CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. ANCIENT AMERICA.

page

The American aborigines 1

Question as to their origin 2, 3

Antiquity of man in America 4

Shell-mounds, or middens 4, 5

The Glacial Period 6, 7

Discoveries in the Trenton gravel 8

Discoveries in Ohio, Indiana, and Minnesota 9

Mr. Cresson's discovery at Claymont, Delaware 10

The Calaveras skull 11

Pleistocene men and mammals 12, 13

Elevation and subsidence 13, 14

Waves of migration 15

The Cave men of Europe in the Glacial Period 16

The Eskimos are probably a remnant of the Cave men 17-19

There was probably no connection or intercourse by water between ancient America and the Old World 20

There is one great American red race 21

Different senses in which the word "race" is used 21-23

No necessary connection between differences in culture and differences in race 23

Mr. Lewis Morgan's classification of grades of culture 24-32

Distinction between Savagery and Barbarism 25

Origin of pottery 25

Lower, middle, and upper status of savagery 26

Lower status of barbarism; it ended differently in the two hemispheres; in ancient America there was no pastoral stage of development 27

Importance of Indian corn 28

Tillage with irrigation 29

Use of adobe-brick and stone in building 29

Middle status of barbarism 29, 30

Stone and copper tools 30

Working of metals; smelting of iron 30

Upper status of barbarism 31

The alphabet and the beginnings of civilization 32

So-called "civilizations" of Mexico and Peru 33, 34

Loose use of the words "savagery" and "civilization" 35

Value and importance of the term "barbarism" 35, 36

The status of barbarism is most completely exemplified in ancient America 36, 37

Survival of bygone epochs of culture; work of the Bureau of Ethnology 37, 38

Tribal society and multiplicity of languages in aboriginal America 38, 39

Tribes in the upper status of savagery; Athabaskans, Apaches, Shoshones, etc. 39

Tribes in the lower status of barbarism; the Dakota group or family 40

The Minnitarees and Mandans 41

The Pawnee and Arickaree group 42

The Maskoki group 42

The Algonquin group 43

The Huron-Iroquois group 44

The Five Nations 45-47

Distinction between horticulture and field agriculture 48

Perpetual intertribal warfare, with torture and cannibalism 49-51

Myths and folk-lore 51

Ancient law 52, 53

The patriarchal family not primitive 53

"Mother-right" 54

Primitive marriage 55

The system of reckoning kinship through females only 56

Original reason for the system 57

The primeval human horde 58, 59

Earliest family-group; the clan 60

"Exogamy" 60

Phratry and tribe 61

Effect of pastoral life upon property and upon the family 61-63

The exogamous clan in ancient America 64

Intimate connection of aboriginal architecture with social life 65

The long houses of the Iroquois 66, 67

Summary divorce 68

Hospitality 68

Structure of the clan 69, 70

Origin and structure of the phratry 70, 71

Structure of the tribe 72

Cross-relationships between clans and tribes; the Iroquois Confederacy 72-74

Structure of the confederacy 75, 76

The "Long House" 76

Symmetrical development of institutions in ancient America 77, 78

Circular houses of the Mandans 79-81

The Indians of the pueblos, in the middle status of barbarism 82, 83

Horticulture with irrigation, and architecture with adobe 83, 84

Possible origin of adobe architecture 84, 85

Mr. Cushing's sojourn at Zuñi 86

Typical structure of the pueblo 86-88

Pueblo society 89

Wonderful ancient pueblos in the Chaco valley 90-92

The Moqui pueblos 93

The cliff-dwellings 93

Pueblo of Zuñi 93, 94

Pueblo of Tlascala 94-96

The ancient city of Mexico was a great composite pueblo 97

The Spanish discoverers could not be expected to understand the state of society which they found there 97, 98

Contrast between feudalism and gentilism 98

Change from gentile society to political society in Greece and Rome 99, 100

First suspicions as to the erroneousness of the Spanish accounts 101

Detection and explanation of the errors, by Lewis Morgan 102

Adolf Bandelier's researches 103

The Aztec Confederacy 104, 105

Aztec clans 106

Clan officers 107

Rights and duties of the clan 108

Aztec phratries 108

The tlatocan, or tribal council 109

The cihuacoatl, or "snake-woman" 110

The tlacatecuhtli, or "chief-of-men" 111

Evolution of kingship in Greece and Rome 112

Mediæval kingship 113

Montezuma was a "priest-commander" 114

Mode of succession to the office 114, 115

Manner of collecting tribute 116

Mexican roads 117

Aztec and Iroquois confederacies contrasted 118

Aztec priesthood; human sacrifices 119, 120

Aztec slaves 121, 122

The Aztec family 122, 123

Aztec property 124

Mr. Morgan's rules of criticism 125

He sometimes disregarded his own rules 126

Amusing illustrations from his remarks on "Montezuma's Dinner" 126-128

The reaction against uncritical and exaggerated statements was often carried too far by Mr. Morgan 128, 129

Great importance of the middle period of barbarism 130

The Mexicans compared with the Mayas 131-133

Maya hieroglyphic writing 132

Ruined cities of Central America 134-138

They are probably not older than the twelfth century 136

Recent discovery of the Chronicle of Chicxulub 138

Maya culture very closely related to Mexican 139

The "Mound-Builders" 140-146

The notion that they were like the Aztecs 142

Or, perhaps, like the Zuñis 143

These notions are not well sustained 144

The mounds were probably built by different peoples in the lower status of barbarism, by Cherokees, Shawnees, and other tribes 144, 145

It is not likely that there was a "race of Mound Builders" 146

Society in America at the time of the Discovery had reached stages similar to stages reached by eastern Mediterranean peoples fifty or sixty centuries earlier 146, 147

CHAPTER II. PRE-COLUMBIAN VOYAGES.

Stories of voyages to America before Columbus; the Chinese 148

The Irish. 149

Blowing and drifting; Cousin, of Dieppe 150

These stories are of small value 150

But the case of the Northmen is quite different 151

The Viking exodus from Norway 151, 152

Founding of a colony in Iceland, A. D. 874 153

Icelandic literature 154

Discovery of Greenland, A. D. 876 155, 156

Eric the Red, and his colony in Greenland, A. D. 986 157-161

Voyage of Bjarni Herjulfsson 162

Conversion of the Northmen to Christianity 163

Leif Ericsson's voyage, A. D. 1000; Helluland and Markland 164

Leif's winter in Vinland 165, 166

Voyages of Thorvald and Thorstein 167

Thorfinn Karlsefni, and his unsuccessful attempt to found a colony in Vinland, A. D. 1007-10 167-169

Freydis, and her evil deeds in Vinland, 1011-12 170, 171

Voyage into Baffin's Bay, 1135 172

Description of a Viking ship discovered at Sandefiord, in Norway 173-175

To what extent the climate of Greenland may have changed within the last thousand years 176, 177

With the Northmen once in Greenland, the discovery of the American continent was inevitable 178

Ear-marks of truth in the Icelandic narratives 179, 180

Northern limit of the vine 181

Length of the winter day 182

Indian corn 182, 183

Winter weather in Vinland 184

Vinland was probably situated somewhere between Cape Breton and Point Judith 185

Further ear-marks of truth; savages and barbarians of the lower status were unknown to mediæval Europeans 185, 186

The natives of Vinland as described in the Icelandic narratives 187-193

Meaning of the epithet "Skrælings" 188, 189

Personal appearance of the Skrælings 189

The Skrælings of Vinland were Indians,—very likely Algonquins 190

The "balista" or "demon's head" 191, 192

The story of the "uniped" 193

Character of the Icelandic records; misleading associations with the word "saga" 194

The comparison between Leif Ericsson and Agamemnon, made by a committee of the Massachusetts Historical Society, was peculiarly unfortunate and inappropriate 194, 197

The story of the Trojan War, in the shape in which we find it in Greek poetry, is pure folk-lore 195

The Saga of Eric the Red is not folk-lore 196

Mythical and historical sagas 197

The western or Hauks-bók version of Eric the Red's Saga 198

The northern or Flateyar-bók version 199

Presumption against sources not contemporary 200

Hauk Erlendsson and his manuscripts 201

The story is not likely to have been preserved to Hauk's time by oral tradition only 202

Allusions to Vinland in other Icelandic documents 202-207

Eyrbyggja Saga 203

The abbot Nikulas, etc. 204

Ari Fródhi and his works 204

His significant allusion to Vinland 205

Other references 206

Differences between Hauks-bók and Flateyar-bók versions 207

Adam of Bremen 208

Importance of his testimony 209

His misconception of the situation of Vinland 210

Summary of the argument 211-213

Absurd speculations of zealous antiquarians 213-215

The Dighton inscription was made by Algonquins, and has nothing to do with the Northmen 213, 214

Governor Arnold's stone windmill 215

There is no reason for supposing that the Northmen founded a colony in Vinland 216

No archæological remains of them have been found south of Davis strait 217

If the Northmen had founded a successful colony, they would have introduced domestic cattle into the North American fauna 218

And such animals could not have vanished and left no trace of their existence 219, 220

Further fortunes of the Greenland colony 221

Bishop Eric's voyage in search of Vinland, 1121 222

The ship from Markland, 1347 223

The Greenland colony attacked by Eskimos, 1349 224

Queen Margaret's monopoly, and its baneful effects 225

Story of the Venetian brothers, Nicolò and Antonio Zeno 226

Nicolò Zeno wrecked upon one of the Færoe islands 227

He enters the service of Henry Sinclair, Earl of the Orkneys and Caithness 228

Nicolò's voyage to Greenland, cir. 1394 229

Voyage of Earl Sinclair and Antonio Zeno 229, 230

Publication of the remains of the documents by the younger Nicolò Zeno, 1558 231

The Zeno map 232, 233

Queer transformations of names 234-236

The name Færoislander became Frislanda 236

The narrative nowhere makes a claim to the "discovery of America" 237

The "Zichmni" of the narrative means Henry Sinclair 238

Bardsen's "Description of Greenland" 239

The monastery of St. Olaus and its hot spring 240

Volcanoes of the north Atlantic ridge 241

Fate of Gunnbjörn's Skerries, 1456 242

Volcanic phenomena in Greenland 242, 243

Estotiland 244

Drogio 245

Inhabitants of Drogio and the countries beyond 246

The Fisherman's return to Frislanda 247

Was the account of Drogio woven into the narrative by the younger Nicolò? 248

Or does it represent actual experiences in North America? 249

The case of David Ingram, 1568 250

The case of Cabeza de Vaca, 1528-36 251

There may have been unrecorded instances of visits to North America 252

The pre-Columbian voyages made no real contributions to geographical knowledge 253

And were in no true sense a discovery of America 254

Real contact between the eastern and western hemisphere was first established by Columbus 255

CHAPTER III. EUROPE AND CATHAY.

Why the voyages of the Northmen were not followed up 256

Ignorance of their geographical significance 257

Lack of instruments for ocean navigation 257

Condition of Europe in the year 1000 258, 259

It was not such as to favour colonial enterprise 260

The outlook of Europe was toward Asia 261

Routes of trade between Europe and Asia 262

Claudius Ptolemy and his knowledge of the earth 263

Early mention of China 264

The monk Cosmas Indicopleustes 265

Shape of the earth, according to Cosmas 266, 267

His knowledge of Asia 268

The Nestorians 268

Effects of the Saracen conquests 269

Constantinople in the twelfth century 270

The Crusades 270-274

Barbarizing character of Turkish conquest 271

General effects of the Crusades 272

The Fourth Crusade 273

Rivalry between Venice and Genoa 274

Centres and routes of mediæval trade 275, 276

Effects of the Mongol conquests 277

Cathay, origin of the name 277

Carpini and Rubruquis 278

First knowledge of an eastern ocean beyond Cathay 278

The data were thus prepared for Columbus; but as yet nobody reasoned from these data to a practical conclusion 279

The Polo brothers 280

Kublai Khan's message to the Pope 281

Marco Polo and his travels in Asia 281, 282

First recorded voyage of Europeans around the Indo-Chinese peninsula 282

Return of the Polos to Venice 283

Marco Polo's book, written in prison at Genoa, 1299; its great contributions to geographical knowledge 284, 285

Prester John 285

Griffins and Arimaspians 286

The Catalan map, 1375 288, 289

Other visits to China 287-291

Overthrow of the Mongol dynasty, and shutting up of China 291

First rumours of the Molucca islands and Japan 292

The accustomed routes of Oriental trade were cut off in the fifteenth century by the Ottoman Turks 293

Necessity for finding an "outside route to the Indies" 294

CHAPTER IV. THE SEARCH FOR THE INDIES. EASTWARD OR PORTUGUESE ROUTE.

Question as to whether Asia could be reached by sailing around Africa 295

Views of Eratosthenes 296

Opposing theory of Ptolemy 297

Story of the Phœnician voyage in the time of Necho 298-300

Voyage of Hanno 300, 301

Voyages of Sataspes and Eudoxus 302

Wild exaggerations 303

Views of Pomponius Mela 304, 305

Ancient theory of the five zones 306, 307

The Inhabited World, or Œcumene, and the Antipodes 308

Curious notions about Taprobane (Ceylon) 309

Question as to the possibility of crossing the torrid zone 309

Notions about sailing "up and down hill" 310, 311

Superstitious fancies 311, 312

Clumsiness of ships in the fifteenth century 312

Dangers from famine and scurvy 313

The mariner's compass; an interesting letter from Brunetto Latini to Guido Cavalcanti 313-315

Calculating latitudes and longitudes 315

Prince Henry the Navigator 316-326

His idea of an ocean route to the Indies, and what it might bring 318

The Sacred Promontory 319

The Madeira and Canary islands 320-322

Gil Eannes passes Cape Bojador 323

Beginning of the modern slave-trade, 1442 323

Papal grant of heathen countries to the Portuguese crown 324, 325

Advance to Sierra Leone 326

Advance to the Hottentot coast 326, 327

Note upon the extent of European acquaintance with savagery and the lower forms of barbarism previous to the fifteenth century 327-329

Effect of the Portuguese discoveries upon the theories of Ptolemy and Mela 329, 330

News of Prester John; Covilham's journey 331

Bartholomew Dias passes the Cape of Good Hope and enters the Indian ocean 332

Some effects of this discovery 333

Bartholomew Columbus took part in it 333

Connection between these voyages and the work of Christopher Columbus 334

CHAPTER V. THE SEARCH FOR THE INDIES. WESTWARD OR SPANISH ROUTE.

Sources of information concerning the life of Columbus; Las Casas and Ferdinand Columbus 335

The Biblioteca Colombina at Seville 336, 337

Bernaldez and Peter Martyr 338

Letters of Columbus 338

Defects in Ferdinand's information 339, 340

Researches of Henry Harrisse 341

Date of the birth of Columbus; archives of Savona 342

Statement of Bernaldez 343

Columbus's letter of September, 1501 344

The balance of probability is in favour of 1436 345

The family of Domenico Colombo, and its changes of residence 346, 347

Columbus tells us that he was born in the city of Genoa 348

His early years 349-351

Christopher and his brother Bartholomew at Lisbon 351, 352

Philippa Moñiz de Perestrelo 352

Personal appearance of Columbus 353

His marriage, and life upon the island of Porto Santo 353, 354

The king of Portugal asks advice of the great astronomer Toscanelli 355

Toscanelli's first letter to Columbus 356-361

His second letter to Columbus 361, 362

Who first suggested the feasibleness of a westward route to the Indies? Was it Columbus? 363

Perhaps it was Toscanelli 363, 364

Note on the date of Toscanelli's first letter to Columbus 365-367

The idea, being naturally suggested by the globular form of the earth, was as old as Aristotle 368, 369

Opinions of ancient writers 370

Opinions of Christian writers 371

The "Imago Mundi" of Petrus Alliacus 372, 373

Ancient estimates of the size of the globe and the length of the Œcumene 374

Toscanelli's calculation of the size of the earth, and of the position of Japan (Cipango) 375, 376

Columbus's opinions of the size of the globe, the length of the Œcumene, and the width of the Atlantic ocean from Portugal to Japan 377-380

There was a fortunate mixture of truth and error in these opinions of Columbus 381

The whole point and purport of Columbus's scheme lay in its promise of a route to the Indies shorter than that which the Portuguese were seeking by way of Guinea 381

Columbus's speculations on climate; his voyages to Guinea and into the Arctic ocean 382

He may have reached Jan Mayen island, and stopped at Iceland 383, 384

The Scandinavian hypothesis that Columbus "must have" heard and understood the story of the Vinland voyages 384, 385

It has not a particle of evidence in its favour 385

It is not probable that Columbus knew of Adam of Bremen's allusion to Vinland, or that he would have understood it if he had read it 386

It is doubtful if he would have stumbled upon the story in Iceland 387

If he had heard it, he would probably have classed it with such tales as that of St. Brandan's isle 388

He could not possibly have obtained from such a source his opinion of the width of the ocean 388, 389

If he had known and understood the Vinland story, he had the strongest motives for proclaiming it and no motive whatever for concealing it 390-392

No trace of a thought of Vinland appears in any of his voyages 393

Why did not Norway or Iceland utter a protest in 1493? 393

The idea of Vinland was not associated with the idea of America until the seventeenth century 394

Recapitulation of the genesis of Columbus's scheme 395

Martin Behaim's improved astrolabe 395, 396

Negotiations of Columbus with John II. of Portugal 396, 397

The king is persuaded into a shabby trick 398

Columbus leaves Portugal and enters into the service of Ferdinand and Isabella, 1486 398-400

The junto at Salamanca, 1486 401

Birth of Ferdinand Columbus, August 15, 1488 401

Bartholomew Columbus returns from the Cape of Good Hope, December, 1487 402, 403

Christopher visits Bartholomew at Lisbon, cir. September, 1488, and sends him to England 404

Bartholomew, after mishaps, reaches England cir. February, 1490, and goes thence to France before 1492 405-407

The duke of Medina-Celi proposes to furnish the ships for Columbus, but the queen withholds her consent 408, 409

Columbus makes up his mind to get his family together and go to France, October, 1491 409, 410

A change of fortune; he stops at La Rábida, and meets the prior Juan Perez, who writes to the queen 411

Columbus is summoned back to court 411

The junto before Granada, December, 1491 412, 413

Surrender of Granada, January 2, 1492 414

Columbus negotiates with the queen, who considers his terms exorbitant 414-416

Interposition of Luis de Santangel 416

Agreement between Columbus and the sovereigns 417

Cost of the voyage 418

Dismay at Palos 419

The three famous caravels 420

Delay at the Canary islands 421

Martin Behaim and his globe 422, 423

Columbus starts for Japan, September 6, 1492 424

Terrors of the voyage:—1. Deflection of the needle 425

2. The Sargasso sea 426, 427

3. The trade wind 428

Impatience of the crews 428

Change of course from W. to W. S. W 429, 430

Discovery of land, October 12, 1492 431

Guanahani: which of the Bahama islands was it? 432

Groping for Cipango and the route to Quinsay 433, 434

Columbus reaches Cuba, and sends envoys to find a certain Asiatic prince 434, 435

He turns eastward and Pinzon deserts him 435

Columbus arrives at Hayti and thinks it must be Japan 436

His flag-ship is wrecked, and he decides to go back to Spain 437

Building of the blockhouse, La Navidad 438

Terrible storm in mid-ocean on the return voyage 439

Cold reception at the Azores 440

Columbus is driven ashore in Portugal, where the king is advised to have him assassinated 440

But to offend Spain so grossly would be imprudent 441

Arrival of Columbus and Pinzon at Palos; death of Pinzon 442

Columbus is received by the sovereigns at Barcelona 443, 444

General excitement at the news that a way to the Indies had been found 445

This voyage was an event without any parallel in history 446

CHAPTER VI. THE FINDING OF STRANGE COASTS.

The Discovery of America was a gradual process 447, 448

The letters of Columbus to Santangel and to Sanchez 449

Versification of the story by Giuliano Dati 450

Earliest references to the discovery 451

The earliest reference in English 452

The Portuguese claim to the Indies 453

Bulls of Pope Alexander VI. 454-458

The treaty of Tordesillas 459

Juan Rodriguez Fonseca, and his relations with Columbus 460-462

Friar Boyle 462

Notable persons who embarked on the second voyage 463

Departure from Cadiz 464

Cruise among the Cannibal (Caribbee) islands 465

Fate of the colony at La Navidad 466

Building the town of Isabella 467

Exploration of Cibao 467, 468

Westward cruise; Cape Alpha and Omega 468-470

Discovery of Jamaica 471

Coasting the south side of Cuba 472

The "people of Mangon" 473

Speculations concerning the Golden Chersonese 474-476

A solemn expression of opinion 477

Vicissitudes of theory 477, 478

Arrival of Bartholomew Columbus in Hispaniola 478, 479

Mutiny in Hispaniola; desertion of Boyle and Margarite 479, 480

The government of Columbus was not tyrannical 481

Troubles with the Indians 481, 482

Mission of Juan Aguado 482

Discovery of gold mines, and speculations about Ophir 483

Founding of San Domingo, 1496 484

The return voyage to Spain 485

Edicts of 1495 and 1497 486, 487

Vexatious conduct of Fonseca; Columbus loses his temper 487

Departure from San Lucar on the third voyage 488

The belt of calms 489-491

Trinidad and the Orinoco 491, 492

Speculations as to the earth's shape; the mountain of Paradise 494

Relation of the "Eden continent" to "Cochin China" 495

Discovery of the Pearl Coast 495

Columbus arrives at San Domingo 496

Roldan's rebellion and Fonseca's machinations 496, 497

Gama's voyage to Hindustan, 1497 498

Fonseca's creature, Bobadilla, sent to investigate the troubles in Hispaniola 499

He imprisons Columbus 500

And sends him in chains to Spain 501

Release of Columbus; his interview with the sovereigns 502

How far were the sovereigns responsible for Bobadilla? 503

Ovando, another creature of Fonseca, appointed governor of Hispaniola 503, 504

Purpose of Columbus's fourth voyage, to find a passage from the Caribbee waters into the Indian ocean 504, 506

The voyage across the Atlantic 506

Columbus not allowed to stop at San Domingo 507

His arrival at Cape Honduras 508

Cape Gracias a Dios, and the coast of Veragua 509

Fruitless search for the strait of Malacca 510

Futile attempt to make a settlement in Veragua 511

Columbus is shipwrecked on the coast of Jamaica; shameful conduct of Ovando 512

Columbus's last return to Spain 513

His death at Valladolid, May 20, 1506 513

"Nuevo Mundo;" arms of Ferdinand Columbus 514, 515

When Columbus died, the fact that a New World had been discovered by him had not yet begun to dawn upon his mind, or upon the mind of any voyager or any writer 515, 516