Volume 2 — CHAPTER II.

The second chapter of the Dabistan describes in twelve sections the religious systems of the Hindus:

Section 1. Concerning the tenets of the Búdah-Mímánsa, the followers of which are also called Samártikan (Smártís), or “legalists,” and are orthodox Hindus.

Sect. 2. Records some of their opinions relative to the creation: their Purans (Tarikhs), or “histories,” treat of the same subject.

Sect. 3. The religious ceremonies and acts of the Smártís, and their orthodoxy.

Sect. 4. Treats of the followers of the Vedanta, who form the philosophers and Súfís of this sect.

2 Sect. 5. Concerning those who profess the Sankhya doctrines.

Sect. 6. Treats of the Jogís and their doctrines.

Sect. 7. Describes the tenets of the Saktíán.

Sect. 8. The opinions and ceremonies of the worshippers of Vishnú.

Sect. 9. Treats of the Chárvákián.

Sect. 10. Describes the system of the Tárkikán, who are profound investigators and deep thinkers in theology.

Sect. 11. On the tenets held by the followers of Búdah (Buddha).

Sect. 12. On various religious systems professed by the people of India.

Section the first—concerning the orthodox Hindoo system. As inconstant fortune had torn away the author from the shores of Persia, and made him the associate of the believers in transmigration and those who addressed their prayers to idols and images and worshipped demons, therefore the tenets held by this most subtle class of reasoners come to be considered next after those of the Parsees. It is however necessary to premise, that among the Hindus there are many systems of religion, and innumerable 3 creeds and ceremonies: but there is one principal class of this people (as will be shown in the tenth chapter), and its rank and dignity will be brought into evidence.

Like Zardusht and the sages of antiquity, they have recourse to metaphorical and enigmatical figures of speech, as will appear evident in the course of this narration. Long before the present work, the author had from books ascertained their various systems, according to a plan which he now voluntarily abandons; as in the year of the Hejirah 1063 (A. D. 1653), whilst sojourning at Srikakul, the capital of Kalinga,[1] certain eminent persons who were the author’s intimate friends, had travelled in that direction for the purpose of visiting their holy stations; one day a conference took place, on which the author reviewed anew what he had before heard, and with the pen of accuracy drew the line of erasure over all that was doubtful; so that there was found a wide difference between the first and second work on these points.

Summary of the doctrines contained in the Budah Mimansa.[2] The whole world is not governed by 4 the orders of a real Lord, and there is in truth no reality in his actual existence. Whatever of good or evil, reward or punishment, attaches to created beings, is entirely the result of their acts, deeds, and words; mortals are altogether captive in the trammels of their own works, and confined in the chains of their own deeds: without previous acts they are liable to no consequences. The sovereign, Brahma, the creator of all things; the angelic Víshnu, their preserver; and Mahesh, or Siva, the destroyer of existences, attained to this exalted eminence through means of righteous acts and holy deeds; nay, Brahma, through the efficacy of worship, the power of 5 obedience, the might of his religious austerities, and by his good actions, created the world; agreeably to the express declaration of the Véda,[3] which according to the belief of the Hindus is a celestial revelation, every dignity of the celestial orders is inseparably connected with meritorious works and holy deeds; and as the intellectual soul is of the same nature as the angelic essence, the possessor may, by the exercise of angelic qualities, become one of those exalted dignities, and during a lengthened but definite period, be invested with power and glory. For instance, the human spirit, which in knowledge and good works has attained to a degree accounted worthy of the rank of Brahma, is, on the termination of the period of sovereignty assigned to the present Brahma, appointed to that predestined dignity: the same principle also applying to the other angelic degrees.

This tenet therefore leads to the same inference as the opinions entertained by the distinguished Parsee sages, namely: that the spirits of men, on attaining complete perfection, become united to the heavenly bodies, and after many revolutions, the celestial souls are blended with the divine intelligences. According to the Mobed:

The world has neither beginning nor ending; moreover all spirits are enchained in the bonds of their own acts and deeds; so that the spirit of high rank which adopts the practices of the inferior, cannot attain to the sublime rank peculiarly assigned to exalted conduct; and the inferior spirit, sedulously given up to the works of those eminent in dignity, is enabled to obtain that glorious pre-eminence; so that their meritorious works confer on them knowledge; and the purity of their intellects, in proportion to their elevation, conducts them to high degrees and praiseworthy deeds. The dominion obtained by an animal body over the human soul arises from works; as in their members, physical structure, and senses, all men are fashioned after one model; but through the cause of becoming or unbecoming deeds, one is a sovereign ruler, and another a destitute dependent. Thus, through the influence of praiseworthy acts, one is honored and opulent; and owing to a subservience to foul deeds, another lives degraded and indigent; the high and dignified agent of opulence and honor falls not into the depths of poverty, nor does the wretched slave to acts of covetousness and avarice ever attain the dignity of honor and riches. The world is the root and productive soil of works, and time is their developer; 7 because, when their time comes, it brings the fruit, just as every season produces the flowers, sweet-scented plants, and fruits suitable to the period; in like manner, the result of every act, whether deserving of praise or censure, is made to adhere to its agent, in whatever revolution that may be proper for it. Works are divided into two kinds: those which are to be performed; the other, those which are to be avoided: under the first, come those acts, the performance of which is enjoined in the Vedas, or the celestial revelation, such as the established worship and the requisite acts of obedience which prevail among the Hindoos; under the second head come those acts, the committing of which is forbidden by the text of the celestial code; such as shedding blood, theft, immoral practices, and other similar acts there enumerated. The supreme Lord stands not in need of our adoration and obedience, nor is he in any want of us for the performance of the above-mentioned duties at our hands; but the results of our acts and deeds, in reference to rewards and punishments, accrue and adhere to us. For instance, if the invalid should adopt habitual moderation, he obtains that health which is the object of his wishes, and his existence is thereby rendered happy; but should he, from a bias to reprehensible pleasures, the concomitants of disease, withdraw from the restraints of abstinence, his life becomes embittered; 8 the physician, in either case, being totally independent of the patient’s welfare and sufferings. Moreover, the world is the abode of disease, and human beings are the patients: if they acquit themselves in the most perfect manner of their prescribed duties, and strenuously avoiding what ought not to be done, they attain the state of health, the most elevated degree of which is liberation from this degraded body, and union with the ambrosial sweets of paradise; which state is called Mukti by this sect; and the mode of attaining the highest degree of Mukti is not being immersed in the pleasures of this world, plucking away the heart from the gratifications of sense, being content with mere necessaries, abstaining from food, breaking the fast with viands not relished by the vile appetite, and such like: just as in sickness, for the sake of dissolving the morbid matter, it becomes necessary to fast one day, and to swallow bitter draughts.

Such is the substance of the tenets professed by the sect entitled Budah-Mimansá, which coincide exactly with those of the Yezdáníáns, except that the latter admit the being of the self-existent God, the sole and true object of adoration; regarding the acts and deeds performed in this world as the means of elevation and degradation in the next; holding the angelic dignities to be imperishable; and esteeming human perfection to consist in attaining 9 to the society and service of the sublime assembly in the court of heaven; whilst the followers of the Budah Mimansa do not admit the existence of the eternal and infinite Lord; but according to them, the term “Almighty” signifies the human soul, acts, and deeds. They also assert, that the blessings of paradise are transitory, and that the angelic dignities are liable to perish. However, the orthodox opinion, which is most prevalent at this time, is this: they admit the being of the truly-existing God, by whom the world subsists; but account his holy essence altogether exalted, and exempt from whatever effects created beings. They also believe that human beings are confined by the yokes of their own works, and enchained by their deeds, in the manner before stated.

Section the second treats of certain opinions entertained by this sect concerning the creation: a subject which is also discussed in their puranas or histories.—In the second part of the Bhagavat, one of their most esteemed Puránás, it is recorded that the Almighty Creator, in the beginning, first placed the mantle of existence on the bosom of Prakriti,[4] or “nature,” and produced the fourteen Bhuvanas,[5] 10 or “worlds.” The first sphere is that of the earth, which has been estimated by some of the ancients at five Kotes (50 millions) of Yojans,[6] each Kote being equal to one hundred Lakhs (10 millions) and each Jojun to one Parasang and one-third; above the terrestrial is the aqueous sphere; above which is that of fire; beyond which is the aërial, over the celestial; beyond which is the Ahankar,[7] or that of “consciousness;” and higher than this is the Mahat-tat (Mahat-tatwam)[8] or “essence,” which is 11 equal to ten of those below it; and Prakrit having enveloped it, intelligence penetrating through all the things before said, rises above: on earth it becomes knowledge; by means of water, there is taste; by means of fire, form; by means of air, the touch of cold and dry; by means of the heavens, there is the perception of sound; and the organs of perception, are the exterior senses; and the internal sense is the seat of consciousness. In the same part of the Bhagavat it is stated that, by nature, the heavens are the vehicle of sounds; and consequently, the nature of the air gives the perception of sound and touch; in all other bodies the air is spirit, and from it arises the energy of the senses. To the nature of fire belongs the perception of sound, touch and form; to the nature of water, that of sound, touch, form, and savor; and to the nature of earth, that of sound, touch, form, savor, and odor.

Of the fourteen created spheres, seven rise above the waist of the Almighty, and the remaining seven correspond with the lower part of his body; according 12 to which enumeration the Bhú-lok,[9] or the earth and terrestrial beings form “his waist;” the Bhúvanlok,[10] or the space between the earth and sun, “his navel;” the Surlok,[11] “his heart;” the Mehrlok,[12] “his breast;” the Jonlok,[13] “his neck;” the Tapalok,[14] “his forehead;” the Satyolok,[15] “his head;” the Atellok,[16] “his navel and podex;” the Batellok,[17] “his thigh;” the Sotollok,[18] “his knee;” the Talátellok,[19] “the calf of the leg;” the Mahátollok,[20] “the 13 heel;” the Rasatollok,[21] “the upper part of the foot;” the Pátállok,[22] “the sole of the foot.”

There is another division limited to three spheres: the Bhúlok, “the sole of the Almighty’s foot;” the Bhuvarlok, “his navel;” the Súrlók, “his head;” the whole fourteen gradations in detail are thus reduced to three, signifying a mighty personage, the same as the Deity.

In the same section of that volume it is also stated, that from the Almighty sprang Svabhávah,[23] “the self-existing;” that is, Nature and Time; from Nature and Time proceeded forth Prakrit, which signifies Símáí, “universe;”[24] from Prakrit came forth Mahat-tat;[25] and from this latter, which is the same as Mádah, “mental exaltation,” issued the three Ahankárs, or modes of consciousness, “personality, 14 egotism,” Satek, Rajas, Tamas.[26] Satek, “goodness,” means “the intellectual energy;” Rajas, or passion, “the attraction of vile propensities,” or “sensual pursuits;” and Tamas (darkness), “the repelling of what repugns,” in Arabic, Ghazab, or “wrath.” From Rajas issued forth the senses; from Satek, the lords of nature and the servants of the existing beings; and from Tamas came forth Shaid, “enchantment;” Shuresh, “confusion;” Rup, “form;” Darsan, “sight;” and Gandah, “smell;”[27] that is, hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell; from which five were produced the heavens, air, fire, water, and earth. Also from the three above-mentioned properties (gunás) the three mighty angels, Vishna, Brahma, and Mahísh, came into the area of the creation.[28] Moreover, for the purpose of creation, eight other Brahmas were also impressed by the first Brahma with the characters of existence, and these became the various gradations of the spiritual, 15 corporeal, the high, the low, the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms.

In some of their treatises, God is the same as time, works, and nature; whilst, according to others, these are regarded as the instruments of his majesty.

In other treatises, the Almighty is held to be light, surpassingly great and splendid, of exceeding brilliancy and radiance, corporeal, invested with members.

Other descriptions represent him as pure light, abstract being, simple existence, unconfined by place, exempt from transmigration, free of matter, without parts, uncompounded, divested of the attributes of accidents, and the creator of the world, and all therein contained. According to other dissertations, God is the producer of beginning and end, exhibiting himself in the mirror of pure space, containing the higher and lower, the heavenly and terrestrial bodies.

It is stated in the first part of the Bhagavat, that the truly-existing is an abstract being, one without equal or opposite, who in the various languages amongst the human race has denominations suited to the belief of his worshippers, and that the mode of attaining union with him depends on eradicating wrath, extirpating bodily gratifications, and banishing the influence of the senses. This holy essence 16 is called Naráyan,[29] whose heads, hands, and feet exceed all number.

At the period when this world and all it contains were buried under the waters, Tot, or “intellect” lay reclined in the sleep of unity, on the head of Adsesh,[30] the supporter of the earth. From the navel of this exalted being appeared the lotus flower, called by the Hindoos Kawal;[31] out of which arose Brahma, from the members of whose mighty existence all created beings hastened into the area of visibility.

It is recorded in other treatises of this sect, that they give the name of Naráyan, or “the majesty without color,”[32] that is, “without the qualities of accidents,” to the absolute essence and abstract being of God, who is in pure space. They say, moreover, that his essence, which is devoid of all forms, made a personage called Brahma, who was constituted the medium of creation, so that he 17 brought all other existences from behind the curtain of nonentity into the luminous area of being. In like manner that sublime essence manifested itself in the soul of Vishnu, so that he became an Avatár, and to him is confided the preservation of whatever Brahma created. That glorious essence next called up Mahadeo, for the purpose of destroying Brahma’s creation, whenever infinite wisdom requires the transformation of the visible into the invisible world; from which three agents arises the arrangement of all things in the universe.[33] They say that Brahma is an aged man with four heads; Naráyan, or Vishnu, holds in his hand the Chakra, or Disk, “a sort of weapon;” he always assumes the Avatárs, or “incarnations;” of which ten are greatly celebrated. Avatár[34] means appearance or manifestation; Karan[35] signifies cause; Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahadeo are called Trikaran, or the three causes.

In the Satya-Jog there was a Rakshas[36], named 18 Sámak Asur, who performed such great religious austerities, that he became enabled to work miracles; he having taken the Anant-Ved[37] which was in Brahma’s possession, and from which are derived the four Vedas given to mankind, fled into the water; on this, Vishnu, on the fifth day of the fifth month, Chét,[38] “March-April,”[39] in the Kishn Bichah, having assumed the Matsyávátar, or “the form of a fish,” plunged into the water, slew the Rakshas, and recovered the Veda: this was the first Avatar.

The second was the Kurmávátar, or “that of the tortoise.” Anant Ved signifies “the numberless Vedas;” Matsya, “a fish;” Avatár, “descent,” or “manifestation;” Chét, “the fifth solar month;” Kishn Bicheh, “that portion of the month which is without moonlight and when the nights are dark.”

On the twelfth of Chét, in the Kishn Bicheh, he 19 assumed the Kurmávátár, or “that of the tortoise.” They say that the Angels and Deeves (Asurs), taking the serpent Vásukir,[40] formed with him a cord, and fastening this to a lofty mountain called Mandára,[41] made with it a churn-staff, which they moved about in the mighty ocean, whilst Naráyan remained under the mountain to prevent it from falling; and by this agitation they procured the water of life. In the kingdom of Kalinga, they have formed the image of a tortoise, and among the wonderful sights of that region is the following miraculous event: if they cast the bones of a Brahman or a cow into the adjacent reservoir, in the course of a year one half of it becomes stone, and the other half remains unchanged. It is worthy of remark, that some Persian astronomers represent the constellation Cancer by a tortoise, nay call it by that name, instead of Kharchang, or “crab.” Ferdúsi, the sage, thus expresses himself:

And as they account Cancer the ascendant sign of the world, it is therefore likely that the ancient 20 Hindú philosophers represented this constellation[42] under the figure of the Kurma, or “tortoise;” also by the Matsya, or “fish,” is meant the constellation Hút, or “Pisces.”

The third was the Baráh, or “boar Avátar,” when a Rakshas, named Karanyáksha, having taken away the earth and carried it under the water, Vishnu, on the sixteenth of Chet in the Shakl Pacheh,[43] or “bright half of the moon,” assumed the form of a boar, 21 slew the demon with his tusks and brought out the earth.

The fourth was the Narsinha, or “man-lion Avátar.” There was a Rakshas named Kiranya Kashípú, whose son, Prahláda, worshipped Vishnu, and as his father persecuted him on that account, Vishnu, therefore, on the fourteenth of Baisakh,[44] in the Shakl Pacha, or “bright half of the moon,” having assumed the form of the Narsingh, whose head and claws were those of a lion joined to a human body, slew the demon Kiranya Kashipú.

The fifth was the Vá-mana, or “dwarf Avatar.” When the Rakshas, Bali daitya, through his religious exercises and austerities had become lord of the three worlds, that is, of all above the earth and below it and the heavens, so that the angels were hard pressed and deprived of their power; Vishnu, therefore, on the twelfth of Bhadun[45] in the Shakl Pachah, descended in the Vámanah Avátár, and coming into the presence of Bali, requested as much of the earth as he could traverse in three steps: to this Bali consented, although Sukra, or “the planet Venus,” the director and guardian of the demons, exhorted 22 him not to grant the request, saying: “This is Vishnu, who will deceive thee.” Bali replied: “If he come to me as a suitor, what can answer my purpose better?” Vishnu, on this, included the whole earth in one step, the heavens in the second, and in the third, rising up to his navel, said to Bali, “Whither can I pass?” Bali, on this, presented his head; on which Vishnu, who saw this, having placed his foot, sent Bali[46] below the earth, where he has ever since continued to reign with sovereign power, during many hundred thousands of years. It is to be noted, that Vá-mana means a dwarf, as he was a diminutive Brahman.

23 The sixth Avátar was Paras u Rama.[47] The Chatri, or “military caste,” having become evil doers, in consequence of this, Vishnu, on the seventh of Bhadun, in the Shakl pachah, or “bright half of the moon,” assumed the Avátar of Parasúram, who was of the seed of the Brahmans. In this incarnation he exterminated the Chettri class so utterly, that he even ripped open their females and slew the fœtus. According to the Hindus, Parasuram is always living; they call him Chirangivah, or “long-lived.”

The seventh is the Ram Avátar:[48] when the tyranny of the Rakshas Rávana, sovereign of the demons, had exceeded all bounds, Vishnu, on the ninth of Chet in the Shaklpachah, becoming incarnate in Rama, who was of the Chettri caste, overthrew at that time Rávána, chief of the demons of Lanka, (Ceylon). Now Lanka is a fort built of golden ingots, situated in the midst of the salt ocean. He also recovered Sita,[49] the wife of Rama, who had 24 had been taken away by the Rokshas, which is a name given by the Hindoos to a frightful demon.

The eighth was the Krishn Avátar. When Vishnu, in the Dwapar-Jog, on the eighth of Bhádún, in the Kishn pachah, having assumed the Avátar of Krishna, slew Kansá. Krishna was also of the Chettri or “military caste.”

The ninth was the Budh avatar. When ten years only of the Dwapar-Jog remained,[50] Vishnu, in order to destroy the demons and evil genii, the causers of night, assumed the Avátar of Buddha, on the third of Baisakh, in the Shakl pacheh.

The tenth Avátar is to occur at the expiration of the Kali-jug, for the purpose of destroying the Mlechas, or “enemies of the Hindoos.” The Kalki Avátar is to take place on the third of Bhádún, in the Shakl Pachah, in the city of Sumbul, in the house of a Brahman named Jasa. Kalki is also to be of the Brahman caste. He will destroy the corruptions of the world, and all the Mlechas, that is, Muhammedans, Christians, Jews, and such like, 25 are to be entirely extirpated: after which the Satyog, or “golden age,” is to return.

They moreover maintain, that the contingently-existing inhabitants and beings of earth are unable to penetrate into the presence of the necessarily-existing sovereign, and that the essence of the Creator is too exalted for any created beings to attain to an acquaintance with it, notwithstanding the high knowledge and piety with which they may be adorned: it therefore seemed necessary to the Almighty God to descend from the majesty of abstractedness and absolute existence, and exhibit himself in the various species of angels, animals, man, and such like, so as to enable them to attain to some knowledge of himself. They therefore assert, that for the purpose of satisfying the wishes of his faithful servants, and tranquillizing their minds, he has vouchsafed to manifest himself in this abode, which manifestation they call an Avátar and hold this to be no degradation to his essence. This tenet has been thus interpreted by Shidosh, the son of Anosh: According to the Súfís, the first wisdom is the knowledge of God, and of the universal soul, his life; and in this place they have expatiated upon the attributes of the Almighty; thus by Brahma they mean his creative power; and by the old age of Brahma is implied his perfection: philosophers also call the first intelligence, the intellectual 26 Adam, and the universal soul, the intellectual Eve. The sage Sunai has said:

By Vishnu is meant his attribute of divine love, and also the universal soul; and they give the name of Avátar to the spirit derived from the soul of the first heaven; in which sense they have said: “Avátars are rays issuing from Vishnu’s essence.”

But these sectaries do not mean that the identical spirit of Rám, on the dissolution of its connection with his body, becomes attached to the body of Krishna; for they themselves assert that Parsurám (the sixth Avátar) is immortal, and his body everlasting.

When Rámachandra became incarnate, he encountered the other; and Parsurám, having posted himself on the road with hostile intentions, Rámachandra said: “Thou art a Brahman and I a Chettri: it is incumbent on me to show thee respect:” then applying the horn of his bow to Parsurám’s foot, he deprived him of all power. When Parsurám 27 who is now along with his wife in the heavens, enrolled among the stars: he was the instructor of Rama, and brought him to the knowledge of himself; and his counsels to Ráma have been collected by the Rishi Valmiki in the History of Ráma, called the Ramáyana, and the name of Jog-Vashishta, given to them, which they call Indrazaharájóg Vashishta.[54] Some parts of these tales were selected by a Brahman of Kashmir, and afterwards translated into Persian by Mulla Muhammed, a Súfí. To resume: Ráma, on hearing this expression from Parsurám, said: “My arrow, however, errs not:” he then discharged some arrows which have become the janitors of paradise, and do not permit Parsurám to enter therein. This parable proves that they are by no means taken for Avátars of Naryáan; as, although Pursurám and Rám were two Avátárs of Vishnu, yet they knew not each other. Again, it is an established maxim among philosophers, that one soul cannot be united in one place with two distinct bodies. Besides, it is certain that they give the name “Avatárs of Naráyan” to the souls which emanate from the universal soul; and that they call Naráyan the soul of the empyreal, or the fourth heaven. As to their assertions that Naráyan is God, 28 found himself destitute of strength, he asked his name, and on learning that it was Ramachandra, he was greatly astonished, and said: “Has Rámachandra’s Avátar taken place?” and Rámachandra having replied “Certainly,” Parsurám said: “My blow is not mortal, I have taken away thy understanding.” On this account it happened that Rámachandra possessed not intelligence in his essence, and was unacquainted with his true state, wherefore they style him the Mudgha, or stupid Avátar.[52]

Vasishta, one of the Rishies,[53] or “holy sages,” 29 and their acknowledging his Avátars as God, and their saying that the Almighty has deigned to appear under certain forms, all this means that a Naráyan is the same with the universal soul, which the Súfees entitle “the life of God.” As life is an attribute of the Almighty, and the perfection of attributes constitutes his holy essence, consequently the souls which emanate from the universal soul, or that of the empyreal heaven, which is the life of God, know themselves, and acquire the ornaments of pure faith and good works; and also, on being liberated from body, they become identified with the universal soul, which is Vishnu, or the life of God, agreeably to this saying: “He who knows his own soul, knows God:” that is, he becomes God.

As to their acknowledging the fish, tortoise, and boar to be incarnations of the divinity, by this they mean, that all beings are rays emanating from the essence of the Almighty, and that no degradation results to him therefrom, according to this narration of the Mir Sáíd Sharif, of Jarjan (Georgia).

As a Súfí and rhetorician were one day disputing, the latter said: “I feel pain at the idea of a God who manifests himself in a dog or hog:” to which the Súfee replied: “I appeal from the God who displays not himself in the dog.” On this, all present exclaimed: “One of these two must be an infidel.” A man of enlightened piety drew near, 30 and showing them the exact import of these expressions, said: “According to the belief of the rhetorician, the dignity of God is impaired by his manifesting himself in the dog; he is therefore distressed at the idea of a God thus deficient. But, according to the Súfee, the non-appearance of God in that animal would be a diminution of his dignity, he therefore appeals against a God deficient in this point: consequently, neither of them is an infidel.” So that, in fact, the Súfís and these sectaries entertain the same opinions.

The author of this work once said to Shídósh: “We may affirm that by the fish is meant the lord, or conservative angel, of water;” as, according to their mythology, a demon having taken the Vedas under that element, was pursued and slain by Vishnu, and the Vedas brought back: thus their mention of a fish originated from its inseparable connection with water. By the tortoise is meant the lord, or conservative angel, of earth; as their mythology relates, that the Avátar of the tortoise occurred for the purpose of the earth being supported on its back, as is actually the case; they have also especially mentioned the tortoise, as it is both a land and aquatic creature, and that after water comes earth. By the boar are meant the passions and the propagation of living creatures; and as to the tradition of a demon having stolen away the earth and taken it 31 under the water, and of his being pursued by Vishnu under the form of a boar, and slain by his tusks, its import is as follows: the demon means dissolute manners, which destroyed the earth with the deluge of sensuality; but on the aid of the spirit coming, the demon of dissoluteness was overthrown by the tusks of continence: the boar is particularly mentioned, because its attribute is sensuality; and it was reckoned an Avátár, because continence is virtue. The Narsinh, or “man-lion,” is the lord, or conservative angel of heroism; and as this constitutes a most praiseworthy quality, they said, that the Narsinh was a form with a lion’s head and a human body, for when they spoke of impetuous bravery in a man, they made use of the term “lion.” By Vámana, or “dwarfish stature,” they meant, the lord of reason, strength of reflection, and an intellectual being; the dwarfish stature implying that, notwithstanding a diminutive person, important results may be obtained through him; as in almost a direct allusion to this, people say: “An intelligent man of small stature is far superior to the tall blockhead.” By Rajah Bali, they typify generosity and liberality.

Shidósh was delighted at this interpretation, and said: “They have also recorded that Krishna had sixteen thousand wives; and when one of his friends who thought it impossible for Krishna to 32 visit all of them, said to try him: ‘Bestow on me one of thy wives,’ Krishna answered: ‘In whatever female’s apartment thou findest me not, she is thine.’ His friend went into the different apartments, but in every one of them he beheld the god engaged in conversation with its mistress.” This story implies, that the love of Krishna was so rooted in their hearts, that they cared for none besides, having his image present to their eyes, and dwelling every moment on his beloved idea.

The tradition of Vishnu’s always bearing the Chakra in his hand (a kind of military weapon), alludes to the knowledge and decisive demonstration which are unattainable without the aid of soul.

In Mahadeo, they allude to our elementary nature by the serpent twined round his neck; they mean anger, and the other reprehensible qualities which result from corporeity; by his being mounted on a bull, the animal propensities; by the tradition of his place of repose being the site for burning the dead, is signified, the total dispersion of the particles of bodies and the perishable nature of things. Mahadeo’s drinking poison is also to the same purport. In this sense they also say that Mahadeo is the destroyer of all worldly things; that is, elemental nature imperatively requires the dissolution of combination (connection), and that ultimately death comes in the natural course.

33 They also hold that every angel has a wife (female energy), of a similar generic constitution, and originally derived from Brahma; and as we have before stated, the philosophers call the first intelligence the True Sire, and the universal soul, Eve; and thus he is the head and the wife the shoulder; the universal soul is the body of the empyreal heaven; and in like manner the other celestial souls and bodies have wives of the elementary nature; as they give the appellation of wife, or energy, to whatever is the manifest source of action.

Moreover the established doctrine held by these sectaries is, that each class should worship a particular angel, and the wife or female energy of that angel; the worshipper regarding the object of his adoration as God, and all others, as created beings; for example, many believe Naráyan to be the supreme God; several others, look up to Mahadéo, and many to the other male and female divinities; and thus, pursuant to the four Védas, which according to their common belief are a celestial revelation, they do not hold any angel who is the object of their praise as distinct from God: by which they mean that God, who is without equal, having manifested himself under innumerable modes of appearance, contemplates the glorious perfection of his essence in the mirrors of his attributes; so that, from the most minute atom to the solar orb, 34 his holy and divine essence is the source of all that exists.

The Fakir Arzú says: the above interpretation is confirmed by this tradition of the Hindus, that Agasti,[55] a star, was formerly a holy man, who once collected all the waters in the palm of his hand, and swallowed the whole; which means that Agasti is the same as Sohail, a star adjacent to the south pole, on the rising of which, all the water that has fallen from heaven is dried up, agreeably to the Arabic saying:

Many enigmatical and figurative expressions of a similar description occur in their writings; for example, Mahésh or Mahadeo, is an angel with matted locks and three eyes, which are the sun, moon, and fire; he has also five heads; his necklace is formed of a serpent, and his mantle of an elephant’s hide. There are nine Brahmas, eleven Rudras or Mahadeos, 35 twelve suns, and ten regions, viz.: east, west, south, north, zenith, Nadir, Akni, “between east and south;” Níreti, “between south and west;” Dayab, “between west and north;” and Isan, “between north and east.” The angels are in number thirty-three Kotes, or three hundred and thirty millions, each Kote consisting of one hundred Laks, or ten millions. These angels have spiritual wives, who produce a spiritual offspring. They likewise hold human spirits to be an effulgence proceeding from the divine essence; if to knowledge they add good works, with a clear perception of themselves and of God, they return to their original source; but should they not know themselves and God, and yet perform praiseworthy acts, they dwell in Paradise, where they remain during a period of time proportioned to their meritorious works; on the expiration of which period they are again sent down to this lower world, and again to receive a recompense proportioned to their deeds.

The actions even of the inhabitants of Paradise undergo an investigation, and are attended with reward or punishments duly graduated. They also hold that all those persons who are not sufficiently worthy of entering into paradise, but who have observed religious ordinances in order to obtain dominion and worldly enjoyments, shall acquire 36 their object in a future generation. They also say, in respect to any great personage, in whose presence the people stand girt with the cincture of obedience, that the rewards and results are, that this person continues in a suppliant attitude devoted to the service of God and those individuals who prostrate themselves before him, are in fact humbling themselves in adoration of the Almighty; in short, they hold all splendor and greatness as the rewards of alms and good works; thus they relate that whilst the incarnation of Rámchandra abode in the desert, he sent his brother Lachman to bring some roots of herbs in order to break his fast; but, notwithstanding a diligent search, he being unable to find any, returned and represented this to Rámchand, who replied: “The earth abounds in food and drink; but in a former generation, on this very day, I omitted the performance of an act which would have been well pleasing in the sight of God, namely, that of contributing to the sustenance of indigent Brahmans.”

They moreover believe that evil-doers, after death, become united to the bodies of lions, tigers, wolves, dogs, swine, bears, reptiles, plants, and minerals, in this world, and receive under these forms their well merited punishment; but that those who have been guilty of aggravated crimes are hurried off to the infernal regions, where they remain suffering 37 torture during a period of time proportioned to their evil deeds; and when they have undergone the destined punishment, they again return to this world. They also believe that there is in paradise a sovereign, named Indra, and that whoever offers up a hundred Aswamédas,[56] becomes Indra. When his appointed time in paradise, in the full enjoyment of sovereign power has passed, he is on the expiration of that period to descend to the lower world, and there obtains a recompense proportioned to his 38 acts. Moreover, Indra’s spouse is named Sachí Devi, and falls to the share of the person who attains the rank of Indra. Note: by Aswaméda is meant the sacrifice of a horse of a certain color, and according to certain established rites. However, by Aswaméd, their learned doctors understand “abnegation of the mind:” for imagination is a fierce charger, the sacrifice of which is an imperative duty on the religious ascetic; or it may allude to the destruction of the animal passions.

They also believe that angelic beings are subject to concupiscence, and wrath, and the cravings of hunger and thirst; their food consisting of perfumes and incense, sacrifices, meat and drink offerings, with the alms and oblations made by mankind; and their beverage, the water of life.

They also assert that the stars were holy personages, who, on leaving this world of gloom, through the efficacy of religious mortifications became luminous bodies, ascending from the lower depths of this abode of the elements to the zenith of the crystalline sphere; nay, their birth-place, name, family, with the names of their fathers and grandfathers, are carefully enumerated in the sacred volumes of this sect. Thus they say that Sanicher (the slow-traveller) or Saturn, is the son of the glorious Luminary; and Mirrikh or Mars, the son of the Earth; the world-enlightening sun, the issue of Kashyapa, 39 the son of Maríchí, the son of Brahma; Zóhrah (or the regent of Venus) the son of Bhrigu; and Utáred (Mercury) the son of Kamer (the regent of the moon). Some however maintain the moon to be the son of Attri the Holy, but, according to others he is sprung from the sea of milk.

[57] *These opinions contain a marked allusion to the tenets held by the distinguished Parsi sages, namely, that the intellectual soul has a relation to that sphere with which its good actions are connected: they consequently apply the denomination of Sun to the spirit of one united to the sun, and his father is entitled “the father of the Sun.”*

The writer of this work once observed to Shídósh, the son of Anosh: “Perhaps they mean by the sires of the stars, their presiding intelligences, as in the technical language of philosophers, the name of sires is also given to the intelligences, on which account Jesus called the Almighty ‘Father.’”

According to them the elements are five in number, the fifth being the Akas (or ether), which word in its common acceptation means “the heavens;” but according to the learned it implies empty space, or space void of matter. One of their distinguished doctors, Sumitra, son of the Ray of Kalinga, holds that Akas, which the Greek Platonists call space, is 40 simple and uncompounded. Damudar Das Kaul, a learned Brahman of Kashmir, also holds Akas to signify space; and space is understood by the Platonists among the Yonian to be an extent void of any substance (a vacuum), which may be divided into parts, the totality of which parts may be equivalent to that extent of the general vacuum which is congruous and equal to it, in such a manner as to comprise every particle of that extent which is the space in every particular division of the general space. There is an extent interposed between two things, and this extent is void and free of matter. According to their account, no better interpretation of Akas than that which is conveyed by the word space, can be offered.[58]

41 They moreover assert that the heavens have no existence, and that the constellations and stars are fixed in the air. According to them there are seven samudras, that is oceans, on this earth: the salt sea, that of sugar-cane juice, the sea of spirituous liquors, that of clarified butter, the sea of curds, the lacteal, and lastly, that of sweet waters. They also say that there rises above the earth a mountain called Su-Meru[59] entirely formed of the purest gold, on which the angelic beings reside, and around which the stars revolve. There are nine spheres, namely: those of the seven planets, with those of Rás and Zanab (the head and tail of the dragon), which are also borne along in their celestial vehicles. Rás and Zanab are two demons who drank the water 42 of life, whom Vishnu, at the suggestion of the sun and moon, smote with a weapon called the Chákra, or disk, and rent open their throats; in revenge for which, the moon is devoured by Rás, and the sun by Zanab; but as their throats are rent open, whatever is taken in at the mouth issues at the aperture in the throat: by this allegory they allude to the lunar and solar eclipses.[60]

Brahma dwells in a city called Rást Lok;[61] Vishnu in a region called Vaikanth; and Mahadeo on a mountain of silver named Káilasa. They also maintain that the fixed stars have no actual existence, but that the objects which shine by night are couches of gold set with diamonds and rubies, on which the inhabitants of paradise repose. [62]*On this Shidosh remarks: “It is agreed that paradise means the heavens, and also that the fixed stars are in the 43 eighth heaven; so that, consequently, the heavens constitute the couches of the souls.”*[63]

They esteem the majesty of the great light as the supreme of angelic beings, and on a careful investigation of their books, acknowledge no existence as superior to him in dignity; as the constitution of elemental compounds, and the existence of all beings is dependent on and connected with his auspicious essence. They moreover regard Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the radiance and reflexion of his light; saying, it is his majesty alone which, by its acts and operations, is called by these three names. They represent him as a sovereign, in the human form, seated in a chariot which signifies the fourth heaven, to which are attached seven horses, with angels and spiritual beings, accompanied by royal trains and gorgeous pomp, continually passing before his majesty. They also esteem him as the source of existence and as universal existence. *They also believe the earth to be the skin of a Raksh or evil genius, who was put to death, and his skin stretched out: the mountains are his bones; the waters his blood; the trees and vegetables his hair. By Raksh they mean a demon, which here implies the material elements on this earth, which according to them is supported on four legs; alluding in this to the 44 nature and number of the elements, each of which rests on its own centre.

According to them Saturn limps, which typifies his long period of revolution; and Bhúm, or Maríkh, “Mars,” is a demon, on which account they ascribe to him a malignant influence.* Zoharah, or “the regent of Venus,” is the director of the demons, and to this planetary spirit they ascribe the sciences and religions of the barbarians, and the creeds of foreign nations.

The Muhammedan doctors say, that Islamism is connected with this planet, from which source proceeds the veneration paid by them to Friday, or the day of Venus. Múshteri, “Jupiter,” is accounted the director of the angels, and the teacher of the system of Brahma, which is conveyed in a celestial language, not used at present by any beings of elemental formation: thus, although the Koran is a divine revelation, the language of it is in general use among the Arabs; but the four Véds which the Hindus account a celestial volume, is written in Sanskrit, a language spoken in no city whatever, and found in no book, save those of a particular sect: it is called by them “the speech of angelic beings.” The Véda was given to them by Brahma, for the due arrangement of human concerns. By angels or divine beings, they mean eloquent speakers, and learned authors, who, being illuminated by the 45 effulgence of primitive wisdom, interpreted whatever was revealed to them. It is to be remarked, that every one who pleases may derive from the Védas arguments in favour of his particular creed, to such a degree, that they can support by clear proofs the philosophical, mystical, unitarian, and atheistical systems, faith, and religion; Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, fire-worship, the tenets of the Sonites, or those of the Shíâs, etc.; in short, these volumes consist of such ingenious parables and sublime meanings, that all who seek may have their wishes fulfilled.

They say that the Almighty is a great body, and that all other beings are in his belly; which resembles the opinions maintained by the venerable Shaikh Shahbáb ud deen Maktúl, whose tomb may God sanctify! namely, that the universe is one body, which contains all others in existence, and is called the universal body. It has one spirit, which comprehends all others, and is called the universal soul; and one single object of intelligence, from which they derive all intelligences, calling it the universal intelligence. It is stated in the Mujmal al Hikmat, or Compendium of Philosophy, that the Almighty is the spirit of spirit; and according to Azar Húshangian, “the intellect of intellect.” Shaikh Bó Ali[64] 46 (whose place of repose may God illuminate!) thus speaks:

This sect gives the appellation of Rakshas, which means evil genii or demons, to all those who do not profess their faith, and who perform not good works.

Time, in Hindawi Kal, is a measure of the movement of the great sphere, according to the philosophers of Greece and Persia. The author has also heard from the Brahmans, and in conformity to the opinions ascribed to the most distinguished persons of their caste, it is stated in the work entitled Muadan Ushshaffai Iskandari (a selection taken from several Hindi medical treatises), that time, according to the Hindu philosophers, is a necessarily-subsisting immaterial substance, durable, incorporeal, that will ever last, and admits not of annihilation. Time has been divided into three kinds, namely, past, present, and future; but, as in their opinion time admits neither of alteration nor extinction, these divisions are not in reality its attributes, although correctly used when applied to acts performed in time. According to the succession of acts, they figuratively describe 47 time as past, present, and future; as in reference to the solar revolutions and phases, they call it by the names of days, nights, months, years, and seasons: in short, they have so many intricate distinctions of this same nature, that the mere attempt to enumerate them would fill several volumes. They all agree that this world is to continue for four ages: the first, the Rast yug, “the righteous,”[65] which lasted one million seven hundred and twenty-eight thousand common years; during which, all human beings, high and low, exalted and humble, princes and servants, adhered to the practice of righteousness and truth, passing their glorious existence in a manner conformable to the divine will, and devoted to the worship of the Almighty; the duration of human life in this age extended to one hundred thousand common years. The second, the Treta Yug,[66] which lasted one million two hundred and ninety-six thousand common years: during this period, three-fourths of the human race conformed to the divine will, and the natural duration of life extended to ten thousand years. The third was the Dwapar Yug,[67] which lasted eight hundred and 48 sixty-four thousand ordinary years, during which one half the human race performed good works and their life was limited to a thousand years. The fourth is the Kali Yug,[68] or “iron age,” which is to last four hundred and thirty-two thousand years, during which three-fourths of the human race will be immersed in sin, infatuation, and evil works, and the term of human life reduced to a hundred and twenty ordinary years. These four ages (4,320,000 years) they call a Chakra, and seventy-one Chakras a Manwantar; on the expiration of seventy-one Chakras, there elapses one day of the life of India, the ruler of the upper world; and on the expiration of fourteen Manwantars, reckoned according to the preceding calculation, one day of Brahma’s life is terminated.

They say, that the Almighty, having united himself with Brahma’s body, created the world through his medium: Brahma thus became the Creator, and brought mankind into existence, making them of four classes, namely: the Brahman, Chattriya, Vaisya, and Sùdra. To the first were assigned the custody of laws and the establishment of religious ordinances; the second class was formed for the purposes of government and external authority, being appointed the medium for introducing order 49 into human affairs; the third was composed of husbandmen, cultivators, artisans, and tradesmen; and the fourth for every description of service and attendance. All races not comprised in one of these four divisions are not accounted of human origin but of demoniacal descent: however the demons or Rakshas, through the practice of religious austerities, attained to such dignity that Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh (Siva) became their attendants. Thus Rávan,[69] through the efficacy of religious mortification, became lord of the world and its inhabitants; Brahma was reader of the Vedas at his court; the sun filled the office of cook; the clouds were his cup-bearers, and the wind his chamberlain.

[70]Finally, according to the sectaries, the life of Brahma lasts a hundred extraordinary years of three hundred and sixty days, with nights corresponding to the days,[71] so that up to the present time, that is, 50 the period of composing this work, in the year of the Hejira 1055 (A. D. 1645), there have elapsed four thousand seven hundred and forty-six years of the Kali-Yug. So many Brahmas have appeared, that the sums of their years exceed the limits of human comprehension; they have merely a tradition that one thousand Brahmas have successively appeared and been annihilated; so that the present is the thousand and first, of whose life fifty years and half a day are expired, which commences the half-day of the fifty-first year. As soon as the age of Brahma terminates, according to the preceding calculation, or amounts to the destined number, he then forms twelve blazing suns, whose heat and splendor consume alike both earth and water, so 51 that there remains not a vestige of this world or its productions, and mankind plunge beneath the waters, which catastrophe is called Pralaya, in Hindawi: after this event, another Brahma appears and creates the world anew, which process of dissolution and reproduction continues to all eternity. The Hakim Umr Khakani says:

By the prolonged periods of duration ascribed to these celestial personages, they allude to the antiquity of the world, which is so immensely great that it cannot be comprised in numbers. The man of spiritual attributes, Shídosh, the son of Anosh, says: “On the termination of the great cycle, human creatures reappear, and the water enveloping the terrestrial globe becomes of the same radical constitution as the waters on high; again, through the intense heat of the luminary, the water disappears, and twelve suns are formed: from the ascent of vapors and the blending of exhalations, the celestial disks are enveloped, when the tailed comets, which the Persians call ‘minor suns,’ and the Arabs Shamseyat, or ‘smaller solar bodies,’[72] 52 * consume alike the humid and the dry: such is the necessary termination of that cycle: the world and its inhabitants will be created anew.” * Mulla Ismail Suffi, of Isfahan, says:

The assertion “that only the four classes above enumerated are of human race,” implies that this denomination is attached to the professors of humanity, virtue, and discrimination; superior to which is showing mercy to the animal creation; also the knowledge of one’s self and of the Creator; nay, the person destitute of these characteristics has no share of the nature of man. Thus the sage Ferdusi says:

According to these sectaries, the worship offered to the forms of Mahadeo and Naráyan, and to the statues of the other spiritual beings, is highly to be commended. Strangers to their faith suppose them to look upon the idol as God, which is by no means the case, their belief being as follows: “The idol is merely a Kiblah, and they adore under that particular form, the Being who has neither accident nor form.”

53 Moreover, as mankind is an assemblage composed of superiors and inferiors, they have made images of the directors of the people, and constituted them their Kiblah: besides, as all things exhibit the power of the Almighty, they form images according to their similitude. They also say, that as the Avátars are radiant emanations of the divine essence, they therefore make images on their likeness, and pay them worship: so that, whatever is excellent in its kind, in the mineral, vegetable, or animal world, is regarded with veneration, as well as the uncompounded elementary substances, and the starry spheres. Rai Manuhar Kuchwáhhah has said:

Section the third, concerning the religious observances and ceremonies of the Samartagans (Smartas), or orthodox of the Hindus.—According to this class, there are two kinds of birth: the first, on quitting the maternal womb; the second, on the day of assuming the Munji[73] or Zanar, and repeating the established forms of prayer; as, until a person has scrupulously performed both these rites, he is not regarded as 54 orthodox, nor an observer of their institutes. Under this are contained the Shodásán-Karmáni,[74] “sixteen heads,” commencing with the woman being purified from periodical illness; her attachment to her husband; the forms of prayer necessary to be used on the occasion, and observed until the moment of death; and the acts of charity enjoined to be performed after the person’s decease.

Of their laudable customs are the following: 1. the Garbh-ádhána-karma,[75] or delivering the likeness of a son, that is, giving up a daughter to her husband; 2. the Pungsavana,[76] or reciting at the proper 55 season the prayers enjoined to be said, that a virtuous offspring may be born; 3. the Símantonnayana,[77] that is, in the sixth month of a woman’s pregnancy, the recitation of the proper forms of prayer and giving a feast to Brahmans; 4. the Játakarma,[78] or the rites to be practised by the father on the birth of a son, in regard to ablution; Hóm, or burnt offerings; Jap, or devout meditation and acts of charity; 5. the Náma-karana,[79] when, on the eleventh day after the child’s birth, they give it a name and repeat the necessary forms of prayer; 6. on the 56 fourth month they bring out the child, which they call the Nish-kramana;[80] 7. giving the child suitable food and at a propitious moment, which they call Anna-prásanna;[81] 8. at the age of three years they shave the child’s head and bore its ears, which rite they call Chúd´á-karana,[82] or the ceremony of forming the crest at the first tonsure of a Hindu. They are strictly enjoined to observe the above eight ceremonies; and if the child be of the female sex, they practise the same rites, but without the stated forms of prayer; excepting at the time of her marriage, when they are bound to recite the forms appropriated to that ceremony. 9. In his fifth year, they bind around the child’s waist a string which they call Sútram;[83] this rite they call Mungi;[84] the string is 57 to be made of the bark of the Darbha;[85] 10. three days after investing the boy with the Sutra, they should put the Zanar, or “sacrificial thread,”[86] about his neck, which they call the Yajnópavíta;[87] 11. on assuming the Brahmanical thread they are, by way of charity, to bestow a cow on the Brahmans, which act they call Gódán;[88] 12. is the ablution of the body with milk, curds, clarified butter, honey, and sugar, which they call the Ashnan-panjah and Paraish-chat;[89] 13. when the boy reaches his fifteenth year, they make him master of a household; this they call Viváhah,[90] or “matrimony;” 14. the son, after the decease 58 of his father, performs the requisite charities and donations, which they call Pind-pradán;[91] 15. on the 7th of the month Mágha,[92] when the majesty of the great luminary is in Aquarius, they are to present the Brahmans with pulse, barley, wheat, black rice, sesamé, gold, and suchlike; this is called Dán-phal;[93] 16. on the Shiva-rátri,[94] or “night of Siva,” the 21st of the Bhágan (Phágan, or Phálgun) they present to the Brahmans a serpent of silver, with red rice, which they call Phani.[95]

The above are the sixteen ceremonies. It is moreover necessary that a Brahman’s son should be invested with the Munji at the age of eight, the Chatriyas at eleven, and the Vaisyas at twelve, after which ceremony the boy is to be sent to school.

A Brahman must, whilst performing the offices of 59 nature, fasten the Munji securely on the right ear, turning his face to the north, but at night to the south. After performing these offices, he is to take his instrument, and going three paces farther he is to apply to his hands water, which is to be in a vessel, and with which earth has been blended, and this is to be continued until there remains no disagreeable odour. He is after this to perform his ablution in a clean place,[96] and seat himself in such a manner that his hands should be under his knees, with his face to the north or east; next, whilst repeating the prescribed forms of prayer, he is to put a little water three times successively into 60 the palm of the right hand,[97] which he is to swallow without reciting any prayers; he is then to cleanse the mouth with the back of the left hand, and having taken into the palm of his hand other water, and dipped the other fingers into it, he is to apply them to his nose, eyes, and ears; the water must be pure, without foam or bubble. On this occasion the Brahman is to swallow so much water that the moisture may extend to his breast; the Chattri such a quantity as to extend to his throat; the Vaisya sufficient to moisten the inside of his mouth; the cultivator, women, and children who have not assumed the Munji, are to apply a little water to the lips, then immerse the head, and having repeated the proper forms of prayer, to sprinkle the head several times. 61 The Brahman is next to compress the nostrils, so that the passage of inhalation and exhalation should be closed up, and recite the prayers prescribed on the occasion; then he is to stand for some time, turning his face towards the great luminary, and repeat the necessary formulæ. Every morning, on rising up and performing duly the offices of nature, he is to go through the necessary rites which they call Sandhya,[98] the observance of which, three times every day, is equally imperative on both Brahman and Chattriya: 1. every morning, or from the dawn of day until the rise of the world-illuminating solar orb; 2. at midday, from the sun’s meridian altitude to his declination; 3. at evening, or from one hour before the setting of the world-enlightening sun until the rising of the stars. These rites are to be accompanied by Ghasal, or “ablution,” except on the 62 Sandhya of the latter part of the day, when, if it be impossible, the established prayers only are to be recited. On performing this ablution, the head is to be several times sprinkled with water in such a manner that it may fall in drops on it; after which, having gone through the indispensable forms of prayer, he is to make the Homa, that is, he is to light the holy fire on a pure spot, and place on it thin and fine pieces of wood, and having chosen the still more delicate splinters of it, and moistened them with water, he drops pure rice upon them. The fire being thus lighted, he addresses prayers to his spiritual guide or his instructor, father, and elders, and laying his head on the ground, solicits their benedictions; pronouncing during this adoration his own name, so that it may be heard by them, after this manner: “I, who am such a one, in profound adoration address my prayers to you, and prostrate myself in your presence:” the same prostration must also be performed to his mother. He then repairs to his master, before whom he stands in an humble attitude and receives instruction: but after this form, that the instructor should say of himself, “I am now at leisure:” he is not to command him, which would be accounted great rudeness. When the pupil waits on his master, he is to appear before him dressed in costly clothing; but if both master and pupil should be in indigent circumstances, 63 the latter is to solicit alms, and thus procure subsistence for his master and himself: he is moreover to remain silent at table.

The boy, when invested with the Brahminical thread, is called a Brahmachari, until he enters into the marriage state; after which, if through the necessity of his own family he derives his daily support from another quarter, he is not to eat at one place only, but go round to several doors, and receiving something at each, convey the whole to its proper destination; but the person, whose father and mother charge themselves with his annual support, and who can discover no other Brahman beside himself in that district, is allowed to satisfy his appetite at one place. Until the time of his marriage, the Brahmachari eats not honey, never applies collyrium to the eyes, nor oil nor perfumes to the body; and never eats the viands left at table, except his master’s; he never utters a rejoinder with harshness or severity; avoids female intercourse; and never looks at the great luminary when rising or setting; he is a stranger to falsehood, and never uses an expression of ill omen; nor holds any one in detestation, or regards him as an object of reproach; above all, he shows exceeding veneration to his preceptor.

The ancients commanded that boys should be engaged in the study of the Veds, or “religious sciences,” from five years of age to twelve. They 64 have also said: “A Brahman should study the four Védas;” but as the acquisition of the whole is impossible, their learned men are consequently satisfied with the knowledge of small portions of each. The first is the Rigvéda, which treats concerning the knowledge of the Divine essence and attributes; the mode of creation; the path of righteousness; of life and death. The second, or Yajúsh-véda, treats of the rules prescribed for religious ceremonies, faith, burnt offerings, and prayers. The third is the Sámavéda, which treats of the science of music, the proper mode of reading the Védas, and the portions selected from them; from this source are also derived vocal and instrumental harmony. The fourth is the Atharva-véda, which includes the rules of archery, the prayers proper to be recited when encountering the foe and discharging arrows against them. If a person acquainted with this system and form of prayer discharge a single arrow, it becomes a hundred thousand arrows, some of which contain fire, others wind, storm, dust, and rain; others vomit forth golden stones and huge bricks; whilst some assume the forms of tremendous wild beasts and ferocious animals, which strike terror into the boldest hearts. Many are the extraordinary modes and wonderful devices unfolded in this Véda for the total destruction of one’s enemies. Such is the Atharva Véda, and such the artifices, 65 magic practices, incantations, spells, and devices contained in it.[99]

66 The Brahmachárí is of two kinds: one as already described, whom the Brahmans call Brahmachari, until the period of his becoming a householder and taking a wife; the second is he who in the course of this life never enters into the married state, pays no attention to worldly cares, and continues the devoted servant of his instructor, on whose death he pays the same attention to his survivors. If the disciple should happen to die in his master’s house or that of his successor, it is accounted far more meritorious than in any other place; and if his decease should not occur, he is carefully to worship the fire which is made for the purpose of the Hom, or “burnt-offering,” and diminishing every day the quantity of his food.

Having thus given some statements concerning the Brahmachárí, it now becomes proper to mention the various modes of contracting marriage among the Hindus: thus it is related in the first part of the Mahábhárat, that a woman who has lost her husband may lawfully take another; for when Parasu-Rama had exterminated the Chattris, their wives held intercourse with the Brahmans and bare them 67 children. It is also permitted to a wife deprived of her husband, to attach herself to another; thus Yojanagandhá[100] was first the wife of Paraśara, by whom she had a son, the celebrated sage Vyása,[101] and she afterwards became the wife of a king named Santana.[102] In the same work it is also recorded, that a woman may, by her husband’s consent, maintain intercourse with another; thus, on the arrival of Raja Bali, a Brahman named Tamma, sent him his wife and obtained a son. In like manner, Raja Pándu, who abstained from all intercourse with woman, permitted his wife Kuntí[103] to keep company 68 with others, and she, by force of his prayers, mixing with angels, had sons. In like manner it is permitted that the son be separated from the father, but remain with the mother, and that, on the decease of a brother, another brother by a different father but the same mother, may marry the widow of the deceased: thus Vyása, the son of Yojangandha by Párasaru,[104] visited the wives of Vichitra-Virya, who was born of the same mother, Yojangandha, by king Santanu, and there was born to him Dhritaráshtra, Raja Pándu, and Vidúra. It is also allowed that several individuals of the same race and religion may among them espouse one wife: thus Draupadí, daughter of Drúpada, Rája of Pánchála,[105] was married to the five Pandava princes; and Ahalyá,[106] the daughter of Gautama, to seven persons; and the daughter of another holy person, was married to ten husbands. The Yezdanians ascribe the seclusion of women, and their not choosing husbands for themselves, to litigation, corruption, 69 and the family perplexities. It is recorded also in the Mahábhárat, that in ancient times there was no such practice as the appropriation of husband and wife; every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she thought proper, until once the wife of a holy personage being in the society of another, Swétakéta, the holy man’s son, feeling indignant at such conduct, pronounced this imprecation: “Let the woman who approaches a stranger be regarded as a spirit of hell!” and at present the brute creation, which possess in common with us, immaterial souls, act according to the ancient law: many, also, of the northern nations follow the same practice. In the same work it is also stated, that the sage Vyása was born of the daughter of a fisherman, whom the sage Paraśara espoused, from which it follows that the issue of such a low connection is not to be held as a low or degraded character. Thus far has been extracted from the Mahábhárat.

According to the Smarttas, there are two kinds of wives: the first is the legitimate wife, who is degraded by holding intercourse with any man save her husband: the second are those on whom no restraints are imposed; of whom there are numbers at the disposition of their chief men. The princes of ancient times, to all appearance, established this description of females for the purpose of receiving 70 travellers and pilgrims, an act which they regarded as productive of great blessings.

Moreover, on account of the increase of the male population, they held not as a criminal act the holding an intercourse with these females; but regarded guilt to consist in being intimate with a woman who has a husband: they moreover esteemed it a base act to defraud the licensed class of their hire. Tradition records that, in former times, the Lulees, or “dancing women,” who inhabited the temple of the Tortoise in the city of Kalinga, at first gave their daughters to a Brahman, in order to conciliate the favor of the Almighty and insure future happiness; but that afterwards they gave them from selfish purposes, and exposed them from mercenary motives; even at present, although they have entirely given up every pious purpose, yet they do not associate with any save those of their own religion. However, Shir Muhammed Khan, who was appointed military governor of that province under the first sovereign, Abdálláh Kuteb Shah, forced them to repair to the houses of the Moslem: notwithstanding which, the Lulees of the temple of Jagganath, to this very day hold no intercourse with the Muhammedans. In Gaya and Soram, when they take a wife, she must be of noble and honorable descent, and of graceful carriage; and must not previously have been affianced to any other person; she is not to be related, 71 in the remotest degree, to the stock or family of her husband, she ought to have brothers, and her lineage and family for ten generations are to be publicly known among her contemporaries. Her relations also make strict inquiries into the merits and demerits of the bridegroom, particularly as to the state of his health and stamina. Some writers assert, that a Brahman may occasionally demand in marriage the daughter of a Chattri, merchant, or cultivator, but on this condition, that they do not join their husband in partaking of food or drink.

Among the Hindus there are five modes of contracting marriage;[107] the first, or Viváha, after this form: the damsel’s father looks out for a son-in-law, to whom he presents money and goods in proportion to his means, and gives him his daughter, which is the most legitimate mode.[108] The second is the 72 Asurvívahah, when without the consent of the father or mother, by employing force and violence, or the influence of money, the damsel is forcibly taken by the bridegroom from her parents’ house to his own, and there married to him. The third is the Gandharviváhah, when the bridegroom takes the damsel away with her consent, but without the approbation of her parents, and espouses her at his own house. The fourth is the Rákshasa-viváha, when the parties on both sides are at the head of armies, and the damsel, being taken away by force, becomes the victor’s bride.

The fifth is the Písácha-viváha, when the lover, without obtaining the sanction of the girl’s parents, takes her home by means of talismans, incantations, and such like magical practices, and then marries her. Písách, in Sanscrit, is the name of a demon, which takes whatever person it fixes on, and as the above kind of marriage takes place 73 after the same manner, it has been called by this name.

On espousing a damsel, the intelligent Brahman, having taken the bride’s hand into his own, must go through the established forms prescribed by his faith, and move seven steps in advance.[109] When he espouses the daughter of a Chattrí, at the time of solemnizing the marriage, an arrow is to be held at one extremity by the bridegroom, and at the other by the bride; on contracting an alliance with a merchant’s daughter, the bride and bridegroom are to hold a scourge or some similar object in the same manner; on his marriage with the virgin daughter of a cultivator, the parties mark their union by a token of secret intimacy. When they deliver the bride to her husband, if her father be not alive, or her paternal grandfather, or if her brothers be not forthcoming on the occasion, then the most respectable person of the tribe or family is to perform the necessary ceremonies; and if the relations be not intelligent, then the damsel’s mother.

It is to be remarked, that when a girl attains the proper age for entering into the married state, 74 if her parents, notwithstanding their ability, do not provide a husband for her, they commit a great sin. If a distinguished suitor should not present himself, they are however to provide a husband of a good family; this they are to perform only once in their lives, as on the husband’s death it is unlawful for the widow to become the wife of another person: after her husband’s decease, she is obliged to pass the rest of her life in his house. If, previous to advancing the seven steps prescribed at the time of contracting the marriage, there should present himself a more distinguished suitor than the former, it is allowed to take the damsel from the former and give her to the latter, as before advancing the seven paces, the matrimonial contract is not binding. Should a wife prove to be immoral, all intercourse with her must terminate; but putting her to death or turning her out of doors, are also forbidden: she is to be confined to a small and dark chamber, clad in a coarse dress, and to receive food but once a day.

The period of a woman’s illness, according to the Brahmans, extends to sixteen days: on the four days following the first day of the symptoms, all intercourse with her is forbidden. Women are strictly enjoined to show the greatest respect to their husbands, parents, brothers, and relations, and to use every possible exertion for the preservation of 75 their husbands’ property. When he goes on a journey, she is not to deck her person, nor appear cheerful and smiling; she is not to go to entertainments, to the houses of her acquaintances or relations, nor invite them to hers.

As long as a girl is unmarried, it is necessary to guard her with the closest attention; but, when married, this would be highly improper, with this restriction however, that it is by no means fitting that a female, from her tenderest years to the period of her maturity, should be allowed unlimited liberty: on the contrary, she is to be ever submissive and obedient to her father, husband, and relations: but if these should not be in existence, the actual rulers are to take care of her state.

When the husband is on a journey, the wife is not to remain alone in the house, but is to repair to the dwelling of her parents, brethren, or relations; and if, on her husband’s death, she become not a Sattee, that is, burn herself with the deceased, she is then to reside with his relations, devoting herself to rigid abstinence and the worship of the Almighty. They say that when a woman becomes a Sattee, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by the wife and husband, and that they remain a long time in paradise:[110] nay, if the husband were in the 76 infernal regions, the wife by this means draws him from thence and takes him to paradise; just as the serpent-catcher charms the serpent out of his hole. Moreover the Sattee, in a future birth, returns not to the female sex; but should she reassume the human nature, she appears as a man; but she who becomes not a Sattee, and passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the female state. It is therefore the duty of every woman, excepting one that is pregnant, to enter into the blazing fire along with her deceased husband; a Brahman’s wife in particular is to devote herself in the same fire with her husband; but others are allowed to perform the rite in a separate place. It is however criminal to force the woman into the fire, and equally so to prevent her who voluntarily devotes herself.[111]

77 The enlightened doctors say, that by a woman’s becoming a Sattee is meant that, on her husband’s decease, she should consume in the fire along with him all her desires, and thus die before the period assigned by nature; as in metaphysical language woman signifies “passion,” or in other words, she is to cast all her passions into the fire; but not throw herself into it along with the deceased, which is far from being praiseworthy. A respectable woman must not from vanity expose herself to the gaze of a stranger, but she is to wear a dress which will completely cover her to the sole of the foot.

It is to be noted, that the son of a Brahman by a Chattri female is not of the father’s caste, but a superior Chattri. It is moreover laid down as a rule that a Brahman, on becoming a Brahmachárí, should regularly worship the fire, which fire he is to discontinue at the time of the marriage contract; but on that occasion he is bound to light another fire and to recite the prescribed prayers, so that it may be as a witness of the compact entered into between husband and wife: also, after the celebration of the marriage, they are to repeat the prayers prescribed at the time of lighting the fire which they are ever after to worship daily.

The Brahman is moreover to offer up Hóma, or burnt offerings, at the rising and setting of the great luminary, and to partake of food twice; once during 78 the day on the expiration of two watches (midday); the second time at night, on the expiration of one watch: he is also to assist with food and clothing, to the utmost of his power, the indigent, and friends who come to his house.

The Chattri is to learn the Védas and Shasters, or the divine revelations and sciences, but he is not to teach them to another; he is likewise to perform Hóma, or “burnt-offerings.” His occupation consists in governing and protecting the human race, for which reason all monarchs were anciently of the Chattri class, the more effectually to establish the righteous decrees of Brahma, and the institutions of the Brahmans.

To the Bakkál, or “merchant caste,” appertains the profession of buying, selling, and commercial transactions, the protection of animals, and agriculture, which is attended with profit.

The cultivator, who is called Dalmah, or Kumbí, is enjoined to engage in service, to practise tillage, or any employment within his capacity by which he can gain a maintenance; there are in fact no limits prescribed as to the nature of his occupations.

All four classes are strictly enjoined not to injure any living being whatever, especially not to deprive any one arbitrarily of life; to speak the truth, to act uprightly, and as long as they live not to defraud a fellow-creature of his wealth.

79 Every Brahman is obliged once a year to celebrate the established rite of Yajna, or “sacrifice:” if he be in indigent circumstances, he is to go round to his brethren, and expend whatever he collects in the Yajna, which is thus performed: there are three Kundams,[112] or “fire-pits” to be formed, in front of which is fixed a wooden post; then a rope made of Durva grass (in Sanskrit, Kúsá) is thrown around the neck of a black he-goat, and fastened to that post; Hóm is then offered up during five days; on the first day, the sacrificer and his wife both perform their ablutions, nine Brahmans at the same time going through the rite of washing their heads and persons; of these nine, one is looked upon as Brahma himself, all present obeying his commands, and the remaining eight Brahmans waiting obsequiously on him. In addition to these, sixteen more Brahmans are required, who are to recite by themselves the Mantra, or “forms of prayer,” at the moment of the Hóm, or “burnt-offering.” In order to light the 80 fire, they bring small pieces of a wood which in Sanscrit they call Arana,[113] in Hindi, Ak (asclepias gigantea); and also for the same purpose another kind, in Sanskrit, Khandíra,[114] in Telinga, Chandaru; for the Homa, a wood in Sanskrit called Pámárak, in Telinga, Utarini, in Dakhani Akhárah, of which they make tooth-picks; also a wood, in Sanskrit Udámvarah[115] (ficus racemosa), in Telinga, Miri, in Dakhani, Kular, in Parsi Anjir dasti, or “wild fig;” and another wood, in Sanskrit samí,[116] and in Telinga, Khammi; also a grass, named in Sanskrit Dúrvá,[117] in Telinga, Kargi, in Dakhani, Haryálí; also another sort, called Darbas: altogether nine are required. The eight Brahmans first mentioned having repeated the proper incantation, lay hold of the goat in such a manner that they make it lie down on a bed formed of the leaves and branches of the tree Khartarhari, or Karshartari, in Sanskrit, Kaliśakha,[118] in Telinga, Balsúkúma, and in Dakhani Karankabánta. In the next place, the sixteen Brahmans, having recited the 81 formula, or appropriate Mantra, stop up all the animal’s orifices, so that he can neither exhale nor inhale, and keep him in that position until he dies. Then one of the sixteen Brahmans, cutting off the head at one blow, flays the carcase and cuts it up into small pieces, throwing away all the bones to some distance, and then mixes up clarified butter with the flesh. The eight Brahmans next lay it piece by piece on the fire, whilst the other sixteen are employed in throwing on the above mentioned kinds of wood, and pouring clarified butter on them. The eight Brahmans eat of the meat thus roasted; the person who offers the sacrifice also partakes of it; after which he gives among all the officiating Brahmans one hundred and one cows with their calves, along with a dakshinah, or “presents of money.” Hóma must also be performed on the second day, and gifts presented to the Brahmans; on the three following days, they recite the appropriate Mantras, and light up the fire in the manner before described, but lay no meat upon it; in short, during the whole five days, they entertain all Brahmans who present themselves, offering up perfumes and giving presents to each of them. On the expiration of the five days, they completely fill and stop up two of the fire-receptacles, leaving the third, which they do not close up until they have removed the fire it contains to their dwelling: as the fire on this 82 occasion had been made outside the city, they erect there a house which they burn down on the completion of the ceremony. When they have taken the fire to their dwelling, they deposit it in a peculiar receptacle excavated for the purpose; they offer up the Hóma daily, never suffering this fire to go out: they also make a covering for it, which they remove at the time of offering up the Hóma.

The manner of offering the Hóma is as follows: the sacrificer having performed his ablution and made the tilek, or “inaugural mark,” on the forehead with ashes from the fire receptacle, then celebrates the Hóma; the rites must be performed by a Brahman, as it is of no avail when performed by any other. If the officiating Brahman be a Vaishnavah, “worshipper of Vishnu,” he performs the Yajna, or “sacrifice,” in the same manner, excepting that, instead of a goat, he employs the figure of a goat formed of flour, over which he goes through the established ceremonies. When one goat is sacrificed, it is called Agnishtóma, or “sacrifice to Agni;”[119] where two are offered, Yúnyíkam;[120] the sacrifice of three is called Wajpéya;[121] the sacrifice of four is 83 called Jyotishtóma;[122] and the sacrifice of five is named Panjáham.[123] When they sacrifice a cow after this manner, it is called the Gomédha; the sacrifice of a horse, Aswamédha; that of a man, Narmédha.

The Yajna, or “sacrifice” is to be offered in the months of Mágha, “January,” Váisháka, “April,” or Márga-sirsha,[124] “August.” Every person performs the Yajna once; but he sacrifices a goat every year; or, if in indigent circumstances, the figure of a goat formed of flour; and if he be a follower of Vishnu, the goat is to be a figure formed of the same materials, as among that sect cruelty towards the animal creation is reckoned as impiety. In their Smriti, or “sacred writing,” it is thus laid down: “Let that person put animals to death who has the power of reanimating them, as the victim thus sacrificed must be restored to life.” Moreover, their pious doctors have said that, by the sacrifice of a sheep, is meant the removal of ignorance; 84 by that of a cow, the abandoning low pursuits; by that of the horse, the curbing of the mind; as according to the Hindus, Manah, or “the heart,” from which proceed all phantasies and internal sense, is a fiery and unbroken steed; finally, shedding man’s blood in sacrifice, implies the eradication of all reprehensible human qualities. It is also to be highly commended in a Brahman not to devote himself to lucrative pursuits, but to repair to the abode of his co-religionists, and being satisfied and grateful for the portion of grain he receives from them, to give up the rest of his time to devotion; nor is he to collect so much food as to have any remaining for the next day. Vessels of gold are esteemed more pure than those of any other metal. Whenever a Brahman sees an idol-temple, a cow, or a holy personage, he is to walk reverentially round each. He is not to perform the offices of nature in running water, nor in a cow-shed, nor in ashes; before a Brahman, or a cow, or in sight of the great luminary; when he retires to any place for this purpose, he is not in that state of nudity to look towards the stars; neither is he to go out naked in rain, nor sleep with his head to the west; he is not to cast saliva, blood, nor semen into water, nor extend his feet towards the fire for the purpose of warming them; he is not to leap on fire, nor drink water with both hands. It is also wrong to awake, 85 unless in case of necessity, one who is in a profound sleep; nor is it allowed to sit on the same couch with a sick person. It is not right to enter upon any undertaking to which a suspicion of evil consequences is attached. Great care must also be taken to remove to a distance from the smoke of a dead body on the funeral pile. No one is to return to his home, whether in a city or village, except by the public gate. A Brahman must not receive a gift from a mean and sordid monarch, or from an avaricious person of degrading pursuits, as in the future investigation, punishment certainly awaits such conduct: in short, he never accepts any thing from the impure or base. He is not to look at his wife when sneezing, yawning, or gaping; when she is seated in privacy at her ease; or when applying collyrium to her eyes, or anointing her hair.[125] He ought not to sleep naked in his bed-room, nor in an empty house without a companion; he ought not to throw water about in play, with the palm of his hand or with his foot, nor to blow out fire with his breath, without using any instrument.

It is to be known, that the astronomers among the Brahmans, in their computation, divide the month into two parts; from the beginning to the fifteenth day they reckon one part, and call the sixteenth 86 day Púrva, that is, one entire part; and the rest, to the end of the month, is the other part; in like manner, they have in each month twice twelve and six days; which they distinguish by the denomination dvádásí, “the twelfth,” and chachtí, “the sixth, day” of the lunar fortnight.

Nobody ought to put his feet upon the shade of a Dív, that is, of the image of a celestial being, of a king, a preceptor, a saint, and a married wife of another. It is not right to look with contempt upon a Brahman. One may beat a delinquent on account of a fault, or a pupil by way of chastisement, but his blows must not hurt the upper parts of the body. No man ought to dispute or wrangle with one higher in rank than himself, nor with a widow, nor with a man without connexion, an old woman, a beggar, nor with children. Let him feign ignorance with respect to a mandate upon a woman, and towards a person who should be aware of the bad conduct of his wife. He is never to take his meal upon the same table-cloth with a man without religion, a butcher, and one who sells his wife. The master of the house ought never, with a loud voice, to invite another to his board, because this looks like ostentation.

Nine stars are to be worshipped for the increase of wealth, the accomplishment of our wishes, and the union with the divinity; namely, Saturn, Jupiter, 87 Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, the solstice, and the descending node. Let the pious distribute to the Brahmans and to the wise men what is prescribed of corn, raiment, and jewels that may suit them. The king is to possess dignity, wisdom, and affability towards young and old; he is to be just towards the complainants; at court, condescending to all, mild and liberal, knowing the truth, understanding the wishes of men, respectful to the pious and the saints, and showing deference to the lords of the faith, and the secluded from the world; he is to be humble and command his ambition; and in whatever may occur, pleasure and pain, fortune and misfortune, let his conduct never be mutable and inconsistent.

Whoever runs away in battle, renders himself highly guilty, and all the merit which he might have acquired before, falls to the share of another who stood firm in the field of battle.[126] A king who, with the laudable qualities before described, exerts himself in the maintenance of his laws, the distribution of justice, and the welfare of the cultivators, shares 88 the recompense of all the good actions which the inhabitants of the country have performed.[127] The exercise of justice is imposed as a necessity upon a king; in order that, if a son, brother, uncle, brother-in-law, preceptor, or any other friend, commit a crime, he may immediately, according to the established code of laws, order their chastisement, terrify, reprimand, or subject them to retaliation.

In the Hindu Institutes which are called Smriti, it is said to be established that, after the worship of the Supreme God, they ought to venerate the subordinate divinities, and perform the prescribed rites. To eat flesh, and to put to death some animals, is therein not prohibited, excepting the cow; he who kills, or even hurts, this animal, shall never enjoy the sight of heaven; and they say that he only who can restore to life, may put to death, an animal; this is necessary: who destroys a living being must vivify it again; if he be not able to do this, he ought to forbear from that act, because he shall not escape 89 punishment for it. According to their learned interpreters, the killing of certain animals which is permitted in their sacred books, signifies the eradicating and destroying of such blameable qualities as are proper to these animals.

In ancient times, it was the custom among the Brahmans and the wise among them, when they had become householders and begotten a son, to withdraw from society, and when they had established their sons, to separate from them, and having retired into a desert, to devote themselves to the worship of God; and when the sons had children in their house, their father and mother did not visit each other in the desert, but lived separate from each other, at the distance of several farsangs.