boy)—Dish.
(4) (duck)—Iron.
(5) (dog)—Paper.
| – + α β
M. { 38 9 16 6 0
55.0% 13.1% 23.3% 8.6%
R. { 1 20 55 0 0
1.3% 26.3% 72.4%
K. { 65 0 0 0 0
100.0%
S. { 29 15 3 10 0
50.8% 26.3% 5.3% 17.6%
J. { 75 19 14 9 0
64.2% 16.3% 11.9% 7.6%
Ht. { 17 7 30 33 0
19.5% 8.1% 34.5% 37.9%
Totals { 225 70 118 58 0
47.8% 14.8% 25.0% 12.4%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 5; number of experiments, 30; number of associations, 471.
GROUP V
The character of the starting-points determines which shall be followed in a simultaneous presentation; can the character of two immediately successive starting-points be so varied as to overcome the factor of temporal difference? The few experiments in this group show an attempt to shift and measure this influence, selecting as variants words of general and specific character, the first being a term of everyday experience with the subjects, of wide connotation, and therefore presumably rich in associations, and the second, which had the advantage of position, one of more limited and specific connotation, thus in a measure making it possible to test the stability of the second in establishing itself as a word-suggester. For the words "Gymnasium—Stamens" the second still strongly predominates. There is a slight increase in the amount of fusion (24.5% in all), the explanation of which would probably lie in the fact that the first is more assertive than before and offers more elements common to the two. There was one case of total fusion, one case where fusion started before the sixth word and continued, no cases of alternating fusion, four cases of partial fusion, five cases where the second was followed throughout, no case where the first was followed throughout, five cases of alternation between the first and the second. In 75.5%, the influence was exerted without fusion. Eight of the nine subjects favor the specific term.
TABLE V. GENERAL AND FAMILIAR WORD—SPECIFIC WORD SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Laboratory—Rake
M. | | | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
F. | – – – – – – – – –
H. + + + + + + + + + + +
V. | – – – – – – – – – – – – – | | | | |
S. – – – – – – – – – – | | | |
Bl. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
By. | – – | | | | | | | | |
Bs.
Ht. – – – – – – – –
J. | | β β β β β β β β β β β β | | | | |
(1) Laboratory—Rake.
(2) Experiment—Butterfly.
(3) Gymnasium—Stamens.
TABLE V.—continuted
| – + α β
M. { 22 25 4 6 0
38.6% 43.9% 7.0% 10.5%
F. { 4 19 0 0 0
17.4% 82.6%
H. { 4 25 13 0 0
9.5% 59.6% 30.9%
V. { 7 38 2 0 7
12.8% 70.7% 3.7% 12.8%
S. { 11 34 0 0 0
24.4% 75.6%
Bl. { 0 36 0 0 0
100.0%
By. { 11 16 7 0 9
25.5% 37.1% 16.5% 20.9%
Bs. { 0 9 12 2
39.1% 52.2% 8.7%
Ht. { 10 11 10
32.3% 35.4% 32.3%
J. { 17 8 15 0 13
32.1% 15.1% 28.3% 24.5%
Totals { 86 221 63 8 29
21.2% 54.3% 15.4% 1.9% 7.2%
Number of subjects, 10; number of sections, 3; number of experiments, 27; number of associations, 407.
GROUP VI
What modification of influence takes place when an auditory impression in the form of a word of abstract nature (the pure abstract words are taken later) is given in comparison with a concrete noun? The tables indicate that we are now able partly to overcome the disadvantage of first position by the advantage of concrete content. 24% of the associations are the result of total fusion; there are eight cases of total fusion throughout the series, and seven where total fusion took place before the third word and continued. There are two cases where the first was followed throughout, and but one where the second was followed exclusively. The tables indicate that there were very few words. Some of the subjects claim, "These words did not seem equally rich in associations. I was not at all conscious of the one while the other was in consciousness." (H.) The most characteristic feature here was, as Br. also indicates, "Great amount of rivalry at the beginning of the series"; while Bs. states, "There was a lot of confusion and a feeling of groping for words." Br. adds later, "For some seconds association seemed obstructed. Then by an effort the process was started which followed an involuntary course. A kind of confused presence of both words." Another subject adds, "There was a long blank after the words were said in which both words were balancing off in the fringe of consciousness and the mind expectant, passively waiting for an association to turn up. The hesitant period seemed marked by an attempt at a synthesis of these two words in some way."
SUBJECT XIX
Lamp—Justice.
| chimney lamp.
| white lamp chimney.
| yellow white chimney.
| flame yellow.
| nickel lamp plus the other words.
– scales justice.
– purple robe justice.
As the tables indicate, there was frequently a strong tendency here for the abstract terms to fuse. As H. noticed, "It does not tend to call up associations of its own stripe, but in some way becomes concrete."
TABLE VI. TWO WORDS: CONCRETE—ABSTRACT SPOKEN
Time—15 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(I) Desert—Hate
A. | | | + + +
M. | | | | – –
F. + + +
H. | – | | | | | | |
Ro. | | – – | | | |
Bl. + + + + + + +
By. | | | + + + + + +
Bs. – | | | | |
Br. | | | + +
(1) Desert—Hate.
(2) Lamp—Justice.
(3) Pen—Fatigue,
(4) Gate—Fear.
TABLE VI—continued
| – + α β
A. { 10 2 6 0 0
55.5% 11.2% 33.3%
M. { 7 8 10 0 0
28.0% 32.0% 40.0%
F. { 3 8 5 0 0
18.7% 50.1% 31.2%
H. { 17 16 1 0 0
50.0% 47.1% 2.9%
Ro. { 15 11 0 0 0
57.7% 42.3%
Bl. { 4 15 7 2 0
14.2% 53.5% 25.1% 7.2%
By. { 4 21 8 0 1
11.8% 61.8% 23.5% 2.9%
Bs. { 5 1 15 0 2
21.8% 4.3% 65.2% 8.7%
Br. { 11 8 2 0 0
52.3% 38.1% 9.6%
Totals { 76 90 54 2 3
33.8% 40.0% 24.0% .8% 1.4%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 4; number of experiments, 34; number of associations, 225.
Reversing the order by placing the concrete noun second, it gains in influence. We are told by the subjects at this point, "The choice seems to be determined by the concreteness of the word." (H.) "The abstract soon exhausted itself as a word-suggester." (Ro.) There was fusion in 24% of the associations of the first group, and 22.2% in the second. There are six cases where the second alone prevails, two for the first starting-point and four for the second. There are eleven cases of fusion beginning before the sixth word and continuing throughout the series. There is much partial fusion, with the second predominating in influence.
The results again emphasize the fact that the influence is transferable, also that normally the second has the advantage; furthermore, they illustrate the preponderance of the concrete word as a starter of associations, and that the abstract term when it exerts an influence tends to fuse rather than persist in having separate associations; all of which shows that concrete terms produce more vivid impressions than abstract ones, and would, when it is possible to use them, be of direct aid to the learner.
TABLE VII. TWO WORDS: ABSTRACT—CONCRETE SPOKEN
Time—15 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Honesty—Tide
A. – | – – – –
M. – – – – | | | |
F. | – – – – –
H. | – – –
Ro. | | – – – –
Bl. | – – – – – – –
By. – – + +
Bs. – – – – – – –
J. – + + + + + +
(1) Honesty—Tide.
(2) Skill—Coal.
(3) Terror—Sky.
(4) Refined—Flag.
| – + α β
A. { 2 7 11 0 4
8.4% 29.2% 45.8% 16.6%
M. { 4 11 10 1 5
12.9% 35.5% 32.3% 3.2% 16.1%
F. { 2 8 9 0 0
10.5% 42.2% 47.3%
H. { 8 11 1 3 0
39.2% 43.5% 4.1% 13.2%
Ro. { 10 13 3 0 0
38.4% 50.0% 11.6%
Bl. { 15 10 0 0 0
60.0% 40.0%
By. { 2 20 3 0 0
8.0% 80.0% 12.0%
Bs. { 1 11 6 0 2
5.0% 55.0% 30.0% 10.0%
J. { 6 16 6 0 0
21.4% 57.2% 21.4%
Totals { 50 107 49 4 11
22.6% 48.4% 22.2% 1.9% 4.9%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 4; number of experiments, 36; number of associations, 221.
Increasing the disparateness by making the one a proper name and the other a pure abstract noun, we find the name dominates consciousness, almost to the exclusion of the abstract term. The tables confirm the conclusions that the abstract term, even when given the advantage of position, exerts little influence, for in the first group of eighteen experiments of two hundred and eighty-four associations there are 13.4 times as many associations for the first as for the second, or two hundred and fifteen words for the first (75.8%) and sixteen (5.5%) for the second.
Reversing the order, the burden of influence swings back to thirty-eight (12.8%) for the first and one hundred and fifty-six (52.7%) for the second with an amount of fusion increased to ninety-nine (33.4%).
TABLE VIII. TWO WORDS: PROPER NOUN—ABSTRACT NOUN SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Lowell—Liberty
M. | | | | α α α | | | | | |
R. | α α | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
J. | | | + + + α α α α α α α α α α α α α
S. | | | | | – | | | | | | |
Ht. – – | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
(1) Lowell—Liberty. (2) Roosevelt—Fidelity. (3) Eliot—Integrity.
| – + α β
M. { 29 3 2 7 0
70.7% 7.4% 4.8% 17.1%
R. { 30 0 17 2 0
61.2% 34.7% 4.1%
K. { 43 2 0 0 0
95.5% 4.5%
J. { 42 0 8 13 0
66.6% 12.7% 20.7%
S. { 40 2 0 0 0
95.2% 4.8%
Ht. { 31 9 3 1 0
70.4% 20.4% 6.9% 2.3%
Totals { 215 16 30 23 0
75.8% 5.5% 10.7% 8.0%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments, 18; number of associations, 284.
TABLE IX. TWO WORDS: ABSTRACT NOUN—PROPER NOUN SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Individuality—Lincoln
M. | + | + + + + + + + + + + + +
R. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
K. – – – – – – – – – – – –
J. | – – – – – – – – – – – | | | | | | | | | |
S. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
(1) Individuality—Lincoln. (2) Brevity—Webster. (3) Justice—Hanus.
| – + α β
M. { 4 19 25 0 0
8.3% 39.6% 52.1%
R. { 5 31 12 0 0
10.4% 64.5% 25.1%
K. { 14 31 0 0 0
31.2% 68.8%
J. { 13 11 44 0 0
19.1% 16.1% 64.8%
S. { 2 40 0 0 0
4.8% 95.2%
Ht. { 0 24 18 0 3
53.4% 40.0% 6.6%
Totals { 38 156 99 0 3
12.8% 52.7% 33.4% 1.1%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments, 18; number of associations, 296.
GROUP VII
Occasional experiments of the previous groups indicated an abnormal influence of those ideas which were accentuated by the special interests of the subjects. We ask therefore: What is the relation of the newly aroused associations to the present content of consciousness? May the present content of consciousness be so varied as to reënforce or inhibit the characteristic influence of the individual impressions successively presented? In order to test this, words or a sentence were pronounced just previous to the presentation of the two starting-points related to them as follows; in the first divisions the preparatory words lead to the second, in the second divisions to the first, in the third divisions to neither, in the fourth divisions to both, and in the last we have a slight change in the marginal setting and a sentence leads to the second.
The following are examples of the first and second divisions:
Quartz—Granite—Shale. HORN—SLATE.
SUBJECT XVIII
—slate slate
—slate ledge (Col.) slate
—Great Falls, Mont. quartz, granite, shale
—geology quartz, granite, shale, G. F.
—Will B. geology
—State University Will B.
—Sexton James State University
—Mrs. J. Sexton James
—C. S. J. Mrs. J.
—Indian School C. S. J.
—Fort Shaw School Indian School
—Mrs. C. Ft. Shaw School
—Mrs. E. Mrs. C.
—Seattle, Wash Mrs. F.
—Miss M. Seattle, Wash.
—Everyman Miss M.
—Cousin V. Everyman
—theatre Cousin V.
Dog—Sheep—Horse. SQUIRREL—TELEGRAM.
SUBJECT XII
hunt squirrel (and dog)
pasture sheep, horse, and hunt
yard squirrel and pasture
Harvard yard
Freshman Harvard
themes Freshman and squirrel
hunting themes, dog, "
George hunting
squirrel George
creatures squirrel
animals creatures
activity " animals
agility " "
grace " "
cuteness " "
pets " "
civilisation creatures
vs. cats "
enemies cats
That one starting-point establishes itself more firmly, and offers more dominant associations with an increased degree of suggestiveness is intimated by various expressions of the subjects who state, "the preparatory words called forth associations connected with this or that starting-point"; or "there was a felt fusion of all"; "a summation of all"; or "the preparatory words had an influence throughout"; "they strengthened this or that starting-point"; "they affected one and not the other"; and many similar expressions.
The influence of these preparatory marginal settings was also indicated very often by the nature or kind of words in the series.
Turning to the tables which collectively represent in a graphic and quantitative form the notes of the subject, and which are in harmony with the above, we find they demonstrate that there is a very intimate and definite relationship. When the state of mind immediately preceding the moment of the formation of the associated series is conditioned by the preparatory words leading to the second, the amount to which that starting-point dominates consciousness in arousing associations is greater than in any previous case where the words of like nature are pronounced.
With the preparatory words leading to the second starting-point, we have 11.5% of the influence for the first, 69.2% for the second; with them leading to the first, 58.2% for first, 17.2% for second; with them leading to neither, 40.6% for first, 44.2% for second; with them leading to both, 16.1% for first, 54.8% for second; with a preparatory sentence leading to second, 12.9% for first, 59.7% for second.
A few experiments were made where one word was given as a setting and four or eight starting-points were shown, but the starting-points were so numerous that they tended to confuse the subject's introspective account.
TABLE X. TWO WORDS SHOWN: THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO THE SECOND
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
Corn, Wheat, Oats. (1) MOB—HAY
M. + + + – + + – – – –
R. – – – | + + α + β – – – – –
K. – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
S. + + + + – – – – – – – – – – – –
J. + + + + + + β β – – – – – – –
Ht. – + + + + β β β β β β β β
(1) Corn, Wheat, Oats. MOB—HAY. (2) Cloud, Mist, Dew. ORATION—CANOE. (3) Turtle, Fish, Frog. KEY—NET. (4) Quartz, Granite, Shale. HORN—SLATE. (5) Geometry, Plane, Rectangle. CASE—CUBE.
| - + α β
M. { 10 41 17 0 7
13.3% 54.7% 22.7% 9.3%
R. { 15 37 21 1 4
19.3% 47.4% 26.9% 1.2% 5.2%
K. { 0 55 0 0 0
100.0%
S. { 8 64 4 0 0
10.5% 84.2% 5.3%
J. { 17 69 6 0 2
18.1% 73.4% 6.3% 2.2%
Ht. { 2 45 17 0 8
2.8% 62.5% 23.6% 11.1%
Totals { 52 311 65 1 21
11.5% 69.2% 14.4% .2% 4.7%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 5; number of experiments, 29; number of associations, 449.
TABLE XI. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO THE FIRST
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
Dog, Sheep, Horse. (1) SQUIRREL—TELEGRAM
M. | | | | | | | | | | | | |
R. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | | | | | | | | | | | | |
S. | | – – – – – – – – – –
J. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Ht. | | | | | | | | | – – – – – – – –
(1) Dog, Sheep, Horse. SQUIRREL—TELEGRAM. (2) Pineapple, Banana, Orange. FRUIT-STAND—ELECTRIC LIGHT. (3) Justice, Truth, Beauty. CHARITY—PHOTOGRAPH. (4) Gold, Copper, Silver. DIME—SKULL.
| - + α β
M. { 28 3 15 0 8
51.8% 5.5% 27.9% 14.8%
R. { 16 9 23 0 11
27.2% 15.3% 38.9% 18.6%
K. { 56 2 0 0 0
96.5% 3.5%
S. { 36 24 0 0 0
60.0% 40.0%
J. { 38 4 24 1 7
51.4% 5.4% 32.4% 1.4% 9.4%
Ht. { 37 20 0 0 0
64.9% 35.1%
Totals { 211 62 62 1 26
58.2% 17.2% 17.2% .2% 7.2%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 4; number of experiments, 24; number of associations, 362.
TABLE XII. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO NEITHER
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
Botany, Statue, Postal. (1) CHOCOLATE—BANNER
M. | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – |
R. – | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | – | | | – | – | – | – |
S. | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
J. | | | | | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. – – + + + – – – – – – – – – – –
(1) Botany, Statue, Postal. CHOCOLATE—BANNER. (2) Idea, Proposition, Syllogism. SILVER—GAME.
| - + α β
M. { 3 28 0 0 0
9.6% 90.4%
M. { 22 1 2 0 14
56.5% 2.5% 5.2% 35.8%
K. { 28 5 0 0 0
84.8% 15.2%
S. { 13 20 0 0 0
89.4% 60.6%
J. { 17 22 0 0 0
43.6% 56.4%
Ht. { 0 14 8 7 0
48.3% 27.6% 24.1%
Totals { 83 90 10 7 14
40.6% 44.2% 4.9% 3.4% 6.9%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 2; number of experiments, 12; number of associations, 204.
TABLE XIII. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO BOTH
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
Tree, Shrub, Grass. (1) TEA—FERN
M. + + α α α α α α α – –
R. + + + + + + + + + + + +
K. – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
S. – – – – – – – – – – – –
J. | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. + + α α α α α α | | | | |
(1) Tree, Shrub, Grass. TEA—FERN. (2) Fox, Wolf, Moose. DEER—DOVE.
| – + α β
M. { 2 12 4 8 0
7.6% 46.3% 15.3% 30.8%
R. { 0 0 25 0 0
100.0%
K. { 1 30 0 0 0
3.2% 96.8%
S. { 8 12 0 4 0
33.3% 50.0% 16.7%
J. { 8 26 0 0 0
23.5% 76.5%
Ht. { 8 12 2 6 0
28.5% 42.8% 7.2% 21.5%
Totals { 27 92 31 18 0
16.1% 54.8% 18.4% 10.7%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 2; number of experiments, 12; number of associations, 168.
TABLE XIV. TWO WORDS SHOWN (AUTHORS)—WITH A PREPARATORY SENTENCE LEADING TO THE SECOND
Time—50 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
"God's in His Heaven—all's right with the world."
(1) BURNS—BROWNING
M. + – – – – – – – – – | | | | | |
R. | – – – – – – – – – – –
K. + + + + + + + + + + + + +
S. | – – – – – – – – – – – – – | | |
J. | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. – – – – – – – – – –
(1) "God's in His Heaven—all's right with the world." BURNS—BROWNING.
(2) "All that glistens is not gold." BYRON—SHAKSPERE.
(3) "Hitch your wagon to a star." SPENCER—EMERSON.
| – + α β
M. { 9 15 15 0 4
20.9% 34.8% 34.8% 9.5%
R. { 1 47 0 0 0
2.1% 97.9%
K. { 15 0 26 0 0
36.5% 63.5%
S. { 6 34 0 0 0
15.0% 85.0%
J. { 3 43 14 0 0
5.1% 71.6% 23.3%
Ht. { 0 18 13 0 0
58.1% 41.9%
Totals { 34 157 68 0 4
12.9% 59.7% 25.8% 1.6%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments, 18; number of associations, 263.
GROUP VIII
The aim here is to test the effect of interruption in the series of associations, and to throw further light on the relation of the series to the present content of consciousness when this content is a series of associations and the new content is a pronounced word which is to act as a point of departure for new associations.
There are three divisions. The time in all is fifty seconds; in the first a word of general connotation is given and after an interim of ten seconds a second more specific word is pronounced. In the second three similar words are given at an interval of fifteen seconds; the third four words with an interval of ten seconds. The following are examples of the first and third divisions:
SUBJECT III
Commencement—Sieve
commencement
| college commencement
| cap college
| gown cap
| boys commencement
| confetti commencement
sieve
– holes sieve
– water sieve
– flour sieve
– space holes
– concept space
– Royce concept
– time concept
– eternity time
– damnation eternity
– Hamlet "Consummation," etc
– Shakspere Hamlet
SUBJECT VII
Wax—Jug—Tar—Sod
wax
| Charley wax
| picnic Charley
| horse Charley
| saddle horse
jug
– ink jug
– clay jug
– Hegel jug
tar
/ 'old tar' tar
/ ship 'old tar'
/ Bermuda 'old tar'
sod
\ grave sod
\ graveyard grave
\ house graveyard
\ church house
\ music church
\ white church
In all the experiments the subject simply knew that possibly more than one starting-point would be given. There was of course the conscious recognition on the part of the subjects that the pronounced words were starting-points, which would imply an attentive consciousness, but they were cautioned neither to favor nor inhibit the newly pronounced word nor an association in progress.
The notes are uniform in showing that often one, two or three words of the former association-series are written after the new word is pronounced. "The momentum," says F., "was great enough to carry the associations two or three words beyond the pronounced word"; while Bl. found "a tendency for the trend of associations to persist, though not strong enough to overcome the new influence." By.'s experience was slightly different. As stated before, he often wrote the word as it came into consciousness. "On hearing a new word it gets precedence over the next associations not yet formed, and there is considerable confusion and lost time unless the motor discharge of writing the pronounced word is permitted to have free expression." The tables verify the same, and also show that there are more associations during the first interval.
Does a former starting-point regain its influence? In the first division there are two cases where the first and second fuse, but no place where the first independently forms an association; in the second but one word for subject Bl. in "Quill—Bench—Chalk," and in the third not any. There was a small amount of fusion in all, since but two words are due to the combined influence of the first and third, five to the combined influence of the first and fourth, with three starting-points, and one to the combined influence of the first and third with four starting-points.
The train of associations is inhibited by a new starting-point which dominates in influence. No mention is made in any note that a former starting-point remains in consciousness for the series, but M. emphatically writes, "Absolutely no influence of the preceding word or words when the next is taken up"; and later, "As soon as the new one is pronounced the old word and the series it had brought up were immediately suppressed." Bl. comments, "How remarkable it is that each new word crowds the old trend of associations out and starts new ones"; and the graphic representation, one of which only is given here on account of lack of space, shows that there is no return to the original series.
The tables are indicative of the tendency. In the first division of the group there are three possible lines of fusion, in the second six possible lines, and in the third twelve possible lines, but we find only 13.2% for all forms of fusion in the first, 7.9% for the second, and 10.5% for the third. In the eighty-seven experiments of the series there is but one absolute return to the previous starting-point. (See Group IX, sec. 2, Bl.) The tables show the varying degrees of fusion, and while the percentages have little meaning, as there is a variable time-element, the numbers do show accurately the number of words and the relative and continued influence of each starting-point.
We conclude that, when the present content of consciousness is a series of associations, the newly given impression establishes itself sufficiently to inhibit the associations of the previous series.
TABLE XV. TWO WORDS—GENERAL AND PARTICULAR—SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds, with an interval of 10 seconds between 1 and 2. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Commencement—Sieve
M. | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
F. | | | | | | + + + + + + +
H. | | | | | – – – – – – – – – – – –
V. | | | | | – – – – – – – – – – – –
S. | | | | | | | | – – – –
E. | | | – – – – – – – – –
Bs. | | | – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. | | – + + + + + +
By.
| - + α β
M. { 3 14 0 0 0
{17.6% 82.4%
F. { 6 7
46.2% 0 53.8% 0 0
H. { 5 12 0 0 0
29.4% 70.6%
V. { 5 12 0 0 0
29.4% 70.6%
S. { 8 4 0 0 0
66.6% 33.4%
E. { 3 9 0 0 0
25.0% 75.0%
Bs. { 3 14 0 0 0
17.6% 82.4%
Ht. { 2 1 6 0 0
22.2% 11.2% 66.6%
By. 0 0 0 0 0
Totals { 35 66 13 0 0
31.4% 55.4% 13.2%
Number of subjects, 9; number of groups, 1; number of experiments, 8; number of associations, 114.
TABLE XVI. THREE WORDS SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Interval, 15 seconds.
Characters: | first, - second, / third, + partial fusion between first and second, α partial fusion between first and second with first predominating, β partial fusion between first and second with second predominating, γ partial fusion between first and third, δ partial fusion between second and third, ε partial fusion between first and third with third predominating.
(1) Gun—Bug—Jaw
M. | | | | | | | | – – – – – – / / / / / /
F. | | | | | – – – δ δ δ
H. | | | | | | – – – – / / / / /
V. | | | | | | | | – – – – – – / / / / / /
Bl. | | | | | | – – – – – / / / / / / /
By. | | | | | | | | | – – – – – – / / / / / /
Bs. | | | | | + + + + / / / / /
Ht. | | | | | | | α | | | δ – – – –
Ro. | | | | | | – – – – – – / / / / / /
(1) Gun—Bug—Jaw (2) Quill—Bench—Chalk (3) Hall—Moss—Leather
| – / + α β γ δ ε
M. { 20 14 18 1 0 0 0 0 0
37.8% 26.4% 33.9% 1.9%
F. { 15 11 15 0 0 0 2 3 0
32.6% 23.9% 32.6% 4.4% 6.5%
H. { 19 11 15 0 0 0 0 0 0
42.3% 24.4% 33.3%
V. { 24 15 21 1 0 4 0 0 0
36.9% 23.1% 32.3% 1.5% 6.2%
Bl. { 15 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0
45.4% 27.3% 27.3%
By. { 23 8 14 3 0 4 0 3 0
41.8% 14.5% 25.5% 5.5% 7.2% 5.5%
Bs. { 13 10 10 4 0 0 0 0 5
30.9% 23.8% 23.8% 9.6% 11.9%
Ht. { 23 11 10 1 1 2 0 1 0
46.9% 22.5% 20.5% 2.0% 2.0% 4.1% 2.0%
Ro. { 15 15 24 0 0 0 0 0 0
27.8% 27.8% 44.4%
Totals { 167 104 136 10 1 10 2 7 5
37.8% 23.5% 30.8% 2.3% .2% 2.3% .4% 1.5% 1.2%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 3; number of experiments, 27; number of associations, 442.
TABLE XVII. FOUR WORDS SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds. Interval, 10 seconds.
Characters — same as Table XVI, with addition of \ representing the fourth, ς partial fusion between first and fourth, η partial fusion between second and fourth, θ partial fusion between third and fourth, ☐ total fusion between first, second, third, and fourth,ι partial fusion between first, third, and fourth, κ partial fusion between second, third, and fourth, λ partial fusion between third and fourth, with fourth predominating, [ partial fusion between first, second, and third.
(1) Den—Nag—Cot—Fan
F. | | | | | | – – – – – – δ – – \ \ \ \ \
H. | | | | | – – – / / / / / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
V. | | | | | – – – / / / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Bl. | | | | – – – – / / / \ \ \ \
By. | | | | | | – – – – – δ δ δ \ \ \ \ \
Bs. | | | – – / / / \ \ \ \ \
Ht. | | | | | – – – – – / / / / \ \ \ \
Ro. | | | | – – – – / / / / \ \ \ \ \
(1) Den—Nag—Cot—Fan (2) Tax—Fan—Map—Dog (3) Paw—Wand—Box—Mug (4) Bud—Car—Cub—Mat (5) Wax—Jug—Tar—Sod (6) Cur—Elk—Pug—Man (7) Rope—Wig—Ink—Grass
(Table on page 460)
GROUP IX
The aim here was to see if it were possible to have the first starting-point such that the conditions would be similar to the results obtained by using preparatory marginal settings, but include rather than inhibit the second starting-point. A review of the tendency toward mental combination in the former experiments suggested that the words be in the relation of the whole and part. The "part" was given the position of predominating influence in order to see to just what extent it would persist in combining.
| – / \ + γ δ ς η θ ☐ ι β κ λ [
F. { 29 19 11 19 3 0 4 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0
30.3% 19.8% 11.4% 19.8% 3.1% 4.2% 11.4%
H. { 31 18 24 25 3 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
28.5% 16.5% 22.1% 22.9% 2.7% 73%
V. { 28 28 21 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22.0% 22.0% 16.6% 39.4%
Bl. { 18 17 17 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
21.6% 20.5% 20.5% 34.9% 2.5%
By. { 36 22 9 24 2 4 3 0 6 2 4 0 0 0 0 0
32.1% 19.6% 8.0% 21.4% 1.8% 3.7% 2.6% 5.3% 1.8% 3.7%
Bs. { 22 13 17 18 4 1 0 1 0 6 0 3 1 0 5 0
24.2% 14.3% 18.7% 19.8% 4.4% 1.1% 1.1% 6.6% 3.3% 1.1% 0 5.4%
Ht. { 30 18 10 21 3 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 2
34.4% 20.6% 11.4% 24.2% 3.4% 2.4% 1.2% 2.4%
Ro. { 24 22 16 48 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
21.3% 19.4% 14.2% 42.4% 2.7%
Totals { 218 157 125 234 15 5 10 1 8 28 4 3 1 2 5 2
26.6% 19.2% 15.2% 28.5% 1.9% .6% 1.3% .2% .9% 3.4% .4% .3% .2% .3% .7% .3%
Number of subjects, 8; number of sections, 7; number of experiments, 52; number of associations, 819.
In the light of the interpretation of previous facts and the subsequent results of this group of experiments, we are now in a position to conclude that, if the present content of consciousness on the reception of a new impression is such that the reactions are not antagonistic but reënforce each other, the second will not persist in independent influence, but will be rather included in and supplementary to the influence of the first, which otherwise would be less assertive. The results below show that while the first of the two starting-points has a decided disadvantage of position, and therefore has little influence in arousing associations, it here is responsible for 43.2% and the second for but 9.5%, while there is a combined influence of 47.3%, the first strongly predominating in partial fusion. There is but one case where the second was followed exclusively.
The explanation of this, extended to an hypothesis, would rest in the fact that each word has definite characteristic reactions and that the fusion of two words or lines of thought means that the motor accompaniments are such that they unite and reënforce each other, or that the one includes the other. There are few antagonistic impulses.
TABLE XVIII
TWO WORDS—WHOLE AND PART—SPOKEN
Time—15 seconds. Characters—same as Table I.
(1) Crowd—Man
A. | + +
M. + + + + + + + + +
F. + + + + +
H.
J. | | | | | | + + +
S. – – – –
V. + + + α α α α α α
E. | + + +
L. | | | |
Bs. α α α α α α
Br. | | | | | + +
(1) Crowd—Man (2) Ton—Pound (3) Moose—Horn (4) Engine—Whistle (5) Book—Page (6) Music—Octave
| – + α β
A. { 4 3 24 0 0
12.9% 9.6% 77.5%
M. { 13 0 27 2 0
30.9% 64.2% 4.9%
F. { 7 3 22 1 0
20.6% 8.8% 64.8% 5.8%
H. { 28 5 0 0 5
73.6% 13.2% 13.2%
J. { 21 1 17 6 0
46.6% 2.3% 37.8% 13.3%
S. { 25 12 0 0 0
67.5% 32.5%
V. { 4 2 16 10 0
12.5% 6.3% 50.1% 31.1%
E. { 11 3 9 5 0
39.2% 10.8% 32.2% 17.8%
L. { 14 6 4 0 0
58.4% 25.0% 16.6%
Bs. { 15 2 11 6 0
44.2% 5.8% 32.4% 17.6%
Br. { 25 0 9 9 0
58.2% 20.9% 20.9%
Totals { 167 37 139 39 5
43.2% 9.5% 35.9% 10.0% 1.4%
Number of subjects, 11; number of sections, 6; number of experiments, 62; number of associations, 387.
GROUP X
In the last group the words were called whole and part, although the reader no doubt observed that this was not always strictly the case, but rather that the more complex was more influential as a word-suggester than the simple and often tended to include it. Can this be demonstrated in another way? Attention was called in Group of Experiments IV (two pictures shown) that picture no. 3 (a man sawing wood), although first, had more than the normal number of associations, the explanation of which might lie in the fact that it contained more objects. We here attempt to test this by comparing a comparatively complex and a comparatively simple picture as starting-points. It has been clearly proven that the second picture to be presented has a decided advantage of position. The simple picture is here given the advantage of position. The notes show the first to be more important, while there is no suggestion of the first including the second, on account of there being less fusion than for words and more independent associations for the second starting-point; the averages are 38.5% for the first, 30.5% for the second, 31.0% fusion.
(a) Picture of Blacksmith shoeing horse
(b) Picture of a Sheep.
| shop (a)
| nails shop
| shoe shop and (a)
| blacksmith shop and shoe and (a)
| Longfellow blacksmith
– pasture (b)
– sheep pasture
– lambs pasture and sheep
– grass pasture and lambs
– hillsides grass
– brook pasture and hillsides
| iron shop–shoe
| hammering iron
| soldier iron–hammering and first group
| battle soldier
| shoe battle
| horse-shoe nail iron, hammering, soldier, battle
| anvil horse-shoe nail
TABLE XIX. TWO PICTURES SHOWN
Time—50 seconds.
Characters—same as Table I.
(1) (a) Blacksmith shoeing Horse
(b) A Sheep
J. | | | | | – – – – – – | | | | | | |
E. | + + – – | | |
W. | – | – – – | | | | | | |
V. | | + + + + + + + + + + + + +
L. – | | | | | | | |
Ht. – – α α | | | | – + + + + +
(1) (a) Blacksmith shoeing Horse
(b) A Sheep
(2) (a) Girl and Boy
(b) A Bird
(3) (a) Three Children
(b) A Duck
(4) (a) A Sower
(b) A Dog
| – + α β
J. { 30 23 9 18 0
37.5% 28.8% 11.2% 22.5%
E. { 28 10 2 0 0
70.0% 25.0% 5.0%
W. { 14 18 5 0 0
37.8% 48.7% 13.5%
V. { 6 11 37 0 13
8.9% 16.4% 55.3% 19.4%
L. { 27 4 1 0 0
84.3% 12.5% 3.2%
Ht. { 16 30 6 6 0
27.6% 51.8% 10.3% 10.3%
Totals { 121 96 60 24 13
38.5% 30.5% 19.2% 7.6% 4.2%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 4; number of experiments, 24; number of associations, 314.
GROUP XI
Three words spoken, one immediately following the other, are given in this group in order to test the span of consciousness and the influence of an immediate interruption, as one was given immediately following the other in such a way that all associations were checked until after the third starting-point. If we attempt to follow the initial starting-points we see they may disappear after the first few associations and reappear in the series; or each remain as initial starting-points for a few associations; or one alone control the whole series, while the others are present without influence; or there may be an alternation of independent influences; or an influence which shows a modifying effect of one or both of the other starting-points, which may reach such a degree that all fuse, and in so doing get an advantage over the single words. The starting-points are to a large extent disparate and there is very little fusion; we find only .5% total fusion and 18.7% partial fusion.
An example would be as follows:
SUBJECT VIII
FROG—ICE—TABLE
– snow ice
| bench table
| fish frog
| pole fish
| boat fish
| line fish
| bait fish
| weeds fish
– skating ice
– sleds ice
– coasting sleds
– girls coasting
There were no cases of the total fusion of all the starting-points throughout the series, no cases of total fusion of the first and second, and two cases for the second and third. There were two cases of partial fusion of the first, second, and third throughout. The first was followed exclusively in two cases, the third in one. The first and third were followed intermittently in four cases, the second and third in eleven, the first, second, and third in thirty-five.
The second starting-point has the ascendency of influence. This is not due to habits formed in earlier experiments, as the two groups of experiments with two words were given in connection with other experiments. This group informs us that in immediate interruption the new impression has not sufficient power to establish itself more firmly than a past impression which is just past, and must in a manner be reproduced to start associations. The influence of the first has been somewhat destroyed, but the second is greater than the third.
TABLE XX. THREE WORDS SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds.
Characters—same as Table XVI, with the addition of [ representing total fusion between the first, second, and third, μ partial fusion between first, second, and third with first predominating, ν partial fusion between first, second, and third with first and third predominating.
(1) Frog—Ice—Table
A. / – – – – –
M. – | | γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ
F. – – – – – / / | | | | / / / – – –
H. | – – – – – | | | | / / / – – –
J. | – – / / / / – + + + + + + + +
Bl. – / | | | | | | – – – –
By. | / / / / / / – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Bs. – | | | – – – / /
Ro. | | – – / / / / / / / / / / /
Br. – / / / δ δ δ δ δ δ
(1) Frog—Ice—Table (2) Key—Shoe—Knife (3) Desk—Park—Glove (4) College—Church—Cafe (5) Boston—Elevator—Lake (6) Skate—Book—Theatre (7) Bridge—Sleigh—Ticket (8) Gun—Lamp—Watch
| – / + α β γ δ [ μ ν
A. { 26 32 30 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 0
26% 32% 30% 2% 10%
M. { 25 36 21 3 0 0 10 1 1 0 6
24.3% 34.9% 20.5% 2.9% 9.8% .9% .9% 5.8%
F. { 15 23 24 8 11 0 7 6 0 0 0
15.9% 24.5% 25.5% 8.5% 11.8% 7.4% 6.4%
H. { 31 68 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23.8% 52.4% 23.8%
J. { 19 18 48 15 0 0 0 22 1 0 0
15.5% 14.6% 39.1% 12.2% 17.8% 0.8%
Bl. { 23 33 16 5 0 0 0 22 0 0 0
23.2% 33.2% 16.0% 5.0% 22.6%
By. { 13 56 48 15 0 1 17 2 0 0 0
8.7% 36.8% 31.5% 9.8% 0.6% 11.2% 1.4%
Bs. { 19 13 19 9 0 0 0 19 2 0 0
23.4% 16.0% 23.4% 11.2% 23.5% 2.5%
Ro. { 32 33 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
32.6% 33.7% 33.7%
Br. { 12 24 38 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0
15.0% 30.0% 47.5% 7.5%
Totals { 215 336 308 55 11 1 40 72 6 10 6
20.3% 31.1% 29.1% 5.2% 1.1% 0.9% 3.6% 6.8% 0.5% 0.9% 0.5%
Number of subjects, 10; number of sections, 8; number of experiments, 79; number of associations, 1060.
GROUP XII
In order to test the relative influence and to throw more light on the problem of immediate interruption four words were shown and the subject was directed to read from left to right. There were few experiments and most of the subjects were new. The results show that the third starting-point has a decided disadvantage, having an influence of only 7.8%. The second and fourth are almost equal, while the first is again less.
TABLE XXI. FOUR WORDS SHOWN
Time—50 seconds.
Characters—same as Table XVII, with the addition of ξ partial fusion between the second, third, and fourth with the second predominating.
(1) Gun—Car—Ink—Fan
M. \ \ \ – – – – – / / / / / /
R. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
K. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
S. – | / – – – – – – – –
J. | | | – – – – – – – – – – –
Ht. + + α α α | | | | | | | | |
(1) Gun—Car—Ink—Fan (2) Brain—Umbrella—Telephone—Chain (3) Book—Money—Hour—Chart
| – / \ + γ θ α κ ξ
M. { 14 6 9 4 0 6 0 0 0 0
35.9% 15.4% 23.0% 10.3% 15.4%
R. { 16 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
34.8% 65.2%
K. { 0 35 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
68.6% 31.4%
S. { 5 15 7 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
16.2% 48.4% 22.5% 12.9%
J. { 13 13 4 15 2 0 0 0 0 0
27.7% 27.7% 8.5% 31.9% 4.2%
Ht. { 15 9 0 5 2 0 7 3 1 1
34.8% 20.9% 11.6% 4.7% 16.3% 6.9% 2.4% 2.4%
Totals { 63 78 20 74 4 6 7 3 1 1
{24.5% 30.4% 7.8% 28.5% 1.6% 2.4% 2.6% 1.4% .4% .4%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments, 18; number of associations, 257.
GROUP XIII
Four similar words were pronounced in immediate succession, the results of which show that we are correct in calling the above a case of succession and also to establish clearly and definitely that there is a difference of degree between immediate and postponed interruption. The third starting-point has again a decided disadvantage of influence and exerts no apparent influence in thirty-seven of the fifty-two experiments. The last starting-point exerts the greatest influence.
TABLE XXII. FOUR WORDS SPOKEN
Time—50 seconds.
Characters—same as Table XVII with the addition of ο partial fusion between first, second, and third with first and second predominating.
(1) Cow—Roof—Fence—Girl (2) Cathedral—River—Elevator—Newspaper (3) Cane—Harness—Box—Coat (4) Book—Snow—Rope—Stone (5) Wire—Flower—Horse—Paper (6) Gun—Wharf—Chair—Stove
| – / \ + λ δ η θ ☐ ι ο ε β
M. { 35 3 6 32 0 3 17 0 9 0 0 0 0 0
33.4% 2.8% 5.8% 30.4% 2.8% 16.2% 8.6%
F. { 16 11 1 35 0 3 0 0 1 2 1 0 5 0
21.3% 14.6% 1.4% 46.6% 4.0% 1.4% 2.7% 1.4% 6.6%
H. { 21 38 11 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
20.6% 37.3% 10.8% 29.5% .9% .9%
V. { 16 16 0 36 2 2 9 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
19.3% 19.3% 43.3% 2.4% 2.4% 10.9% 1.2% 1.2%
Bl. { 36 8 10 19 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
46.8% 10.3% 12.9% 24.8% 5.2%
By. { 23 30 3 36 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
24.5% 31.9% 3.3% 38.3% 1.0% 1.0%
Bs. { 22 14 1 20 1 0 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0
33.3% 21.3% 1.6% 30.0% 1.6% 10.6% 1.6%
Ht. { 9 19 4 31 0 0 0 0 1 14 0 0 0 0
11.5% 24.3% 5.2% 39.8% 1.3% 17.9%
Ro. { 26 23 6 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
36.6% 32.4% 8.4% 22.6%
Totals { 204 162 42 255 4 8 30 7 13 17 2 1 5 1
27.2% 21.6% 5.4% 33.9% .5% 1.1% 3.9% .9% 1.8% 2.3% .3% .2% .7% .2%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 6; number of experiments, 52; number of associations, 751.
We ask finally how far our results and notes point to a theoretical understanding of the mechanism of associations. Previous work, especially that of James, Cordes, Calkins, and Scripture, as well as the accumulated notes of my subjects, confirm that the transition may be made by means of total, partial, and focal recall, and that in partial and focal recall the prominent persisting elements are surrounded in the formation of a new idea by other new elements.
If a latent idea remains in the margin of consciousness and exerts an influence, which not merely modifies but determines the series of associations, and leads up to the focalisation of the latent idea, we have a case of predetermined association, which, when noted by investigators, has invariably become confused with mediate association. Here there is an element or group of elements, persisting in the margin of consciousness, which is gradually maturing and becoming focalised into groups of elements comprising an idea which ultimately dominates consciousness. In some cases three, four, and five ideas have been named before this takes place, and we have here a reversed form of association. Four subjects noted the experience on different occasions, and it is not to be confused with the common experience of apprehending the present contents of consciousness as part of a larger whole where we are conscious of its existence but not of what it is.
The notes further show that the common conscious elements may be predominantly visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or kinæsthetic, or a complex or compound of these in character, while to this may be added an indication of the fact that the transition, incipient as it is, may in many cases be reduced to a condition which is in the last analysis one of the motor nervous system. Ht., for instance, finds that the words all pass over into innervations of the organs of speech and "are accompanied by the impulse to make the sound," stating later, "they hang on the tongue." The following is one of the series given which represents rather an extreme case, Taft, taffy, toffy; tough, rough, ruff; buff, bluff, tough; muff, duff, tuff. Br., who also gave a large percentage of verbal associations, finds that "some part of each word seems to linger on the tongue with motor sensations till the next comes." "I am subject," he adds, "more or less frequently to verbal automatism of this auditory incipient motor type." Ro., who has many auditory associations, reports "they are always accompanied by motor images, together with many associations." A changing of orientation is a common accompaniment, with statements of the feeling of the impulse to turn in various directions. For F., who is predominantly of the motor type, we have an example where the rhythmic ticking of a clock fades into the rhythmic watching of a boat rising and falling on the water.
The notes would seem to indicate that there is no idea without a motor fringe, and also that these elements of incipient impulses to movement may accompany the elements of transition, and are observed introspectively by the subjects. They are therefore data for psychology. Do they influence or direct the associations? In short, are they the processes which connect and which determine the associations?
F. states, "There seem to have been waves of motor sensations. Such waves may start with a word and carry one in faint mimicry through the whole succession of bodily sensations that one experienced in that event, and then may come a relapse until other stronger currents appear." Here we are face to face with the dynamics of association, the most fundamental and important problem of brain association. Have these phenomena of ideational images "acquired by contact a kind of magnetism which causes the one to attract the other and have, so to speak, become magnetic?" (Zanotti.) Or are they on the other hand independent of all force and "merely ideas of antecedence and sequence only?" (Mill.) While there is no mention of a magnetic force, the notes and results all show that the ideas are systematically conditioned in a way which cannot be explained by the contiguity of the objects. The motor elements play the deciding role. Ht. emphasises the influence of ideated movement when he writes, "Kinæsthetic. Slow regular tramping on snowshoes brought up the characteristic swing of arms, and therewith the idea (sensations of weight) of the stick (or stock) which I have generally carried on Norwegian snowshoes. Transition from Vermont to the Black Forest by association with snowshoeing in both places. Real sensations in play were free breath, movements in chest (kinæsthetic), fresh air (olfactory), cold (thermal), and emotion of emotional strength." Again, "Looking up at sun suggested general ideas of expansion of attention and with this breath comes the idea, breezes"; another subject adds, "A tendency to imitate the sounds of syllables and this leads on to a train of associations"; another, "A slight feeling of sudden changed impulse"; another, "A sort of motor after-image came back and took the foreground"; and F. goes further when he states, "Ideationally my hand wandered to the upper right-hand corner of the page, then suddenly the auditory image of 47 came up as if whispered to me." All of which indicate that some ideas at least depend for their entrance into consciousness upon motor reactions.
Passing to the more refined reactions expressed in emotions we find that they are not merely accompanying coloring influences, but also often actual determining factors. All of the subjects notice at some time a coloring atmosphere from an emotion, but others find that "the growing word is rather felt emotionally than definitely formulated," and we have "a nameless idea, largely feeling-tone" (Ht.); or the words may "all come as parts of a growing feeling, an indistinct though strong state of mind." (J.) The same subject observed, "The previous word may create a mood or feeling which in the main determines the associations; a group of words is dependent upon strong accompanying feeling—there is a summation and a discharge while the next word has been accumulating force" (J.), and we have a form of summation; or in other words, "a general mood accumulated while several words were in mind at once, then all dropped and another general feeling came to the front with an accumulation of other words." (F.) Here we have a typical example of constellation where all the words and ideas are implicitly present as a total attitude or disposition, the elements of which become successively focalised into a series of associated images. The last subject finds that "the emotional atmosphere often controls the associations." Indeed, it would seem that occasionally for some subjects this strong accompanying undercurrent of undifferentiated emotional feeling is capable of bringing about trains of thought independent of any logical connection. K. finds "the feeling to carry one on"; H. finds the "point of departure the interesting idea"; all find that the words change with the disposition, as may be verified by a study of the lists of associations.
We are forced to conclude that the impulses to movement or other emotional attitudes may act as determining factors in association, which extended to an hypothesis would mean that the mode of transition in the associated series is in the last analysis to be found in delicate incipient motor tendencies to action, the psychic concomitants of which are observable; that psychic states are both as to their unity and organisation consequences of motor reactions which are implicitly present as parts of a total reaction to the present situation. It is these motor tendencies to action which determine what idea shall enter consciousness. Just in so far as they become released they become prolonged, accentuated, and form a nucleus for the new idea. To speak of association independent of motor elements is merely to make an empirical classification of successive states of consciousness.
There remains a psychical phenomenon which must be satisfactorily accounted for before we go farther. An element of an idea, an idea or a series of ideas may occupy consciousness to the exclusion of others. If the second starting-point were not given, the associations would undoubtedly follow the given one. Inhibition must then be one form of "obstructed association," the inhibiting ideas being present to the exclusion of the inhibited. But are we thus forced to say inhibition is the "negative side of the association process," claiming that all ideas not in consciousness are inhibited, and thus being forced to conclude the conscious idea is inhibiting an unconscious idea, which cannot exist (by the very definition and presuppositions of psychology) until it is an object of consciousness. This would mean that content of consciousness and inhibition are identical. On the other hand, the notes and exemplifying facts of the tables show Dr. Breese's fallacious position when he concludes that "because, obeying the laws of association, the train of ideas takes one direction rather than another can hardly be considered sufficient ground to hold that the other possible train of ideas is inhibited."[137] He has overlooked the possibility of two or more trains of associations having been started and the associations of one starting-point are excluded from entering the focus of consciousness by the direction of the given series. Inhibition would then be the negative side of fusion. The explanation must, as has already been demonstrated, be psycho-physical in character. If these impulses to action have actually been observed by the subjects we are justified in concluding that just as in physiological inhibition one action excludes another, so the correlative tendencies to movement of one idea exclude others.
By. observed that the image of the starting-point lingered and inhibited subsequent ideas. The implication here, from our previous reasoning, would be that not the ideational images, as such, but the physiological motor concomitants, persisted and excluded others, and this is why disparate terms give a "shock to the nervous system" (A.), "require different lines of expression" (A.); and "one has more momentum," as so many report. This would explain why the associations of a new starting-point inhibit the associations of a former one; for as the motor nervous impulses tend to work themselves out into action, the reaction of the previous impulse will be suppressed by those of a new impulse which enters, by the conditions of these experiments, an attentive consciousness. Thus the prepotent impulses to action are the conditioning factors in mental inhibition.
All this indicates that the basis of habit which has been the universal principle of explanation of associations is inadequate. As Münsterberg has pointed out, contrary to what we mean by habit, either idea may bring to consciousness the other, in a manner independent of the order of the original presentation. Extending our hypothesis to include the formation of associations, the conclusion will be that in order for two ideas to become associated they must be together in consciousness, each as parts of a total experience, a total attitude; the motor reactions of the ideas must be parts of a more comprehensive reaction which includes both as simultaneous correlated motor impulses: when, in future time, the reactions of the one are reëxperienced, there is a sequence of infinitely delicate and complex impulses to movement, and any tendency toward such reaction tends to reproduce the whole of which it is a part, as each reaction is more or less bound up in the integrity of the whole central nervous system.