Volume 2 — CHAPTER VI.

Of the religion of the Muhammedans, or of the people of Islám (right faith), consisting of two sections: the first treats of the religion of the Sonnites, the second of the religion of the Shiâs.

Section the first: of the religion of the Sonnites.—The author of this book was informed by respectable persons of the Sonnites (the mercy of God be upon them!) and saw in their books, namely, in the doctrine presented by the imam Mohammed Sheh eristanî,[498] where it is said, that in sign of revelation 323 the verses of the high prophet (upon whom be blessing!) show the right faith; that his religion will divide into seventy and three sects,[499] and that of this number one shall obtain salvation, and the rest shall share darkness and perdition. It was asked: “Upon what people shall the sun of salvation shine?” He answered: “It shall shine upon the people of the 324 Sonat[500] and Jamáât.”[501] It was further asked: “Who are the people of Sonat[502] and Jamáât?” He said: “Those who walk the road upon which I am to-day a traveller, and by which my successor shall proceed.” The same book treats also of the Sifátîah,[503] a great number of which sect has from all times acknowledged the greatness of the divine nature, whose attributes are omniscience, power, life, hearing, sight, providence, command, majesty, bounty, profuse liberality, greatness, and magnificence; they make no difference between the essential attributes and the attributes of operation; because in logic, according 325 to their definition of the words, both these attributes are but one; they maintain that some of the attributes are proclaimed by the evidence of the blessed revelation; and these they call attributes declarative: for instance, the hand, the countenance; these they do not interpret in a particular sense, but they say, these attributes are found mentioned in the sacred book, on which account these attributes are called declarative. Whereas the sect called the Mâtazalah[504] deny the attributes, and the ancients maintain them by arguments; the latter are called Sifátiah, and the Mâtezalah are entitled Mâtalah; but these last employ 326 exaggeration in their arguments to such a degree that they approach the boundary of a mere image. Some use more restriction with respect to the attribution, which is indicated by the actions of God. Information derived from the sacred book devolved equally to both sects; but some interpret these words in a manner that they may appear probable, whilst others are firm in their interpretation, saying: “We know by the application of the intellect that nothing can be like the Lord’s divine power, and that at all times nothing of what is created can be like him, and firmly convinced of it, we think these words are to be considered as a mere simile, such as: ‘God seated upon his throne,’ or such as ‘I created you with my hand, and I preserve you.’ Except these words, which are to be considered as a mere simile, we know no other meaning, and to know thoroughly the meaning and interpretation of it, we feel ourselves perplexed; but, in spite of this perplexity, we deny the likeness of the created beings and the Creator, on account of the extent of the divine power.”

The sect called Jamáâtî, which belongs to the moderns, amplified what the ancients had maintained, and said, that necessarily an evident sense is to be ascribed to these words, and by means of a commentary an agreement was obtained upon the proper bearing which the text of the sacred book 327 has, so that we may without difficulty interpret it, or establish the evident meaning of it. They always fell into a pure simile, and in such an acceptation, they are in opposition to the ancients. Whatever, as a pure simile, is taken from the sacred book of the Jews, this is also not received by all the Jewish tribes, although the readers of the Koran, having found some such words in the Old Testament, employ the simile as an argument, and in this belief are the Shîâh. Some fell upon the side of excess, and some upon that of deficiency; but others of the sect, which by exaggeration[505] exceeded all bounds, declared as vain any comparison with the Lord Almighty, whilst the sect which happened to take the side of deficiency and error compared something which is created to the Lord God. When the Mâtazalah and the Matakalmán,[506] “scholastics,” appeared, then some openly turned their face from exaggeration 328 and deficiency in which they were, and became Mâtazalah. And some of the ancients, inasmuch as they attached themselves to the imagery of certain words which are to be considered as a mere simile, fell into an error; but the sect of the ancients in general did not oppose the interpretation of those words, and made themselves no objects of contention and blame on account of the simile. It was the example of the theologians and of the Imáms of the right faith, the Imám Ans Ebn Málik,[507] (the peace of God be upon him!) who said that the words: “God was seated upon his throne,” are evident; the attribute is unknown, and the faith to be placed in it is necessary. The question thereupon being a novelty, and carried to such a state, the Imáms Ahmed Hanbal[508] 329 and Dáúd Jśfaháni,[509] (the mercy of God be upon them!) and the Jamáâtî, who followed them, came to a final conclusion, until the time of Abd-Alah Kalabî, and Abî al Abas Kalánasî, and Háres Jben Asad Mahásebi.[510] Although these were of the ancients, it happened that, by devoting themselves to scholastic theology, they became inflamed with it, but were not able to expound the creed of the ancients; in such a manner as to impart, by means of arguments, clearness 330 to the fundamentals of theology, and their fervor and activity became doubled and increased, until by the intervention of the Shaikh Abu ’l Hasen Asharî[511], and by his instruction in the precepts of rectitude and perfection an opposition appeared, and a dispute arose, and enmity displayed itself. Ashâri inclined to their side, and by opening roads to the fundamentals of theology, he lent strength to their endeavors, and this creed became the religion of the Sonnites and the Jamáât. The title of Sifátíah, which they bore as a title of honor, was changed, and they called themselves Ashârî. As the Ashârîáh and 331 Keramiah[512] are among the establishers of the divine attributes, they are acknowledged as two sects of the totality of the Sifátîah. The principal point among the precepts of the Ashârîs is, that every being that may really exist must be perfect, that it may answer its own purpose; perfection is a necessity of existence, and the Lord Almighty is the real being: the necessity of the Lord God is always right, and the law by him is a salvation acquired, so that the faithful believers shall in the other world, by a beneficent necessity, become exalted:

They say besides, that if he gave access to heaven to all creatures, or sent them to hell, it would not be unjust; because tyranny can be exercised every where except in his empire. They maintain also, that the office of an Imam becomes firm by union and election, not only by manifestation and establishment: 332 because, if there was manifestation, it did not remain occult, and the excitements occasioned by the report of it were abundant. Upon the plank of the children of Sáâdah[514] they united to elect Abubeker; after having established Abubeker, they chose Omar; and after consultation Osman, and afterwards their choice fell upon Alî (the blessing of God, the Highest, be upon them all!). The order of their succession in the office of Imam was according to the order of their excellence.

An example of what was said about the ancients is to be found among the possessors of the sacred sayings, the Imam Ahmed Hanbal[515] and Dáúd Ebn Ali Muhammed Jsfahánî[516] and the Jamáâtî of the ancients (the blessing of God be upon them!) who proceeded as leaders upon the high road of the ancients, such as Málik Ans and Makábil Ben Solîman, and persevered upon the high road of peace, saying: “We made oath by the book and the Sonna, and we were no opposers to the interpretation;” therefore they placed confidence in the book of God, and the Sonnites said: “We know that the Lord Almighty is not like any thing that is created, and none of the created beings is like the Lord Almighty;” and they were very careful of the simile, 333 and said: “Whoever makes a motion with his hand in reciting these words:

‘I created with my hands,’

“or extends his finger, repeating these words of the sacred sayings:

‘The heart of the believer is between two fingers of God the Merciful.’

“it shall be necessary to cut off his hand.” They said besides: ”We persevere in the interpretation of it, because there is a remedy for the heart, which remedy proceeded from the heavenly revelation; namely,

“They whose hearts are inclined to error will follow that which is parabolical therein (the Koran), out of love of schism and a desire of the interpretation thereof; yet none knoweth the interpretation thereof, except God. But they who are well grounded in knowledge say: ‘We believe therein the whole is from our Lord.’[517]

“And we are safe from doubt, and the interpretation of the command is fixed in our thought; by common consent the word about the attributes of God Almighty, interpreted according to opinion, is not to be depended upon; it may sometimes happen that we interpret it contrarily to the will of the Lord God; we always fall into doubt and some deviation from truth; but we say what the men firm in knowledge say: that the whole is from the Lord, the Almighty God; we manifested this 334 belief externally, and internally we acknowledged it as true; we consign it to the Lord, the Almighty God, and we are not perplexed by the abstruseness of this knowledge, because to possess it, is not imposed upon us by the law of the faith.” Some have carried scrupulousness to that degree, that they do not interpret in Persian the words “hand, countenance, and strength;” but, like the Hashaviyat Ashâriah, they enjoined that whatever is contained in the Koran about strength, both hands, countenance, arrival, meeting, supremacy, and the words in the sacred sayings, such as:

“God created Adam after his own image.”

and other expressions therein of a similar sort, are to be read in the very terms of the original, so that the words which there openly bear upon solid bodies, are understood by them in such a manner as to answer the belief of the religious sects and the attribution.

The author of this book heard, in the year of the Hejira 1048 (A. D. 1638) in the royal capital of Lahore, from Mulla Adel, of Kashghar, that he (the Mulla) has read in the revered book of his faith, and also the lord Mawlána Abd al rahmen Jámî[518] has stated, 335 in his noble verses, that by the right faith it is necessary to believe in our heart, and to confess with our tongue, that the author of existence is independant, absolute, and without wants; and that his being is free of matter and without a form, and that he is better than whatever can be imagined; he existed primitively whilst the beings were in the mansions of nothingness; after which, as an object everlasting, he remained firm, and no other being but he is always, and one; but his greatness, his attributes, and his names are without measure and number, although in a thousand parts he is but one; in these however he is not confined; the qualities of his majesty are not perceived by the eye; and no being but he has life inherent in his qualities; but he lives neither by his spirit, nor breath, nor body, although he be living by himself. He is another universe, endowed with such a knowledge that the world has no superiority over him, and his omniscience comprehends the totalities and the parts, the inhabitants and the places, and the town of existence, in such a manner that not a grain of sand is without his knowledge; he is the author of every thing by his will, and 336 the actions of all things may be voluntary, such as the doings of mankind; or natural, such as the inclination of a stone, and are all produced by his will.

He is strong, and possesses a perfect power; without the help of instruments he performs every thing; from nothingness he brings forth beings; he hears without an ear; he sees without an eye:

He speaks, but his speech comes not from his throat, nor from the tongue and the palate; but what he announces or withholds is nothing more than his speech; and his silence is eloquence.

The emergencies of the world, good or bad, are all from his disposition; and the actions pleasing or repulsive, are all his creation.

337 An account of the Angels.

The angels are neither females nor males, and are pure of all depravity and sins. Some of the first rank among them are entranced in the contemplation of the divine perfection which they witness, so that they are not aware of God Almighty having created the world and mankind. The second order of angels are the ministers of bodies and gigantic forms; the revolution of the heavens is their office; and with every drop of rain an angel comes down, and no leaf appears without an angel fostering it. But among the angels four are distinguished, namely: Jabrîl, Isráfîl, Mâîkáíl, and Azráîl. The message of revelation is the business of Jabrîl; to sound the trumpet belongs to Isráfîl; the surety of professions is Mâikáil’s; and Azráil seizes the souls. Four angels are the appointed guardians of mankind, and write down the good and the bad; two of them are occupied with this business during the day, and two during the night. The writers of the good keep the right side, those of the bad the left. The angels can in some form appear to men;

338 The prophets are the select of God from among all the children of Adam and of the exalted angels, and the spirit of Satan can never hurt them, if, by an extraordinary emergency, one of them commits a fault, it is reckoned to be for giving good advice.

Although there be among the prophets, as compared with each other, a higher and a lower rank in their exaltation, yet Muhammed the Arabian (may the blessing of God, the high and omnipotent, be upon him!) is the noble and excelling prophet, who unites all virtues and perfections.

He is the seal of God’s prophets, and after him no other shall come, and when at the end of time the Messiah shall descend, he shall adopt the law of Muhammed; he shall convoke the nations to his religion; the law of the prophet shall cancel all other laws.

The ascent of the prophet[521] with his body happened during his being awake, as far as the mosque Aksa; there he mounted on the back of Borák,[522] and passed above the heavens. He saw all the prophets, and the stories of the heavens and the hells; in the heavenly mansion of Jabrîl (God be praised!) the angel remained behind him; then, by means of the arch he proceeded further.

If this supernatural event was associated with the claim of prophecy, so was it a miracle, and if not, so was it divine favour; in the existence of the Lord prophet (the blessing and peace of God be with him) was a great number of miracles attesting his mission to the nations, and such ones as are not to be found with other prophets. There are many books attributed to God Almighty, and in their whole number one hundred and four are approved; but they are not confined to this number, and some of those which are known, are not praised.

As the book of God contains divine words, it is ancient, and the letters and sounds are new; the novelty of an old meaning is like a dress.

The Muhammedan religion is among the most excellent and most noble religions, and the father of this religion, the prophet of Arabia, is the best and the most eminent among the saints of the religions; there is a number of prophets, particularly the friends and the posterity of the prophet, but none is higher than he, the prophet.

When thou findest one of the people of the Kibla (the true faith) in a sin and fault, accuse him not of infidelity, and number him not among the people of damnation; in like manner, consider not a fit and good man, although he be removed from sins, as belonging to the inhabitants of heaven.

Having found the happy tidings that ten personages[525] 342 have entered into heaven, do not however include him in their number.

When any body is placed in the tomb, then two angels of a frightful appearance ask him: “Who was thy God, thy prophet, what thy creed?” If he give a right answer, then they keep his grave open, and make a window from heaven to it, that he may behold his future dwelling. But if his answer does not prove satisfactory, they beat his face soft with a club, and close the grave so tight upon him, that a noise issues from the compression of his sides; they also open a window from hell to him, so that he may there see his fate and his habitation. When the period of the world shall be terminated, the name of God shall not be pronounced by any tongue; then, by God’s orders, shall Israfíl sound the trumpet, and extinguish all like lamps; afterwards, during ages, there shall be no motion upon the face of the earth, until Israfíl shall again, at God’s order, by a blast of the trumpet blow the 343 souls into the dispersed parts of their bodies, so that all shall revive. Afterwards, at the last judgment, the angels shall place the journal of actions recorded at the right hand of the virtuous, and at the left of the iniquitous. If the balance is weighed down by the good actions of a person, he goes to heaven; but if the scale, heavy with sins weighs down the other, hell awaits the sinner. This being brought to a close, an invisible bridge is thrown over hell; this bridge is sharper than the edge of a sword and thinner than a hair, and the believers and unbelievers are to be driven over it.

The believer also shall, according to his knowledge and his actions, sooner or later pass over it; a weak faith shall not easily cross it.

There are fifty stations in the space on which the obedient and the rebels shall stop: upon each station another question is asked:

The unbeliever shall suffer the torment of hell eternally; and the iniquitous believer shall remain in it, according to the estimation of his crimes.

When they come out of hell, they wash themselves clean of smoke in the Kawser.[526] There are eight gradations, or steps, in heaven; and every man, according to his knowledge and conduct, shares a place in them, and enjoys eternal beatitude. The highest of blessings is the sight of God, the Almighty, whom the good behold as the moon of fourteen nights. This is upon the authority of the lord Mulána Abd-ul rahmen Jami.[527] It is written in an esteemed book, that there are in hell eight steps, in which men are placed according to the estimation of their sins.

Here is a short account of what I have learned from the speeches of intelligent men of the right faith. It is contained in their books that the first being created was the spirit of Muhammed.

“The first creature of God was my soul.”

345 To this allusion is made in the words quoted from the Koran. Then all the spirits of mankind were brought forth; these, before being united with bodies, remained four thousand years in the vicinity of the grace of the most high God:

“God created the souls four thousand years before the bodies.”

The heavens are understood to be the heavenly bodies of the sphere which is over our heads, and this has seven circles; the earth is the cover of the tortoise which is beneath our feet. There are seven earths:

“Who created seven heavens and earths like them.”

In each earth there are creatures, and amcng these creatures propagating inhabitants. The width of each earth is five hundred journeys of travel. The compartments of heaven are round; but in the middle of the circle is the tent of majesty; and in each sphere is an order of angels occupied with the worship and adoration of the divinity; one troop standing somewhat erect; another multitude inclined (with their hands on their knees); a number prostrated, with the forehead touching the ground; others sitting; some carry the throne of God; and every angel has a place and a post determined, which he cannot leave.

“Their place is a place known.”

From sphere to sphere there is a distance to be 346 traversed in five hundred years of travelling; in each heaven is one of the seven planets, all the other stars are in the first heaven, which is the next to the world of mankind.

The borders of heaven are upon the mount Kaf, and the throne of God[528] is higher than the seven spheres.

“He created the heavens and the earths.”

Above the throne of God is the ninth sphere (ârsh).

“He created the heavens and the earths in ten days, and then took rest upon his throne.”

The throne of God, the seven stories of heaven, and the seven âshîánah (nests, houses) of the earth are firm, and having taken their rest, do not move in any way, and are absolutely without motion.

All that has been enumerated did not exist in the beginning; the Almighty God created them without elementary matter by the action of his wisdom and absolute power. When the day of resurrection arrives, he shall fold together the heavens, and change the earth for another earth, and plunge the heavenly sphere and the earth into nothing. The 347 earth of the resurrection will be like an earth of pure silver, and in this earth nobody shall have committed a crime. As the happy Abd ullah says:

“On the day when the earth shall be changed for another earth, that is, shall be changed for an earth of white silver, where no blood shall be shed, and no crimes shall be committed.”

On the day of resurrection, heaven and hell shall be made ready; the dispersed members shall again form their body and be reunited; and the soul shall again take possession of them. Some shall be carried to heaven, others to hell. The first of mankind who was created was Adam; he was the father of men; his body was of earth; Adam was the father of all bodies, and Muhammed the father of all spirits.

“I was a prophet and a man, between water and earth;”

and all existence was brought forth according to, and in dependance upon, the existence of the prophet Muhammed.

The angels have wings to fly, with which they cross in one minute a distance of one thousand years’ journey. Satan was brought forth from fire, and was accursed on account of disobedience.[529]

This is the greatest part of the creed professed by the people of Islam. They are divided into many sects. According to the account of some belonging 348 to the persuasion of the Sonna and the Jamáât, the Mulla Muhammed Mâsúm, of Kashghar,[530] was a learned and virtuous man, and one of those who followed the doctrine of Hanefí, to whom he attached himself so much as to choose him for his master. His origin was from Badkahshán, and his name Shaikh Hossan; he always studied the Koran, the traditions, and other books of religion and law, and regulated his conduct after them; in such way he passed the day; he kept frequent fasts, never read poems nor listened to stories, and if any body uttered before him speeches of worldly people, he became angry. He was very cautious with the Shiâhs, and admitted them not to his house. The author of this book asked him, in Lahore: “What is the cause of the aversion which you always show to the Shiâhs.” He replied: “I was originally a Shiâh, and therefore conformed myself to that creed. One night I saw in a dream the lord Imâm Hossen, the son of the lord Alí, the son of Abí Taleb, and asked him about the real truth of religion; he enjoined me: ‘Be a Sonni, and keep away from the inconstant, for they are heretics and idolators of my person, and then utter unbecoming words against the heads of religion, Abubekr, Omar, and Osman, and by such an illusion they lost the right way: the way of 349 truth is the doctrine of the Sonnites and the Jamáât.’”

Here follows what I have learned from the Shaikh Hossen, as well as from Mulla Aádil. A Shiâh is no Muselman, and when he brings forth his faith, it is not right, according to the saying of the prophet:

“Reviling the two shaikhs is an infidelity without repentance (remission).”

I heard from Mulla Yâkub Tarfánî, that these words for restraining the tongue exceed all bounds, and are an exaggeration in the veneration of the two Shaikhs (the grace of God be upon them); that yet repentance (remission) is admitted; he said besides that it is agreed, reviling is no infidelity.

Shaikh Manśur Máterîdî[531] became a follower of the lord Imám Abú Hanífa of Kufa, and Hujjet ul islam, “the proof of Islam,” the Imám Muhammed Ghazáli,[532] who was a traveller on the same road with the 350 lord Jmám Sháfâyat[533] (the peace of God be upon them!) said in their literary compositions, and in books we read, that the root and the foundation of the seventy and two branches of religion are six doctrines, namely: the Tashbíah, Tâtîl, Jaber, Kadr, Rafs, and Naseb.[534]

351 In the âmedat ul mâtekad, “the pillar of believers,” composed by Shaháb ul hak, “flame of truth,” Shaikh of Islamism and of the Muselmans, Abu abd ulla Faselella, son of the Imám, the blessed, whom God has taken in his mercy, and whose sins are forgiven, Taj eddin, “the crown of the faith,” Abu Sâid al Hassan, son of Hassan, son of Yúsef al Súrí, is to be found, that the Tashbîhîan, “assimilators,” have attached to the most high God improper and unsuitable attributes, inasmuch as they have connected his creation partly with an elementary principle, and partly with accidents. The Tâtîlîan, “the indifferent,”[535] have denied God and his attributes. In the before-mentioned book we find, the creed of this sect is, that the world has no Creator, and that it always was such as it is, and that, except what is surely perceived, there is no other existence.

We have also heard from Shaikh Hossen, that the Tât´íl maintain what some philosophers asserted, that 352 God is the cause of things, and that the matter of the world was always in him. We learned also from Azîzî, that, according to this sect, God, the Almighty, when he created the world, attached its destiny to every thing that appeared, and that now, without God’s taking any active part in it, every thing exists or perishes.[536]

The sect of the Jaberiah, “the compelled,” having given up, and denying, freedom of action in men, attach all their deeds to God.[537]

353 The Kadariah, “the powerful,” affect God in themselves, and reckon themselves the creators of all their actions.[538]

The Rafs, “heretics,” profess their devotion to Alí (the peace of God be with him!), and in the exaggeration of their affection, they make an unbecoming use of their tongue in reviling the illustrious Abu-bekr, Omar, and Osman (the peace of God be upon 354 them!); they rebelled, and went so far that, whoever did not, after the prophet of Arabia, without hesitation acknowledge the supremacy of Alí (the grace of God be with him!) and profess his being the chief of the faith and substitute of the prophet, was not reckoned by them among the Muselmans.

The Nawaséb, “enemies,” are devoted to Abu-bekr and Omar, and having prevailed in this devotion, they rejected Alí (the mercy of God be upon him!) and proceeded so far that, whoever did not, after the great prophet, plainly and decidedly acknowledge Abubekr and Omar (the grace of God be with them!) as khalifs of the prophet, and as Imáms, was by them excluded from the circle of the right faith.

Each of these six sects was subdivided into twelve, whence seventy and two sects arose.[539] All are in the fire of hell, by the precepts of the sayings of the prophet:

“My nation is divided into seventy and three sects, who are all in the fire of hell, except one.”

And those only who are without these seventy and two sects belong to the people of salvation, because 355 they are of the true religion and upon the right road; but the true religion is that which is not to be found among the sects mentioned, and in which those six religions are not likely not to be, because these six religions did not exist in the time of the prophet and in the last will of the apostle. After him innovations took place, so that it is not unknown, in what time, and in what place or town, and by whom they became manifest, and from what cause they originated. By concordance of the people of Islam, the right road and the true religion is that which Muhammed (blessing be upon him!) and after him the noble companions professed, and this faith is that of the Sonnites and the Jamáât. This is in substance the creed of Shaíkh Mansúr, and of Hajet ul islám Abu Abd’ulla:[540] We are informed by the learned of the Hanefî persuasion, and by Mulla Yakúb Turkhanî, who was an assistant and companion of Mulla Adil, that the religion of the Sonnites and the Jamâát is divided into four branches, which are the four sides of the city of the law of Muhammed, namely, the Hanefîah, Málkîah, Sháfâya, Hambalîah,[541] and the wanderer in these four religions is liberated.

356 AN ACCOUNT OF THE UMAVIYAH AND YEZIDIAH CONNECTED WITH THE ALI-ILAHIAN.

In the east of Kohistan is a tract of country known by the name of Shekúnah, and the lord of it is Malek Yakúb, who boasts of having issued from the family of the lord of the believers, Mâaviah Ebn Abi Safîan. The inhabitants of that country are brave, warlike, pious, and abstemious. They have many commentaries, and knowledge of law and religion, and religious books. They acknowledge the divine mission of Muhammed (the blessing of God be upon him!) as well as the office of Imám and the khalifat of Abu-bekr and Omar, and of the lord of believers Mâaviah, and they revile Alî for having pretended to a divine rank. His belief was that they ought to possess all kinds of grain;[542] his followers worshipped him as divine; this he insinuated to them by this prayer, which he pronounced himself in the sermons, related as his saying:

“I am God; I am the merciful; I am the bountiful; I am the high; I am the creator; I am the provider of the necessaries of life; I am the most compassionate; I am the most propitious; I am he who bestows a form to the drop of the sperm in the wombs.”[543]

357 and the like; these words are of Pharâún and Nimrod,[544] and like these are many of their sayings. They are besides fond of bloodshed, and cruel. They say improper things about the prophet, as of one who did not always behave with decency. So it happened once, that eating dates in company with other persons, the prophet threw the stones of the dates towards Alí, and then said: “O Alí! thou hast eaten a great many dates, because all the stones are before thee;” Ali answered, “Thou hast swallowed them with the stones;” and they say this passage is in the sacred book:

“There are men whose speeches about the present life will astonish thee, and who will take God for witness of what is in their heart, whilst they are the most quarrelsome of adversaries.”

And they are approving Ebn Maljám,[545] and say Maljám is among them:

358 “There are some men who rescue their soul, desiring in this manner to perform the will of God.”

They assert that the two Hasáîn are not of the family of the prophet, according to this verse of the Koran:

“Muhammed is not any thing else but one of us; he is yet the prophet of God, and the seal of the Apostles.”

They say that Yazîd killed Hasan, the son of Alí, in his house, and did not bring him forth from the corner where he was concealed.[546] He was come for 359 subduing the country of Bîrak; on that account he was put to death. On the tenth day of the Moheram, they go on horseback upon a wide field which is before their town; there they make, of earth, an image of Hosain who was killed; against him they dash their horses, and think fortunate those who can say, that they have been riding against the bodies of the martyrs of Kerbala;[547] this they call a day of victory, and on this day they make a greater show of festivity and rejoicing, because the Imám of the time, that is, Yazîd, was upon the field of victory. And on Fridays and festivals they revile from their pulpits the lord Alí and his offspring. Among them is one sect in particular which act in this manner, and, with their swords drawn, curse Alí and his 360 sons, and in this way they pass one day: they are called Sîáf, “fencers.”

The same say that the prophet and his offspring, and particularly their prophet, had the power of recalling to life and putting to death, of creating and annihilating any being; and that they did whatever they wished. But this mode of acting was no more allowable to their successors, such as that of the prophets to destroy the living, which power they possessed on account of their having also that of recalling to life; but it is not one of our attributes to render lifeless the living, because we have not the power of restoring them to life; also because the creatures have not been made on our account; besides, the prophet took whatever mate he liked, because the world was his share, whilst it is not permitted to us to take the woman of another man. It is however right, making it our profession, to wage war against the opposers of faith, and to fight the enemies of religion for the protection of the law. This people kill no living beings in the country of Shekúnah. Their usual food is animal juice, such as honey, butter, and the like; they use no intoxicating liquors, nor that prepared from the palm-tree, nor opium.

Among the Maksud chep, who are a more intelligent people, the author of this book found himself in the house of one of them. There a man called Hushíar 361 Refik Nikarindah, asked him: “If it were not permitted to drink intoxicating liquors, how was it that the former prophets, and some of the khalifs, the sons of Ommiah,[548] drank wine?” He answered: “The wine could not overcome their understanding; with us, it is not so.” Hushiar said again to the author of this work: “If the khalifs, after the prophet, possessed the power to create and to annihilate lives, why did they not render the heretics dumb?” The answer was: “A king sent a phial of deadly poison to the Amir of the believers, Omar (the grace of God be with him!) that he may give it to an enemy; the khalif said: ‘I have no greater enemy than my own spirit,’ and he drank the whole phial, from which however his sacred body received no harm; now, the gentle-minded personage, who could drink poison, how would he not hear the abuse of mistaken 362 men? So represent to thyself the other khalifs.” The Cheps are a tribe of the people of Shekunah.

Section ii: an account of the second sect of the people of Islam, which sect is known under the name of Shíahs.—The author of this book was informed, by the learned of this sect, that they agreed to attribute the office of Imám and the khalifat, with the title of Amir of the believers, in particular to Alí (the peace of God be with him!) that he was established by clear tradition, or by manifestation or by testament; and they maintain that the khalifat was not alienable from the descendants of his highness, and if such a transgression happened, it can have been only by violence and by tyranny; they also said, that the office of an Imám is not to be given by the decision of a council, which may depend upon the choice of the vulgar, so that the Imám may be appointed by their injunction, but the true decision is that which derives its origin and support from the pillars of the faith; and the dignity of the prophetic asylum, Muhammed (may the benedictions of God be upon him!) does not deserve that there be negligence used or carelessness shown in such a matter, or that it be committed to the multitude. They argue thus upon the condition necessary for the 363 appointment of an Imám, upon its establishment and stability, which requires to be defended by the inferior and higher people. These are the opinions in which they agree about opposing or appointing an Imám, about words or deeds in the state of religion.

Some however, called Zaydiyat,[549] opposed them in what was said; and there is among the Shiâhs a great difference of opinion about the establishment of the Imám’s office, and at all times, before us until later days, there was much discoursing about it: they differ widely about the number of the Imáms. They are divided in different sects, and we shall in this book give an account of what we have seen of them.

364 OF THE TWELVE SECTS OF THE SHIAHS.

The author of this book relates what he has learned from Mulla Muhammed Mâsúm, from Muhammed Múmin, and from Mulla Ibrahim, who in the year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643) were in Lahore, and from others. The Mulla Ibrahim had great faith in his religion, and had a great aversion to the followers of the Sonna and the Jamaât, whom he never approached at meals; he did not during six months taste any butter in Lahore, because it happened to be a Hindu or Sonnite who was selling it. He said: “In the beginning of my manhood, I once slept in a field, and saw in a dream a great host of luminous beings, who said to me: ‘Be a Muselman.’ I answered: ‘Such is my inclination.’ They said again: ‘Take care of not being a Sonnite;’ and they added much about this subject to dissuade me from it. When they had disappeared, I asked their followers: ‘Who were they?’ They replied: ‘Imáms.’ When I awoke, from that moment I never associated with the Sonnites.”

With this sect there is but one Lord God, and no other: he is one, living, omniscient, self-acting, almighty, hearing and seeing every thing, and the first of speakers; they acknowledge his power, not only over possible, but even impossible things; they consider God Almighty as possessed of qualities 365 necessarily inherent in his essence; they hold the servant of God to be master of his own actions. With them the word of God is not ancient, but it is a novelty, because its meaning is understood from sounds. They adduce the words of Abu Jâfr Túsî[550] (the mercy of God be with him!), who says that, fundamentally considered, the seventy and three sects are only two religions, namely: Navá seb, “the enemies of Alí,” and Ravafés, “heretics” (the Shiâhs), because on the day on which Muhammed (the peace of God be upon him!) left the mortal garment, there were forty thousand companions present, who all acknowledged, with approbation and satisfaction, Abubekr as khalif, except eighteen persons, who were attached to Alí (the peace of God be with him!) who were joined by seventeen other individuals, who, averse to Abubekr, did not acknowledge him, nor give their consent to his khalifat. He said of these seventeen, rafas á na, “they abandoned me,” or “they separated from me,” whence they received 366 the name raváfés, “schismatics;” and those eighteen persons said to the companions:

“You have appointed Abubekr without inauguration.”

that is: “You raised to the khalifat Abubekr, without having due sanction for it;” on which account they received the title of Naváséb, “enemies,” and each of these two sects had two names; the one their own, on account of the part which they took in the appointment of the khalif, and the other name, which their antagonist or enemy gave them; all the companions called themselves the people of the faith, or the people of the Sonnat and Jamáât, whilst those eighteen persons called them naváseb, “enemies,” and to themselves they gave the title of múmin, “believers,” and Shiâhs, “troop,” but all the companions named them Ráfés, “heretics.” Afterwards, the religion of the Naváséb divided itself into fifty and five sects, and that of the Raváfés into eighteen, as it was said:

“All are in the fire of hell, except one.”

Of these sects, one only is to belong to the people of salvation, because they profess the right faith, and this right faith consists in believing the unity, the justice of God, the dignity of the prophet and of the Imám, and the resurrection, and in maintaining the truth of each of these five articles. As God Almighty thinks good to choose one among his 367 servants, whom he sends as his prophet and apostle, that he may announce the right way to his subjects and creatures, he who is sent must be pure of all our venial and mortal sins; his word is to be a mediation between God and man; and the prophet, who is sent by God, finds it necessary to choose one like him to fill his place after him, and this substitute must also be pure of all venial and mortal sins; this substitute, or khalif, must choose one who may take his place after him, so that the centre of the face of the earth may never remain destitute of Imáms; and that, by the reasoning of wisdom and by his efforts, the decisions in the law may be preserved right, and the collection of proofs not lose its purity among them. Muhammed chose Alí, and appointed him his executor and khalif, and Alí, after Muhammed, was the best and wisest of all prophets of the family; the other Imáms (the blessing of God be upon them!) were his sons; as the first, so were the last, and at the end they remained the same as they had been in the beginning. The number of Imáms, according to the Akhbár Nabi, “History of the Prophets,” was twelve,[551] eleven of them passed 368 to the other world, the twelfth is living for ever; at last he shall appear, and render the world as full of virtue as it is now full of injustice and tyranny.

They say, that Abubekr, Omar, and Osman, and the children of Amîah, and Abasíah, their companions, usurped the dignity of Imáms, on which account they revile them. Some of them assert that Osmán burnt some volumes of the Koran, and threw away some of the surahs, which were in favor of Alí and of his descendants; of which the following is one:[552]

In the name of the bountiful and merciful God.

O you who have faith, believe in the two lights, Muhammed and Ali, whom we have sent, and who recite our verses to 369 you, and put you on your guard against the chastisement of the great day. These two lights proceed the one from the other. As to myself, I understand and I know.

Those who fulfil the order of God and of his prophet, such as it is given to them in the verses of the Koran, those shall enjoy the gardens of delight. As to those who, after having believed, became infidels by transgressing their compact, and what the prophet had stipulated for them, they shall be thrown into hell, because they have unjustly treated their own souls, and have disobeyed the preaching prophet. These shall be drenched with hot water.

It is God who illuminated the heavens and the earth, as it was his pleasure; who made his choice among the angels and prophets; who placed the latter among the number of believers in the midst of his creatures.—God does what he wills: there is but he, the bountiful and merciful God.

Those who preceded them, have already machinated against their prophets; but I have punished them for their perfidy, and, certainly, my punishment is violent and severe. God had already destroyed Ad[553] and Tamud,[554] on account of their crimes; he made of them an example for warning you. Shall you then not fear?

Because Pharaoh acted tyrannically towards Moses and his brother Aaron, I drowned him in the waters, as well as those who followed him, in order that it may serve as a sign for you.

370 Many among you are prevaricators; but God will assemble them all on the day of resurrection; and they will not be able to answer when interrogated by him: certainly, hell is their habitation. God is all-knowing and wise.

O prophet! my advertisement arrived (at its destination); perhaps will they act (conformably to it). Those who turned away from my words have already experienced detriment. Are they comparable to those who accomplish thy ordinances, and whom I will reward by the gardens of delight? For God is the Lord of mercy and great rewards.

Ali is of the number of pious; we shall restore him his right on the day of judgment. We are not ignorant of their intention to defraud him. We have honored him more than all thy family. He and his race are of the number of sufferers, and certainly their enemy is the Imam of sinners.[555]

Say to those who became infidels after having believed: “You have sought after the comforts of the present life, and you have been eager in the pursuit of them; but you have forgotten what God and his prophet have promised you. You have broken the engagements which you had taken in a formal manner; yet we quoted to you examples, in the hope that you would follow the good direction.”

O prophet, we have sent thee clear verses. Those who were faithful, and attached themselves to them, will receive assistance after thee. Turn away from those who turn away from me. Certainly, he shall make them appear on the day on which nothing shall avail them, and when they will have no pity to hope for. Their habitation shall be hell, from which they shall not be removed.

Celebrate the name of thy lord, and be of the number of his adorers. We have already sent Moses, and Aaron, and 371 those who followed them; but they treated Aaron unjustly. Patience is an excellent virtue. Among them we changed some into apes[556] and hogs; we cursed them until the day of resurrection. Have patience; certainly they shall be punished.

We have gratified thee with an authority equal to that which was possessed by the messengers who preceded thee, and we have given thee instructions in their persons. Perhaps mankind will be converted. He who turns away from my command shall be soon called away by me from this world. Let them therefore enjoy some time their impiety. Ask no information concerning the violators of God’s law.

O prophet, we granted thee the power of loading the neck of those who believed in the strength of a compact which we contract. Be thou of the number of the grateful.

Certainly, Ali is pious. He passes the night prostrate before God. He is cautious with respect to another life, and he hopes to merit the reward of his Lord. Say, will they be treated in the same manner, they who have acted unjustly, although they knew the chastisement which I prepare for them? Chains shall be put on their necks, and they shall repent of their acts.

We have announced to thee a progeny of just men,[557] who will not oppose my commands. My bounty and mercy are upon them, living or dead,[558] until the day of resurrection. My anger is against those who act tyrannically towards thy posterity; wicked men who shall suffer the pain which they deserve.

As to those who walked upon the road of thy posterity, my mercy is granted to them, and they shall be safe in the kiosques of paradise. Glory to God, King of the creatures.

372 THE RELIGION OF THE AKHBÁRIN.[559]

Mulla Muhammed Amîn, of Asterabád,[560] gave currency in this time to this religion: they say, after having acquired the natural and revealed sciences, he made a pilgrimage to the temple of Mecca, and after having critically examined the sacred sayings, he adhered to what he thought the right sense, and composed the work Fava-íd Madaníy, “Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.” In the book Danish nameh, Káteb Sháhî, which was written for the use of Dáráí Sekander Dostgáh Muhammed Kalí Kateb Shah, it is stated, that the exalted wish and furthermost intent is the knowledge of what is particular 373 to the origin and end, and the explanation of this meaning is contained in the verse of the merciful:

“The faith in God, and in the day of eternal life.”

And the tradition of the noble Amír of the believers and the adored Imám (the blessing of God and peace be upon them and upon their holy descendants):

“God take compassion upon the man of whom I know from whence he came, where he is, and whither he goes,”

entered into this meaning. The learned, in the maintenance of this station, divided into several sects. The one sect established this station by investigation and evidence; then a division of this sect rendered it obligatory not to say any thing contrary to the possessors of revelation, and these are called Matkalmin,[561] “scholastics,” for the reason that they have composed the science of scholastic theology, on account of rational considerations, and have enlarged argumentation in the science of scholastic dialectics and theological questions.

Another sect did not bind themselves in their reasoning; they are called Hukmá másháyîn,[562] “the 374 walking philosophers,” because their first founders followed the stirrup of Arastu (Aristotle),[563] and at the time when Arastu, as Vizir of Iskander (Alexander) was walking to and from the palace of this king; they took the opportunity of being instructed in science by this philosopher.

Another sect adopted this doctrine with pious austerities. Afterwards, a division of this sect made an application of this doctrine as necessary to the Koran, and took care not to maintain any thing contrary to the companions of the revelation, and these are called Sofis matsherâîn, “orthodox Sofis.” Another sect did not believe this necessary, and these are entitled Hukmá âshrákîn, to whom Aflátún (Plato)[564] who was the preceptor of Arastú, furnished lessons and instructions of piety.

Another class adopted this doctrine with a view 375 to the precepts of the possessors of holiness, and made it a necessary condition that in all questions about customs, in which reason is likely to err, they should strictly adhere to the sayings of the possessors of holiness; and these are called Akhbárîn. The companions of the pure Imáms (the blessing and peace of God be upon them!) all observed this rule, and the Imáms (peace be upon them!) prohibited them the science of scholastic theology, and the science of the fundamentals of religion and law, which have been collected according to the views of the intelligent; and likewise they prohibited the science of jurisprudence, which has been composed as an abstract of opinions, for this reason: because, safe from error, one is inclosed in what is right by the words of the possessors of holiness, and because many contradictions and discordancies occur in the three sciences.[565] As it is evident and clear that there 376 are no contradictions in truth, so certainly one of the different opinions is false. The Imáms also instructed their companions in the science of scholastic dialectics, in the science of the fundam etals of religion and of law, and in jurisprudence; but these three sciences are, in many of the questions, not without contradiction with the sciences which the professors of common religion have combined. The lords of the temple (peace be upon them!) have declared, “that in the three sciences, as received by the generality of the people, truth is that which from us is come to them, and error is whatever 377 originate from their conceptions.” The doctrine of the Akhbárîn, in after times called Gháibet sâry, “the minor absence,” which by some is reckoned among the traditions of the seventy-and-three, and by others among the traditions of the seventy four sects, became diffused among the learned of the Imámíyat; although it was also known among the first of the Ghâibet[566] Kaberî, “the great absence,” and the companions of the Imáms (peace be upon them!) after having received the three sciences from the people of the temple (blessing be upon them!), formed a collection of them in a book according to their direction; it was to this that the people of the temple referred in their belief and actions, until the time of the Ghâibet Kaberî of the Shíahs, and this book, by way of continuation, was brought down to the times of the moderns; the entire work, which was compiled by the trusty friend of the right faith, Muhammed ben Yâkúb al Kalbiy,[567] (may his tomb be sanctified!) comprehends the three sciences.

378 Further, when Muhammed ben Ahmed Aljanáîd, who was eminent in analogy,[568] and Hassen ben Hassáîn ben Alí, ben Abí âkîl, a lofty scholastic theologian, appeared, and were violent jurists; in their time, the circle of teaching and learning the common religion being in the colleges and schools, they studied the book of theology, and the book of the fundamentals of the common religion; but as they did not possess all the expertness required for the science of the fundamentals of religion and for that of theology, which were derived by tradition from the Imáms, they adapted to the common religion some among the subjects of scrutiny in the science of scholastic theology, and in that of the fundamentals of theology: and made choice of a doctrine which was a mixture of the doctrine of the Akhbárîns and of that of the common religion, and so laid the foundation of rational dialectics.[569] After 379 them, Shaikh Mafíd, “the beneficent Shaikh,” (the mercy of God be with him!) that is, the Shaikh Abú Jâfr, on account of heedlessness and of the good opinion of those two eminent men, conformed himself to them, and he formed, in scholastic theology and in fundamental jurisprudence, a system of doctrine, mixing with that of the common religion that of the Akhbarîn, and that of the Aśulîn, “solid reasoners;” on that account, the learned of the Imámíyat sect divided into Akhbárîn and Asulîn. Likewise Alámah hallî, “the most learned ornament,”[570] that is, Shaikh Jemál eddin mátaher, has exhausted to the utmost this subject, in the discussion about prophecy and unity, and at last the sharh movákef,[571] “explanation of the stations” and the origins of the book of religions and attributes have also been elucidated by it. When shaikh Mafíd, istáz-îlm alihadî, “the teacher of the science of direction,” that is, Saíd Mírtasí, lived, and was the istáz rais al taifah, “chief teacher of the sect,” this religion was diffused among the learned of the Jmámîyat, until the time of the most learned of the East and the West, Alámah-hallí; and as, penetrating into the depth of knowledge, 380 he, Alámah-halli, surpassed in the sciences Ebn Janaíd, and Ebn abî âkîl, and the shaikh Mafîd; they gave a greater expansion and currency to the mixt religion in the book of scholastic and fundamental theology, and in the controversial dialectics relative to faith and law, established the mixt religion. As the ahádís,[572] “traditions” of the common religion, on the subjects of revelation and unity, were not exempt from adulterations, they published the series of traditions in their own book, divided into four parts. And Alámah-hallî (the mercy of God be with him!) on account of heedless confidence divided into four parts the traditions of his book, and the book of the sect of the Mahakah, “the asserters of truth,” in such a manner as was also manifested by the Ilm ilahadî, “the science of the direction” (revelation), and the ra-is (chief) of the sect, and sikat al islám, “the trusty friend of the right faith,” and head of the Shaiks, Alsadik, “speaker of truth,” that is, Muhammed Ebn Bábúyah[573] Alkamî; and others: hence the whole tribe Mahakah 381 professed this as true, and, after Alámah-hally, the shaikh Shahîd awl, “the first witness,” that is, the shaikh Muhammed maki, made it the rule of his religion, and laid the foundation of his literary works upon it; after them, the sultan Almadkakín, “the sultan of the refiners” (acute investigators), shaikh Alí (the mercy of God be upon him!) conformed himself to them, and Al âalem al rabánî, Shahid-alsánî, “the learned of the world, the doctor of divinity, the second witness,” that is, the shaikh Zin eddin “the ornament of the faith,” Jabel al âamlî (the mercy of God Almighty be with him!) took also the rule of this religion. This was until the time arrived for the learned of the moderns, in the science of Muhammedan traditions, and the science of biographies and characters of persons to whom the traditions were handed down, and the most pious among them, the master of the whole in the whole, that is, Mirza Muhammed of Asterabâd (may the light of God illume his tomb!). He said:[574] “At last, as a sequel to this, he (Jabel) instructed me, a humble individual, in all the sciences relative to the traditions, and gave me this injunction: ‘Revive thou the religion of the 382 Akhbárîn, and if any doubt arise, that creates an opposition to this creed, discard that doubt.’ And this doctrine has fixed itself in my mind. But it was decreed by the Lord of Glory that it should be manifested through my pen. Afterwards, having received all the praised sciences from the greatest of the learned, I, humble individual, during some years staying in the splendid town of Medina, bowed my head under the collar of meditation, and humbled myself at the door of the temple of the Lord of Glory; I sought refuge with the spirits of the sacred place of the companions of prophecy, and I repeated afresh the sacred sayings, and the book of the common religion; that is, that of the opposers to the Imámíyat, and the special book, that is, that of the Imámíyat; in order to perfect myself in penetration and meditation; so that, by the favor of the Lord of Glory, and by the benedictions of the prince of prophets (Muhammed), and of the pure Imáms (the blessing and peace of God be upon them all!) by the direction of him, to whom obedience is due, I conformed to what was right, and succeeded in composing the Faváid madaníy, ‘The Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.’” Subquently, Muhammed Asterabádí had the honor of being instructed by the most noble of this sect; afterwards they approved his composition, and congratulated 383 the author upon it. (The mercy of God be upon them!)

Among the Imámíahs it is decided that the Imám Muhammed, son of Hassan Askery,[575] is still alive, but concealed from view; they divide the time of his absence into two epochs;[576] namely, “the minor 384 and the greater absence.” The minor absence, which extends to seventy-three years, falls into the time of Mâtemed Abásí,[577] in the year of the Hejira 266 (A. D. 879); the greater absence took place in the time of Rásí, the son of Mukteder Abásî.[578] The distinction between these two epochs is that, during the minor absence, there were a registrar and delegates as intermediates between the pious persons of the religion and the Imáms, whilst, during the greater absence, the appointing and establishing was broken off. The first Vakîl, “delegate, agent,” was Osman, son of Said ul Umrul Asadi, in the holy place (of Medina); after him, by command of the Imám of the time, his son, Abu Jâfer, took charge of the office, which he held about fifty 385 years; after him came Abu ’l Kásem Hossain Ebn Rúh Ebn Ali Baher Nóubakhtí, who bequeathed his place to Abu’l-Hasan Alî Ebn Muhammed Samírí, and this was the last Vakíl. When he was sick, the Shíâhs asked him: “Who shall after thee be the Vakíl of the holy place?” He wrote his command by a last will, by which he abolished the charge, and the command is as follows:

In the name of the bountiful and merciful God:

O Ali, son of Muhammed Samiri, may God increase the recompense of thy brothers with regard to thee, for thou art dead, and between thee and me there are six days;[579] therefore arrange thy affairs, and propose to nobody to fill thy place after thy death; certainly the complete absence is now accomplished, and no further manifestation shall take place but after the permission of God, the most high. He mentioned it, and this after a long delay, and the obduracy of hearts, and after the filling of the earth with violence. And there shall come from among my people one to be a witness; but he who desires it before the coming forth of a Safiani and the Sihat, he is a deceiver, and ought to be avoided. There is no power and no strength but one God, the most high and most great.

Abul-Hasan died in the middle of Shâbán (the eighth month of the year), in the year of the Hejira 328 (A. D. 939).

It is to be known, that the tradition among the Shiâhs of the Imámiyat-âsulín sect is divided into 386 four parts: sáhíh, “authentic;” hasen, “elegant;” músik, “strong;” and sâíf, “weak.”

An hadís sahih, “an authentic tradition,” is one, the authority of which goes back to mâsúm,[580] according to the narration of an âdil Imám, “a just Imám,” in the description of whom the árbáb-i-hadis, “the masters of history,” have used the word âdil, whether the narrator be one person, or whether there be more than one, provided in the description of them all the same language has been used.

An hadis hasen, “an elegant tradition,” is one, the authority of which goes back, like that of the hadis sahih, to the mâsúm; but, according to the narrative of a venerable Imám, in this way, that although, in regard to the narrator of it, the words sikah âdíl, “trusty and just,” have not come down to us from the historians, yet they have praised him in other words.

An hadis músik, “a strong tradition,” is that, in the description of whose narrators the words sikah âdil have been used by the historians, but some 387 or all of the narrators of which are not Imámís, “followers of Ali.”

An hadis sâíf, “a weak tradition,” is that in which none of these three conditions are found; viz.: 1st, the inference from the commendation of sikah âdil; 2nd, a praise other than these two words; and 3rd, the qualification sikah âdil, with erroneous belief on the part of the narrator.

A tradition is either in regular succession, or not in regular succession. A tradition is in regular succession, when a great multitude on the authority of a great multitude make the same narration, until it reaches to the mâsúm, in such a manner, that the number of each multitude, in each particular age, shall have been so great as to exclude the idea of their having combined in telling a lie. A tradition is without a regular succession, when the number of narrators does not, in all or several stages, reach to that multitude, as before said, and this kind of tradition is called, in the peculiar idiom of the masters of history, the information of one. Among the Akhbarians, there is no such arrangement and classification of evidence, and God knows the truth.

The author of this book writes what he has learned of the religion of the Akhbáríns from the Amíns of this doctrine, one of whom was Muhammed Razái Kazvíní. They call themselves Akhbárín, “dogmatic 388 Traditionists,” because they place the centre of their belief in the prophetic book,[581] and employ no reasoning. Mulla Muhammed Amín, after having acquired the requisite theoretical and practical knowledge and that of the law, went to Mecca and to the revered places, and he declared openly, that controversial dialectics belong not to the rule of the ancient Shiâhs. The author of this book writes what he has heard from pious persons, the confidents of secrets of this sect; whoever desires to know more of it, may have recourse to the book Faváid Almadíniy, which is the composition of the last mentioned writer.

The following passage is said to be found in the sacred writings:

“God take compassion on the man of whom I know whence he comes, where he is, and whither he goes.”

My desire is God himself, and as an indication of it is my perception of him, the scope of which is the return to him. Afterwards we ought to have the knowledge of three perceptions. The Imánah conform themselves to the religion of the community which is composed of the people of the temple; but it is required that we acquire in Medina the knowledge of what the prophet is, and that we enter through the doors (chapters) of sciences, in which 389 twelve Imáms are to be praised; whatever further is behind this religion will belong to that of the heretics. Of the two other religions, the one is that of the people of pious austerity; and this again is divided into two sects: the one comprehends the ancient Ashrákíán, who did not follow the prophet; and the second consists of the Matákherîn, “the moderns,” who, known under the name of “Sufis,” believe the prophet, and in theory and practice conform themselves to him and to the Imáms. They say, the prophet showed the way of righteousness and revealed the hidden; and the Imáms also taught purity, which from them was conveyed to us; the Imáms, by their pious austerity, promoted the purity of manners, and practised abstinence from food and sleep; the lord of the prophetic protection committed this religion to Alí; and Alí was the delegate of this pious austerity, the chief master, the Amir of the true believers; Hassan Baśri[582] was one of 390 the devoted followers of the Amír, and Báyazîd was the disciple of the Imám Jâfr sadek;[583] Mârúf Kœrkhí, “the celebrated of Karkh,”[584] gave the hand of devotedness to the Imám Reza.[585] Similar to them is the sect shigref, “the venerable,” who think themselves the vice-regents of the Imáms, and lieutenants of the prophet (the peace of God be upon him):[583] their sayings deserve no attention, as in our religion there never was a lieutenant, whatever from a spirit of vanity they may assume. These men are professedly monks, and these are numbered among heretics.

The second sect is that of the Istidlal, “the arguers,” and of old[586] they were called Masháyín, 391 “the walkers, peripatetics;” they did not follow the prophet, and the moderns call them Matkalemín, “scholastics.” These sectaries are said to mix the principles of the true faith with the belief of the peripatetics, and are also reckoned heretics:[587] because the true religion is that which the lord professed, and this is the religion of the Akhbárins.

Mulla Muhammed Amîn[588] addressed a crowd of mujtahids,[589] “casuists,” who make a profession of ratiocination (discussion), in the following terms:—“You 392 agree and acknowledge, that the ancient believers and the religion of old knew of no contentious arguing; and that the ancient way and the old religion which prevailed in the time of Muhammed and of the Imáms (the peace of God be upon them!) is the way of the Akhbarîns. Further, we have likewise a satisfactory proof, that our way is the constant religion; but try to combine a demonstration in the way of reasoning, and show to us by whose direction from among the possessors of holiness you adopted your creed, whilst after Muhammed (the peace of God be upon him!) no other prophet is to appear and to bring another religion? In like manner it has not been stated, in the book of the prophet and in the sacred sayings of the Apostles and of the Imáms, that the relators should, in practice act at discretion, and after the disappearing of the Imám, make a profession of ratiocination. Moreover, it is positively understood that you have mixed your principles with the principles of the Sonnites and Jamáat, and your creed has taken the nature of oxymel, which is neither honey nor vinegar; and you are neither Sonnites nor Shiâhs; and this is the manner in which the moderns exercise reasoning as a profession, that, in the time of religious zeal, they went and helped themselves to the acquisition of knowledge from the books of the adversaries (schismatics), and a similar desire has taken hold of your 393 hearts. Afterwards they threw out of their books what appeared reprovable, but nevertheless mixed something of it with their own faith.”

It should be known that some things proceed from the exigencies of the faith: thus the dissentient as well as the consentient use the same prayers, and even the unbelievers admit, that in these Muhammed is necessarily honoured. Several things are among the exigencies of the faith, as for instance the office of an Imám, as the dissentient and consentient know that, in point of faith, acknowledging the Imáms is indispensable for strength, firmness, and unimpairable stability. It should be known that, whatever is established from the verses of the Koran renders the conforming of the action to it indispensable; but what is expressed in an allegorical or ambiguous sense, we have not the capacity of understanding; it is then evident that this is particular to the prophet and to the Imáms, and we should not meddle with it; further, we ought to conform our actions to the tradition of the prophet and of the Imáms. As many traditions are opposed to each other, and the distinction therein is arduous; on that account, if two traditions present themselves to our view, such as to be contrary to each other, then the Imám affords the believers a firm rule, which proves to the understanding a protection from error. The truth is, that when two traditions 394 happen to contradict each other, good Theologians refer them to the incontrovertible authority of the Koran; the tradition which is conformable to a verse of the Koran, is that to which they refer the action, and ascribe to religious zeal[590] the other tradition, and if this does not coincide with the incontrovertible authority, as it exceeds your power to decide the dubious question; fix then your eyes upon the creed of the opposers, and observe by what rule they are actuated.[591] Whatever is contrary to them, this tradition they should reckon to be truth; and whatever agrees with the opposers, they should acknowledge as belonging to religious zeal; and if both these traditions in the creed of the opposers were laudable, they should consider, that a thing which according to them deserves pre-eminence, is the contrary of that which they ought to take. And if one says: “You have many opposers, and there are seventy-and-two sects whose opinions are conflicting with each other;” I answer: “The Imám declared that they ought to proceed upon a road contrary to that upon which the victorious, the rulers, and the learned among the opposers, walk; and if, nevertheless, it may appear to all 395 that they find themselves upon the same road; there are then two laws: according to whichever of the traditions they act, it does not matter in that tradition in which way it comes from the mâsúm,[592] provided, without doubt, it comes from the Imám; and the Imám is a person to whom obedience is obligatory. Moreover, by whichever authority they act, they must conform their action to the direction of the Imám. Another thing is to be said: “Have patience until the time of the happy meeting with the Imâm.” If any body says: “We have no option to act or not to act; how long shall we wait? the coming of the Imám is not determined?” This is the reply: Having already acted, why should it be said: “Have patience?” This has reference to the precept: “If thou art in business, act peaceably; and if devoted to religion, follow the rites of the most comprehensive religion.” Should any one say: “To conform my actions to this rule is also subject to discussion,” we answer to that: “This is the rule the Imám has established; if there be discussion, it is therefore the Imám’s, not our’s.” To weigh a religious doctrine is the same as to compare two traditions contrary to each other: we found, for instance, that “as to purity of wine, there are 396 two colors.”[593] The wine is in the traditions; we then made reference to the incontrovertible authority of the Koran; we found no verse decisive about it; and in the allegories we saw, that wine is called uncleanness, and how many meanings are attached to uncleanness; and as we had the power of understanding the truth, the ambiguity disappeared. We made reference to the creed of the opposers to the right faith: they acknowledge wine to be impure. Then we took the contrary of it, and reckoned the wine to be pure, as the traditions announce the purity of wine. Further, the tradition which denotes the impurity of wine, we ascribed to religious caution. And it is to be known that the Mujtahíd ought to conform his actions to his opinion; but opinion is shabhah, “doubt,” and is so called (very like shabah, “an image”), because it is vain, and “truth-like.”

397 The religion of the Akhbarín consists in the conviction that, without an exception, whatever they have heard from the Imám is to them dalîl-i-katáí, “a final, decisive proof” (cutting off all further questions); moreover the practice followed by the Akhbaríns, is the terík-í-katáí, “the final religion;” and katáí, “final,” is that which does not depend upon mere opinion. The modern among the Shiâh said, that it becomes the Mujtahed to conform his actions to his opinions, and that it is incumbent upon others to submit to his doctrine: this religion is not ancient; as to the rest, the practice of contentious arguing and restlessness is an error.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISMAI LIAH.

Information was received from Mír Amír, who was a governor of the Naváhi, “district” of the town Shekúnah, that the Ismâílíah, are a tribe among the Shiâhs; and their creed is ascribed to the lord Imám Ismâíl, the son of the lord Imám Jâfr sádik,[594] and this sect believe this lord an Imam; they 398 say, that Imám Jâfr consigned the office of an Imám to him; and that he never admitted to a partnership with the mother of this lord any other woman or girl, in the manner that had been done by the prophet with regard to Khadíjah, and by Alí with respect to Fátmah.[595] About the departure of Ismâíl from this perishable world, there are different accounts. Some say that he died during the lifetime of Jâfr; then the prerogative of appointing to the Imámate was transferred from the Imám Jâfr to the offspring of Ismâíl; in like manner as Músí (Moses) transferred the appointment to Hárún (Aaron), who died during the lifetime of Músí. The appointment does not return by retrocession; and a convention reversed from whence it came is impossible. Jáfr was not likely to appoint, without traditional credentials 399 from noble ancestors, one from among his distinguished descendants, and to be uncertain and unknown is not suitable to an Imám. As to the appointment of the Imám Jáfr, its legality is in accordance with the twelve Imáms. Some say, that Ismâíl had not departed from life, but the news of his death was spread about, from fear that his enemies should attempt his life, and a declaration of his death was written. It is reported, according to some, that during the khalifat of Manzur, Ismâil was seen in Basra, where a person afflicted with a malady of the foot was cured by means of his prayers. Mansur asked information from the Imám, who sent to the khalif a certificate (of Ismâil’s death), in which was included a letter of the âamil (collector of revenue) of Mansur.

They say that, after Ismâil followed Muhammed, the son of Ismâil, with whom closed the series of the Shiâh Imáms,[596] and after him the Imáms disappeared; but no age remains destitute of conspicuous Imáms, and when an Imám has appeared, he certainly evinces himself as such.

400 The number of the commands of the Imáms is seven, like the seven days of the week, the seven heavens, and the seven planets.[597] They hold the number of the religious leaders to be twelve, and therein the Imámíyas have committed an error, by counting the Imáms after the leaders, and these are the Baténian, “interior.”[598] These sectaries do not 401 conform themselves to the evidence of the divine law; they declare: “we do not say, God is omnipresent or not omnipresent, omniscient, or not omniscient, almighty, or not almighty, and so in all attributes;” they maintain further as a confirmation of the truth, that there is a connexion between God and the other beings, and this is the creed of the Tashbíah, “assimilators;” but from an absolute negation a connexion takes place with non-existences, which is maintained by the Tâtíl, “indifferent,” and the application of this thesis to the Lord, the self-existent, leads to the opinion, that there is no community to be imagined between the Lord God, self-existent, and other beings. They also say that the Almighty God is the operator of opposite effects, and the creator and ruler of conflicting results. They further set forth, that when the lord Yzed, the most sublime, bestowed the gift of knowledge 402 upon the inhabitants of the world, they called him all-knowing; when he displayed his power on account of his majesty, they called him all-mighty: certainly the attribution of knowledge and power to the being of the most sublime Yzed is founded upon the belief that he is the giver of knowledge and force. Moreover they assert that, by a single command, God created intelligence, which among all things is perfect, and by means of perfect intelligence, he brought forth the spirit which is not perfect; there is a relation between intelligence and spirit, a relation between the sperm and the child produced, as well as a relation between the egg and the bird, or a relation between father and son, or husband and wife. The spirit becomes then desirous of, and longing for the excellence of perfect intelligence[599] which he derives from expansion, therefore he feels himself pressed to move out of his deficiencies towards excellence,[600] but he does not attain at perfect motion, except by means of an instrument.

Afterwards, God created the heavenly bodies, and gave the heavens a circular motion; from his disposition emerged the spirit, the simple elementary natures, 403 and by means of them the uncompounded beings; further, he brought forth the compounded bodies from among minerals, vegetables, and various animals, among which man was the best, on account of the merit of much sanctity, and his connexion with the celestial world. Thus the upper world is composed of perfect universal intelligence, and the rational sense of universality which is the origin of creatures. It is necessary that in the nether world perfect universal intelligence and reason prevail, that they may afford to the inhabitants of the world the means of salvation, and this intelligence is the prophet nát´ik, “speaking,” and the reason is the Imám. As the heavens are moved by the impulse of intelligence and reason, in like manner are the other souls set free by the impulse of the “speaker;” there is one who commands in every age, and every time has its revolution; every revolution depends upon the authority of seven persons[601] until it terminates 404 by the last revolution and the time of judgment comes; the exigencies of the law and religious rule rise as the rapid movements of heaven, and the necessity of law is the cause of the acquisition of reason carried to excellence; it is a laudable trial of mankind to attain to the dignity of wisdom, and this is “the great judgment.”

When they wish to convert any body to their creed, they throw doubts upon his religion into his mind, not with any evil intention on their side, but that he may find the road to God and attain truth, as well as be convinced that, except their religion, any other is remote from certainty and without firmness. Their manner of creating doubts about the pillars of the law, is that they ask about detached parts of a sura: what (for instance) is the meaning of the detached letters in the first sura,[602] and the command 405 about fasting, a menstruous woman, the command of prayers, and why the necessity of bathing with regard to sperm and urine; the number of the sacred inclinations of the head, which, according to some, are four, according to others, three, and perhaps two: which number is right? and so on in all actions of the pious.[603] When the person desirous of truth, finds himself by such questions surrounded with doubts, and inquires after truth, they answer, and conduct him upon the road of the right belief, in such a manner that all doubt is banished from his heart; he then is received in their community, and 406 walks in the right way, whence he is strengthened against any creation of doubts, and this is the manner of agreement current among the followers of God, by way of compact and convention.

“When we took engagements with the prophets.”

Further, according to convention, comes haválet, “giving in charge” to the Imám, and settling arduous matters, when a difficulty occurs in an affair which presents itself to him; inasmuch as, by the laudable nature of his qualities, an Imám is wise, and nobody else possesses the power with which this exalted personage is firmly invested. To this is joined tedlís, “artifice,” which consists in managing relations with powerful personages, in religious and worldly matters, in order to increase the proselyte’s inclination for what he seeks and wishes. Then is tásís, “making sure,” or confirming the arrangements which are agreeable to him, so that he may be confident, and put in possession of what he expects. Further, there is khalâ, “divesting,” which is obscure. Afterwards by renouncing the actions of this world: this is silkh, “estrangement from the observances of exterior religion.” Finally, at this period, whoever may find it agreeable to indulge in, and to excite himself to, pleasurable practices, and to interpret the law, which is the office of exalted personages, he may do so, as whatever in the 407 world is not hurtful, is proper to the favourites of God, as for instance wine, which, to enjoy with moderation and without abuse and noise, is salutary.[604]

408 They say likewise vazu, “ablution,” is as much as acknowledging the faith of the Imám, and abstersion with sand (from want of water) the same in the absence of the Imám, as he is the umpire. Namaz, “prayer,” is a precept of the prophet, according to the word of God the Almighty.

“Prayer preserveth from filthy crimes, and from what is blameable.”[605]

Jhtilám,[606] “nocturnal pollution,” refers to the divulging of a secret to a person not one of those who ought to know it, without the intention of guiding him into the right road. Ghasel, “bathing,” is a renewal of the covenant. Zakat, “alms,” is the sanctifying of life by means of the understanding of mankind. Súm, “fasting,” denotes the preservation of the mysteries of the Imám. Zena, “sexual intercourse with a strange woman,” is equivalent to divulging the mysteries of religion. These sectaries say also that praying in an assembly 409 is following the holy Imám. The alms are to them a metaphoric signification of the fifth part of property which they give to the Imám.[607] Further, there is the Kábah[608] of the prophet, the bâb, “door,” of Alí, the śafá of the apostle, the marvah of the vasí, “executor,” the míkát itinás, “the place of familiarity” (where the pilgrims assemble and whence they proceed to perform the solemnities at the temple of Mecca), and the talbiyat, “pilgrimage of obedience” to the blessed; the seven circuits, around the house of lordship which the Shiâhs devote to the Imâms (the peace of God be upon them!)[609]

410 Heaven is repose of bodies from all distresses. Hell is the torment of bodies by distresses.

And in this manner they interpret every thing, and say that every thing exterior has its interior, which is the cause of the exterior, whilst this latter is the manifestation of the interior; and there is nothing exterior which has not its interior; and if not, there is, in reality, nothing; further, there is nothing interior which has not its exterior, unless it be an illusion. When God created the exterior (visible), and the interior (invisible) world, the latter was the world of spirits, souls, and intelligences; the visible world was that of bodies, upper and nether, and of accidents. The Imám is the lord of the interior world, and there is no knowledge of God to be acquired, except by his instruction. The prophet is the lord of the exterior world, and the law, of which men stand in need, will not be perfect 411 except by him; and the law has an exterior side, which is called tanzil,[610] “revelation from heaven, the Koran,” and an interior, which is entitled táwîl,[611] “interpretation.” The age is never destitute of a prophet, or of law; it is likewise never without an Imám, or his authority. These sectaries further say, that his government is sometimes concealed, although the Imám be manifest, and that at another time the government is manifest, although the Imám be concealed; in such a manner that the people may know a prophet by the wonders of his words and deeds; but they recognize the Imám by his government and direction, and they cannot know God Almighty but by the Imám. The Shiâhs also maintain that the existence of an Imám through all times is necessary, whether manifest or concealed, so that no period of time be destitute of the splendour of the sun, or plunged in the darkness of night.

A book was seen, composed by Hassan Sábáh,[612] who was a deputy of the Imám. In the first chapter 412 of it, he says, that the mufti, “wise,” in the knowledge of the Lord God ought to follow one of the two sentences: either that which says that he may know God by mere reason, without the aid of instruction by an intelligent sádik,[613] “a sincere friend,” or that which declares that the knowledge of the Lord God by reason is difficult, and cannot be acquired unless by the instruction of an intelligent sincere friend; and he further states, that whatever decision he may give according to the first sentence, he does not assume to reject the other, because, when he rejects, the rejection amounts to teaching and demonstrating, that the disavowal of the posterity of Alí is required by the other. These sectarians say, that both modes are necessary, and constitute a proof: because the muftí, when he gives a decision by a sentence, this sentence is either his own or that of another; in the same way, when he professes a creed, either he adopts it firmly from his own original persuasion, or this sense is communicated to him by another. This is what the first section of the book before mentioned contains. In the contents of this section is a digression upon the lords of reason and of wisdom.

413 In the second section of it, we read the statement that, when there is an occasion for a teacher, either every intelligent man, by a free use of his ability, gives instruction, or the learned sádik is indispensable; and the author says, that a person who may agree with whatever instruction an able master imparts, will not think it allowable to carry on controversy with this learned antagonist; and when he permits himself to do so, certainly he may have kept the faith which is absolutely due to the learned śaáik and confidential friend. This section is said to contain a digression upon the lords of the tradition.

In the third section it is stated that, although the necessity of a learned sádik be established, yet it is required to take advantage of the knowledge of the first learned man; and after the instruction received from him, that is, instruction from any teacher without a special appointment, it is proper to be assured of his truth; as the right way of religion is not attainable without a companion, certainly the first concern is to have a true friend. After this subject, there is a digression upon the Shiâhs.

In the fourth chapter, the author says, that the individuals of mankind are divided into two classes.

414 The one says: “We require for the knowledge of the Creator a learned sádik, or sincere friend; and his special appointment is required, and after that instruction from him.” The other class says, “Instruction for the knowledge of any science can be obtained from any person, whether a master or not a master specially appointed.” As, by previous investigations, it is understood that the truth is with the first class, certainly the chief and leader of the first class will be the chief of the philosophers; and as it has been ascertained that the second class is erring, their leader is the leader of the deceived. The author says further, the true doctrine is, that we acknowledge the muhikk, “him who knows for certain” bahakk, that is, “in truth,” which is a summary knowledge; and after the summary knowledge by which we recognise “him who knows for certain,” “in truth,” we want a detailed (distinct) knowledge of these questions; and our purpose in using the word bahakk, “in truth” is to express the necessity of having a muhikk, and the author says: By necessity we are to know the Imám, and by the Imám we know God in such a manner that by lawfulness we acknowledge him who is necessary, that is to say, that we acknowledge by the possibility of perfection the existence of the self-existent being.