Volume 2 — CHAPTER II. (continued 3)

The belief of the Hindus is as follows: all the tírths,[276] that is, “places of pilgrimage,” which are in the world are in imitation of the fixed model Haratírth, which is in Kachmir; for, after having visited the holy place of Kachmir, there is no desire to see that of any other country; and they call it the great place of pilgrimage, likewise prayága,[277] which is celebrated at Máhábád; there are Shah abad ed-din púr, and Gangavara, Lárasún, and Kisâlíhazra. There are many miraculous things in Kachmir; one of them is Sandebár, and they relate: In ancient times, a holy Brahman dwelt in a cavern of the mountain, where he devoted himself to the worship of the Almighty God. Once every year, he went to the Ganges to bathe. After having passed several years in that way, Gangá said to the Brahman: “Thou measurest always such a length of road, on which thou dost set aside the worship of God: my convention with 167 thee is this: that, when the sun reaches the constellation of the Bull, I will three times a-day come to thy resting-place.” From this time, when the great luminary throws his effulgence towards the constellation of the Bull, the water of the river springs up boiling from the basin of the fountain, which is near the place of his devotion. Sundeberari, in the cavern of the mountain, became celebrated: it is a square basin, and has on its eastern wall an open cavity, from which, as well as from several other vents and holes in the sides of the basin, the water springs up. However steadfastly one may look, the bottom cannot be discovered. And in the middle of the eastern side, there are seven holes, which the people of Kachmir call Saptarshi,[278] “the seven Rishis;” on the northern side is an issue, which they call dama bhaváni;[279] when the world-illuminating sun begins to enter the constellation of the Bull, the water appears there in the following manner: it springs up first from the large cavity, then from the Saptarshi: so the Hindus call seven rakshasas, and give their name to the constellation of the Great Bear. Further, the water comes up from the dama bhaváni, that is “the mansion of Bhaváni, the wife of Mahadéo.” When the cavity is filled, then the 168 water, passing over the borders, runs out; the Sanyásis and other Hindus, who had come from distant places, throw themselves into it, and the people who find no room, carry water from it. Afterwards, the ebullition declines in such a manner, that there remains not the least trace of the water. In this month the water boils up three times a-day, namely, in the morning, at mid-day, and in the afternoon, at the hour of prayer. After the lapse of this month, no more water is seen, until the sun enters again into the sign of the Bull.

The historians of the times know Sandeberarí among the wonders described by the ancient learned men of Kachmir. The ignorant among the Muselmans of Kachmir say, that Sandeberari is the well of Abu Ali, and believe it to be the work of shaikh Arráis; the truth is, that Hajet ul hak never came to Kachmir: as it is evident from the concurring testimony of history.

History of the illustrious Shaikh Abu Alí Hussain, the son of Abdullah Sina (God bless his grave!)[281]—The 169 father of Abu Alí was a native of the environs of Balkh, and his mother was Sitára. Abu Alí was born in the year 333 of the Hejira (944 A. D.)[282] When he had attained his eighteenth year, he was conversant with all the liberal sciences. They relate, that Amír Nuh, the son of Manzur Sámáni,[283] in a grave malady, when the doctors knew no remedy, was restored to health by the salutary power of the songs of Abu Ali. When the Sámánían were in distress, he directed himself towards Khórasan, the king of which country, Alí, the son of Mámun Massar, received Abu Ali with perfect favour. When 170 Abu Ali was accused before the Sultan Mahmud Sabak tegín,[284] of being opposed to the religion and creed of the ancient wise men, and when the Sultan showed a disposition to apprehend him, the Shaikh was alarmed and fled to Abyúverd; the satellites of the Sultan followed him with pictures and descriptions of his person, which were well drawn, and sent by the Sultan to all parts of the kingdom, in order that the magistrates and head men of office, by means of this picture might bring the fugitive before the Sultan. The Shaikh, informed of it, fled towards Jorjan (Georgia). By means of the remedies of the Shaikh, many sick were cured. Shamsen ul mâlí Kábús, the son of Vashamger,[285] had a nephew on his sister’s side on a sick-bed, all the remedies applied by the physicians proved useless; by order of Kabus, they brought the Shaikh to the pillow of the sick; but, in spite of all his cares and observations, the learned physician could not discover the cause of his illness. The Shaikh said to himself: “This young man may be in love, and from exceeding pudicity keep his secret unclosed.” 171 On that account he ordered the names of all the places and towns to be written, and one after another to be read before the patient, whilst the Shaikh held his finger upon the pulse of the young man. When they pronounced the name of the abode of the beloved, the motion of the pulse of the enamoured was perceptible; the Shaikh ordered also the names of all the private houses to be read; at that of the object of his desires, the pulse of the desirous became disturbed; moreover they began to read the names of the inhabitants of the houses; when they arrived at that of his idol, the pulse of the adorer again beat higher. Mazheri of Kashmir says:

Thus, the perfect science of Abu Alí found the true remedy: he said to one of the head men near Shams ul mâlí: “This young man is in love with such a girl, in such a house, and there is no remedy but the gratification of his desire.” After trial, the truth of these words was found.[286]

When the Umras and the ministers of state withdrew from the obedience of Kábus, whom they imprisoned, 172 the Shaikh retired into the country. Some time after, he betook himself to Ráí.[287] Majed-dóulah Abu Táleb Rustam, the son of Fakher ed dóulah Dalímí, the Hakim (governor) of Rái,[288] showed him great regard and honor; the Shaikh restored Majed ud-dóulah from the malady of melancholy to good health.

When Shams ed-dóulah made war upon Helál,[289] son of Bader, son of Hasnávíah, who came from the capital of the right faith (Mecca), he defeated the army of Bâghdad. The Shaikh went from Rái to Kazvín,[290] and from thence to Hamdan.[291] Shams ed-dóulah was cured of a colic by the remedies of the Shaikh, whom he then raised to the dignity of a Vizír. The chiefs of the army conspired against the life of Abu Ali; he fled, and remained concealed 173 during forty days. Meanwhile, the malady of Shams ed-doulahreturned; the Shaikh, having come forth from his place of concealment, delivered the Sultan from his illness, and was again raised to the Vizirat. After the death of Shams ed-doulah, the throne was filled by Bahá ed-dóulah, the son of Táj ed dóulah.[292] The Umrahs requested Abu Alí to accept the Vizírat, but he refused his consent. About this time, Aláded-dóulah, the son of Jâfer Kakyuah,[293] sent from Iśfahan an invitation to the venerable Shaikh to join him; but the Shaikh declined to come, and concealed himself in the house of Abu Táleb, a dealer in perfumes. Without the example of any other work before his eyes, he composed his work, entitled Shafá, “remedy,” treating the whole of physics and metaphysics.[294]

Tájed doulah, having assumed the name of Alaved-dóulah, kept the Shaikh, by this assumption, employed in a continual succession of affairs. When Alawed dóulah conquered the country of Tájed ud 174 dóulah, he brought the Shaikh to Iśfahán.[295] Towards the end of his life, a disease of the bowels seized the Shaikh, and gained strength, on account of his active life in the service of Alawed dóulah, and of the expeditions of his enemies. The patient was carried in a covered chair. When Aladed-dóulah came to Hamdán, the Shaikh felt that nature had exhausted her strength, and could not resist the force of the malady; on that account, having desisted from applying any remedy, he took a bath, and having distributed his property in alms to the poor, the indigent, and the necessitous, he turned his mind to God and the elect of the divinity; at last, on a Friday, in the month of Ramzán, of the year 427 of the Hejira (1035 A. D.), he passed from this deceitful world to the residence of happiness.[296] A great man said:

175 The extraordinary and astonishing actions performed by Abu Alí have been described in the book about the application of remedies in several histories[297], few of which are reproduced in these pages; and so much only with the intention to prove shortly to the candid reader, that Shaikh Abu Alí never came to Kachmir, about which intelligent and ingenious men in all countries agree.

“There is no house which may not be the house of God.”

Section the eighth: of the Vichnuian (Va ishnavas) worshippers of Vichnu.—Vichnu, who, according to the belief of the followers of the Smriti, is a subordinate divinity, is held by the Vichnuian to be the preserver of all things. The Vedantían maintain him to possess the qualities of virtue and of order, and to be the lord of the five senses; not subject however to the said senses, nor to their influence in any way. According to the Vichnuían, he is the first cause and author of the universe; they believe him endowed with a body, like mankind; he has a wife. Brahma, a deity, is the creator of things; and 176 Mahádéo, another divinity, the annihilator of beings; both are creators of Vichnu, and distinct from his holy being, because the path of union is closed between the creature and the creator; they say, that every body has a soul, but that the soul is not distinct from, but a part of, the body; the body has two forms, the male and female, and the creator and author of their being is the holy nature of Vichnu; the body is composed of five elements; men, conformably with their actions and works, are invested either with animal or human forms; the soul is always confined in the gaol of ignorance and in the fetters of avidity. Further, the spirits are divided according to three qualities, which are: 1. sattvam; 2. rájas; and 3. tamas: the explanation of these three qualities has been before given. The Satya (virtuous) tends towards mukt, that is, “emancipation;” for by the power of this laudable quality, he makes the bakhti, that is, “the worship of Vichnu,” his pursuit; and this bakhti raises him to the highest state, that is, to that of “emancipation;” according to the interpretation of this sect, mukt consists in this: that, after having left the sthúla sarira,[298] or “elementary body,” and the linga sarira,[299] that 177 is, “the visional body,” which has fallen into a vision of appearances, and after having been transformed into the primitive shape, which is either male or 178 female, one enters the Váikunt,[300] that is, “the heaven of beatitude of the Gods,” and the mansion of real life. Rájas, that is, the possessor of this quality, is liable to recompense or punishment; to the consequence of virtue or crime, according to an impartial appreciation of both. Now he holds the price of virtue, another time that of crime; and conformably to his merits or demerits, he migrates invested with a body, and for reward is associated with the blessed, or for punishment suffers witth the damned. Whoever does not, from the circle of the world, reach the shore of those who are united with salvation, he shall certainly never attain to the state of the desired emancipation. Tamas, that is, the possessor of this quality, is an adversary to mukt, and an enemy to liberation; his present and future condition is this: that, having left the sthúla saríra, that is, “his elemental body,” and the linga purusha,[301] or “his visional body,” and having returned to his primitive form, either male or female, he will be tormented in the world of darkness, which they call 179 andhatamasa;[302] from this place of manifold torments he never returns. This is the substance of the creed of the worshippers of Vichnu, called Madhu Acháris.[303]

The belief of another sect of the Vichnavas, called 180 Rámánandis,[304] is in substance as follows: the quality of Satwa tends towards the attainment of the high state of mukt, or “emancipation;” the way of acquiring it is, to lay aside all praises of another divinity; to abstain from the rites of any other sect; and to shun any other worship except that of the holy being of Vichnu, to whom alone all thoughts, all prayers, are to be directed, and whose remembrance is always to be kept. In the same manner as it is not permitted to a husband to desire the wife of another, in the same way they hold it wrong to think of any 181 other deity but of Vichnu. The difference between the beforesaid and this sect is, that the former associates to the worship of Vichnu that of other angels, of the creatures, servants, and companions of this God, which they maintain as meritorious, and perform with magnificence; whilst the latter sect considers the other deities as deformed and hideous.

The characteristical mark of the Rámánandis is a triangle drawn upon their forehead;[305] they never eat their meal before persons of another sect. The Madhu Achárís[306] wear two short strokes of red clay near each other upon the forehead; they do not associate with persons of another creed, but they eat before Brahmans who are not of their own peruasion.

A third sect is that of the Harbayántís.[307] They drink 182 with Brahmans of another persuasion from the same cup, and wear a circle as a mark on their foreheads.

A fourth sect is that of the Rádhá-Vallabhis;[308] these are bound by nothing; they observe no fast on the eleventh day of the month; they deliver their wives to the disposition of their preceptors and masters, and hold this praiseworthy.

In Hindostan it is known that whoever abstains from eating meat and hurting living animals, is 183 esteemed a Vaishnava, without regard to the doctrine beforesaid. Some of them take the name of Rama, who is also a manifestation of Vichnu; others choose the title of Kishen (Krichna), another incarnation of Vichnu. The reputation of continence and purity prevails in favor of those who are called after Rama; whilst those who take their title from Krishna are ill-famed for sensuality and libidinousness. It happened one day that a worshipper of Rama met with an adorer of Krishna; the former repeated perpetually “Ram, Ram;” the latter was occupied with the praise of Krichna, to whom the worshipper of Rama said: “Why dost thou repeat without end the name of a man who was devoted to sensuality, the name of Krichna?” He answered: “Because this name is better than that of a man who knew not even how to be certain of the honor of one woman.” This was said in allusion to Râma’s having banished his wife, named Sitâ, at the end of the fire-ordeal which she underwent to prove her purity.[309] Some 184 of the pious of this sect eat no sort of turnips or carrots which in eating, by taste or color, may remind of flesh. The writer of this work heard from Hansa rádja, a Brahman, that it is written in ancient books of this class, that Brahmans used to fly in the air and to walk upon the water, when, on account of having polluted their lips by eating flesh, they lost this power. As the Vairágis, too, profess to be Váishnavas, I will treat of them in the following article.

Of the Vairágis.—Virág is in the dictionary interpreted “aspiring.”[310] This sect renounces the world; their liturgy is in verse, and comprehends the worship of Vichnu and his incarnations, as Rama, Krichna, and the like, and these verses they call Vichnu padam. They make pilgrimages to the holy places dedicated to Vichnu, and wear around their necks rosaries of tutasí,[311] which they call malá-tulasí. Tulasí is an Indian 185 shrub. Whoever among the Hindus, Muselmans, or others, wishes, is received into their religion; none are rejected, but, on the contrary, all are invited. It is said that some Muselmans also worship Vichnu, because in “Bismilla,” they confound Bisem with Bishen (or Vichnu), and most of them agree about the purity and infinity of Vichnu’s being; in truth, they think he is incorporeal; the spirits proceed like rays from the light of his being, and all bodies from the shadow of his existence; but they say that when he wills he shows himself, as it happened, with four arms, and they agree about his having manifested himself in ten incarnations. They abstain from eating flesh. They are divided into four classes: Rámánujas, Nimánujas, Madhuacháris, and Radha Vallabhis, as before said:[312] 186 these four classes they call chár sampardá (sampradáya).[313]

Kabir,[314] a weaver by birth, celebrated among those 187 Hindus who professed their belief in the unity of God, was a Váiragi. They say that, at the time when he was in search of a spiritual guide, he visited the best of the Muselmans and Hindus, but did not find what he sought. At last, somebody gave him direction to an old man of bright genius, the Brahman Rámánanda. This sage never saw the face of a Muselman, nor of any other religionist. Kabir, knowing that Rámánand would not converse with a weaver, dug a hole upon the accustomed road of the Brahman, and placed himself therein. Towards the night Rámánand used to go to bathe on the border of a river, and at the time when, to wash his body and purify his soul with the water of sanctity, he bent his steps towards a house of prayer, he arrived on the border of the hole made by Kabir, who, coming forth, clasped the feet of Rámánanda. As the Brahman harboured in his mind no other thought but that of God the highest, under the name of Rámá, he called out: “Rám!” When Kabir heard “Rám” from the tongue of Rámánand, he withdrew his hands from the Brahman’s feet, and ceased not to 188 repeat the word “Rám, Rám!” so that no other object but that was hovering before his eyes, as before those of Rámánanda; and he discoursed about the unity of God in sublime speeches, such as are heard only from the most learned men. Kabir, having acquired reputation, people said to Rámánand: “There is a weaver in this town who wishes to be your disciple; it is to be regretted that you cannot be connected with a weaver, who is a man of a low caste.” Rámánand answered: “Call him to me,” which was done. When Kabir’s eye fell upon that of Rámánanda, the former exclaimed: “Rám, Rám!” the latter repeated “Rám, Rám!” and clasped Kabir fast in his arms, to the great astonishment and wonder of the people around, who asked the reason of such a favor. Rámánand replied: “Now Kabir is a Brahman, because he knows Brahma, that is, the supreme Being.”

It is said, that a class of learned Brahmans, sitting on the border of the river Ganga, praised its water, because it washes away all sins. Whilst so speaking, one of the Brahmans wanted water; Kabir, who had heard their speeches, jumped up from his place, and having filled a wooden cup which he carried with water, brought it to the Brahman. Kabir, a weaver by birth, being of a low caste, from the hands of whom Brahmans can neither eat nor drink, the water was not accepted, upon which Kabir observed: 189 “You have just now declared, that the water of the Ganga purifies the body and the soul from the pollution of sins, and from the foulness of evil actions, and makes them all disappear; but if this water does not render pure this wooden vase, it certainly does not deserve your praises.”

Among the Hindus it is an establised custom to bring flowers to God at the time of worship. One day Kabir saw a gardener’s wife who collected flowers for the image of a deity; he said to her: “In the leaves of the flower lives the soul of vegetation, and the idol to whom thou offerest flowers is without feeling, dead, without consciousness, in the sleep of inertness, and has no life; the condition of the vegetable is superior to that of the mineral. If the idol possessed a soul, he would chastise the cutter, who, when dividing the matter of which the image is formed, placed his foot upon the idol’s breast: go, and venerate a wise, intelligent, and perfect man, who is a manifestation of Vichnu.”

Kabir showed always great regard for the Fakírs. One day, a number of Durvishes came to him; he received them with respect in his house; as he possessed nothing to show his generosity and munificence to them, he went from door to door to procure something, but having found nothing, he said to his wife: “Hast thou no friend from whom thou mayst 190 borrow something?” She answered: “There is a grocer in this street who threw an eye of bad desire upon me; would I from this sinner demand something, I should obtain it.” Kabir said: “Go immediately to him, grant him what he desires, and bring something for the durvishes.” The woman went to the lewd grocer, and requested the loan of what she required; he replied: “If thou comest this night to me, thy request is granted;” the woman consented, and swore the oath which he imposed upon her to come; after which the grocer gave her rice, oil, and whatever these men might like. When the Fakírs, well satisfied, went to rest, a heavy rain began to fall, and the woman wished to break her engagement; but Kabir, in order to keep her true to her word, having taken her upon his shoulder, carried her in the dark and rainy night, through the deep mud, to the shop of the bad grocer, and placed himself there in a corner. When the woman had entered into the interior part of the house, and the man found her feet unsullied, he said to her: “How didst thou arrive without thy feet being dirty?” The woman concealed the fact. The grocer conjured her by the holy name of God to reveal the truth; the woman, unable to refuse, said what had taken place. The grocer, on hearing this, shrieked and was senseless. When he had recovered his senses, he ran out and threw himself at 191 Kabir’s feet. Afterwards, having distributed among the poor whatever he had in his shop, he became a Virágí. Shaikh Mahmud said:

It is said that when Kabir left his elemental body, the Muselmans assembled in order to give him a burial, because they supposed him to have been of the right faith; and the Hindus too crowded in order to burn his body, because they thought him to have professed their religion. At last a Fakír stept in the midst of them, and said: “Kabir was a holy man, independent of both religions; but having during his life satisfied you, he will also, after death, meet with your approbation.” Having then opened the door, they did not find Kabir’s body, and both parties remained astonished and bewildered.

In Jagernath, at the place where they burn the dead, is the form and simulacre of a tomb which they call Kabir’s.[315]

Another of the celebrated Virágis was Dáyú. One day, when Brahmans and Bánians (that is, traders) were assembled in a temple of Vichnu, they drove Dáyú out of it, as not worthy of being among their congregation. Dáyú, having gone out, sat down at the back of the temple, which soon after turned about towards the side where Dáyú was.

Perah Káivan, a Yezdánian, is one of the accomplished saints, and shows himself in the dress of every sect. When in that of a Vairági, he was in Guzerat for the sake of a pleasure-walk, he saw some of the Váirágis who came from a place of pilgrimage, and had a mark impressed upon their hand and arm: because, whoever makes a pilgrimage to the holy place of Krichna, gets the form of the God’s weapon (the diskus) imprinted upon his body by means of a hot iron. Kaivan Perah said to the Vairágis: “Why this wound?” they answered: “This is the mark of Vichnu; whoever has it is by the God recognised as being his.” Kaivan Perah observed: “When the soul is separated from the body, they burn the corpse; no mark of it remains; whilst the soul is not perishable, and has no mark: how will then Vichnu recognise it?”—When he came to Ahmed-abad, which is the capital 193 of Guzerat, he saw a crier who, from the top of a mosque, chanted his prayer; when he had come down, Káivan Perah asked him: “Hast thou received an answer?” the crier said: “From whom?” Kaivan replied: “From him to whom thou hast been calling.” Lubhaní says:

When he came to the harbour of Surat, which is one of the principal ports of Hindostán, he met with a Háji (a pilgrim from Mecca) who had come by sea to the harbour; Kaiván Perah asked him: “Whence dost thou come?” He answered: “From the house of God.” Kaiván said further: “Hast thou seen God?” The reply was “No.” “He was perhaps not at home,” rejoined Kaiván, and the Háji remained astonished.

The Vairágis are not devoted to a particular worship; they say, the name of Vishnu suffices for the acquisition of mukt, or “the union with God.” This sect was formed during the Káli yúg, and call themselves also Váichnavas: they renounce the world, and say: “Our way is opposite to that of the Vêdas and of the Koran: that is, we have nothing to do either with Muselmans or Hindus.” A great number of Muselmans adopted their creed, such as Mirza Salah, and Mirza Háider, two noble Muselmans who became Vaíragis. Of this sect was Naráin 194 Dásí, who sided with Rámánandis, which is one of the Sampradayas, that is the first of the four classes before mentioned. The author of this book saw him in the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) in Lahore. He was one of those who are freed from the affections of the world; he honored whomever he saw, and said: “Every body belongs to the divinity; that is, every body is the house of God.”

Píránah Kohely was of the sect of Vairagis, and Kohelí is a tribe of Kshatriyas; he withdrew from all the affections and troubles of the world. Having left the Guzerat of Panjab, which is his native place and the seat of his ancestors, he went to Vizírábád, a city built by Hakím Ilam eddín, named Buzín khan, and chose to settle not far from the above mentioned Guzerat. He had no faith in pious austerity. He said, the saints are men who, in a former existence, have brought affliction upon other men, and on that account do penance in this world; every pious act joined to some austerity is a requital of their deeds; those who are fasting have, in a former state, let hunger and thirst afflict the low and feeble; those who watch at night have, in his opinion, prevented the servants from sleeping; the Sanyásis, called Thádéser, who remain years standing upon 195 one leg, he thinks to be a class of spirits who have not permitted the servants to sit down; and those who suspend themselves, and others who perform their devotion in an inverted or strained posture, are a class who used to suspend their inferiors; and those who visit celebrated places and sacred mansions of pilgrimage, are a set who, for trifling reasons, have without pity sent about couriers to different places, without paying them their hire; the játis,[316] that is, those who abstain from intercourse with women, and from sensual indulgence, are an order of spirits, who have not provided for their sons and daughters the subsistence and furniture requisite for the marriage state, and prohibited to them this enjoyment, for which reason they now are subjected to retaliating penance.

This sect do no harm to any living being; which is common to all Vairágis, as well as to neglect devotion; but, in opposition to the creed of the Vairágis, they do not admit the Avatars, and say that God is exempt from transmigration and union; and, according to those who profess the belief in the unity and solitariness of the supreme being, he is not susceptible 196 of (what we call) intimate friendship. Being asked about the history of Krichna, Píránah said: “He was a Rája, devoted to licentiousness, and oppressing mankind.” The writer of these pages saw Píranah in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.), in Vizirábád, and in the same year and in the same place he saw Ananta, who was of the same creed as Píránah, but particularly addicted to the belief of the singleness of God.

Ananta did not advise abstinence to the sick. One of his friends being attacked by a diarrhœa, Ananta gave him substantial and sweet food, until he left this elemental body. One of his disciples wanted to have a vein opened; Ananda, having been informed of it, expressed himself strongly against this operation and prevented it. Thus, the author of these pages saw, in the year of the Hejira 1050 (A. D. 1640) in Guzerat of the Panjab, another of this sect, called Mían Lál, who was venerated by a great number of his sectaries; he abstained from eating any sort of animal food, and showed politeness to every body; like Píránah, he never cleansed his patched garment from vermin, and used to say: “These insects have an assignment for their daily subsistence written upon my body.” Váirágis are also called Mundís;[317] because they shave four parts of their bodies, and one shaved is called Mundí.[317] There arose a dissension 197 between this sect and the Sanyásis; in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) a battle was fought at Hardwar,[318] which is a holy place of the Hindus, between the Mundís and the Sanyásis, in which the latter were victorious and killed a great number of the Mundís: these men threw away their rosaries of Tulasi wood which they wear about their necks, and hung on their perforated ears the rings of the Jógís, in order to be taken for these sectaries.

Section the ninth: on the creed of the Cha rvak.[319]—This sect call rupa skandha[320] whatever is perceived and understood by means of the senses. What is ascertained by the perception of the senses is named vidy[321] skandha. Personality, consciousness, egotism, have the denomination of jnaná skandha.[322] 198 The knowledge of animal nature is termed jnapti skandha.[323] Whatever enters the interior part, that is, the mind, is entitled sanskára skandha.[324] They say, out of these five skandhas just mentioned, there is no other living principle, neither in man nor brutes;[325] the world and its inhabitants have no 199 creator, and there is no maker: this is clear: because whatever has not entered into the field of manifestation, and has not broken into daylight, cannot have the color of reality, and to be high or low, proceeds from the nature of the universe; whatever is written in the Vedas is not made public, and besides may be a lie which rests upon no foundation; and a lie certainly proceeds from the Vedas, inasmuch as they perform hóm, which is a ceremony in which they throw rice and like matters into the fire, and recite prescribed prayers, saying that this goes to the gods: now, whatever we throw into the fire, after cremation, becomes ashes—how do these go to the gods? It is also written in the Vedas, that they are to make an offering of cooked meal to a dead man—who is to enjoy it? For instance, when a person is gone from village to village, from one town to another, and in his absence a meal destined for him is presented to another person, the stomach of the former will not be filled. In the same manner, when any thing is offered to a dead person, who, according to the assumption of the followers of the Vedas, has been translated to another world, what honor and profit will accrue from it to him?

Thus is it also among the revelations of the Vedas, 200 that the depraved and criminal will be punished, and the virtuous and holy associated to quietness and satiated with prosperity: the one and the other is a lie: because the vicious man is freed and alleviated from the hardship of fasting, of bathing in cold water, of subjection to pious practices, and other inconveniences; whilst the virtuous, according to the Vedas, is bound to all these troubles; further, the wise ought to take his share of all the pleasures and cultivate his happiness, because, once reunited with earth, he will no more return.

However, nobody is to hurt living beings, as by it he is liable to cause some harm to himself. It is agreed by the wise that no injury is to be done to another; by the observance of which men may be set at ease, their numbers increased, and cultivation be promoted. This is the substance of the belief of the Charvák.

We will explain it more clearly; their creed is as follows: As the creator is not manifest, and the comprehension of mankind cannot attain to any certain knowledge about him, why should we submit to the bondage of an object doubtful, imaginary, if even wished for, yet not found; and why should we, in temples and monasteries, rub our foreheads on the ground, and present offerings to 201 deities whose reality, as all agree, will not stand trial? And why, for the promise of heaven and of future beatitude should we, like blockheads, abstain from the abundance of desirable things, from conveniences and blandishments? A wise man will not give ready money for an adjourned good, and deliver up place and power upon the lying accounts of books, which eloquent men call Vedas, or heavenly books; it is upon their authority that they extinguish all desires in themselves, and press the necks of men, like those of animals, in halters. We ought not to be deceived; we ought not to believe what is not evident. The frame of the body is composed of four elements, which by the necessity of nature are united harmoniously together; as long as the constitution is firm and health flourishing, it is proper to enjoy whatever is desirable by its nature, provided no harm to living creatures arises from it; when the frame falls asunder, the state to which the element returns can only be the element; after the disjunction of the bodily structure, there is no ascent to a higher mansion, no beatitude or quietness, no descent, or fire, or hell. These sectaries, when they hear the Vedas recited, say jokingly: “These are sick persons in a painful fit, or hired journeymen in an uproar.” When they behold the zunar (sacred thread) upon the neck of a Brahman, they say: “A cow will not be without a rope.” When 202 they find a pious person watching by night, they say: “He aspires to the dignity of an owl.” When they encounter a hermit upon a mountain, they remark: “He strives to outdo a bear.” When a person practises the restraining of breath, they observe: “He wishes to imitate a snake.” Of a person in a bath, they say: “He chooses the dwelling of a fish or a frog.” Moreover, when the Hindus relate that Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéo, their three great divinities, are the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer of the world, they reply: “They represent nothing else than the sexual organs.”[326] Upon Vichnu’s having four arms, they gloss: “At the time of sexual intercourse, each man and woman has as many.” To the praise of Mahadéo, from whose head the river Ganges flowed, they subjoin the interpretation, that “this means the virile organ in its natural functions.”[327] They meet the statement of Brahma’s being the creator of things, with the reply: “That this is an emblem of the birth of children:” and they proffer many other speeches of a similar import.

203 Section the tenth: on the system of those who profess the doctrine of Tark.[328]—Tark śastra is the science of dialectics; it is divided into sixteen parts, as follow: The first, Pramána;[329] this is the application of the science, which is subdivided into four parts: 1. Paríkshá;[330] that is, evidence, which with them is the sense of discriminating what is particular and well defined; 2. Anumána;[331] that is, after having perceived the mark of an object, to infer its existence; thus shall I call a mountain igni-vomous, on account of the smoke which proceeds from it; 3. Apamána;[332] that is “resemblance;” thus I shall say: such as is a cow, such is also an elk (or gayal);[333] although I may not have seen an elk, but only heard that it is like a cow; 4. Sabda;[334] that is, “sound:” by these they mean speeches which people adopt as sacred; such “as the Hindus have the Vedas, and the Muselmans the Koran.” These are the four parts which constitute the Pramána.

The second of the sixteen divisions of the Tark 204 sastra is Pramiti,[335] that is, the comprehension of what is conjoint and concomitant. This division is subdivided into twelve parts, namely, 1. Atmá,[336] that is “spirit;” and means something which is distinct from what is material and sentient; something everlasting, eternal, very subtile in all bodies; 2. Sarírá,[337] that is “body;” and this they define to be the seat of sensuality and of maladies; 3. Indriya,[338] “the exterior senses;” and these they call the organs of perception; 4. Artha,[339] and this they declare to be “the earthly existences;” 5. Buddhi,[340] which they term “knowledge;” 6. Manas,[341] “or the interior sense, which with the Hindus is the heart,” and that is enough; 7. Pravritti,[342] and 205 this consists in justice or injustice; 8. Dósha,[343] that is “sinful error,” and this is subdivided into three parts, viz.: Rága, and this is “sensual lust;” Dvèsha, that is, “hate, enmity;” Muha,[344] and this is “gross ignorance;” 9. the ninth of the twelve subdivisions is Prétyabháva,[345] which is “the reproduction either of the tree from the seed, or of the animal from the sperma;” 10. Phal,[346] or “the good consequence of the good, or the bad consequence of the bad,” which means “retribution;” 11. Dukh,[347] or “pain;” and 12. Apavarga,[348] that is, “delight,” or the satisfaction of truth, from which they derive emancipation, or mukt, in the language of their learned men. Whoever is in full possession of it banishes far from himself twenty-one maladies which they enumerate, namely: 1. Saríra,[349] or “the body;” 206 2. Shadindriya,[350] that is, “the six senses,” five of which are exterior, and the sixth is, according to the Hindus, the interior sense, except which they know of no other; they say, the mind is the lord of the exterior senses; 3. Shad-darsa,[351] that is, “the six particular objects of the six senses;” so as seeing with the eye, hearing with the ear, smelling with the nose, tasting with the tongue, touching with the hand, and perceiving with the mind; he who sees is one, and that which is seen is another; so that there is a seeing eye and a seen object, whatever is seen, heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and impressed upon the mind, corresponds respectively to each of the six senses; and whatever is found by these six senses, or the six objects, are called Shad-darsas; these six, with the six former senses, and the saríra, or “body,” make thirteen; add to these six buddhaya, or “powers of comprehension;” further, sukhá,[352] or “sensual delight;” and finally, dukh, or “pain,” and you have the twenty-one affections before mentioned.

The third of the sixteen parts of the Tarka is the sanśaya:[353] this consists in pondering whether a certain 207 object be such a thing or another, as when a person sees from a distance an object and is not certain what it is, whether it be a mineral or a man.

The fourth part is the Prayójana,[354] that is, “motive,” which they explain thus: as when one by order goes to find something either good or bad.

The fifth part is the Drishtánta;[355] that is, “comparison by way of illustration;” so when they compare a mountain and a kitchen, that is: the mountain contains fire, and so does the kitchen, and both indicate it by the smoke which they emit.

The sixth part is the Siddhanta;[356] and this is knowing something with certainty.

The seventh part is Avayava,[357] “dividing a subject into minute parts;” for instance, when they say: 208 “he mountain contains fire on account of smoke,” so is, in this question, the first part termed pratijnya, or “proposition,” the mountain contains fire; the second part, called hètu, or “cause, reason;” in this thesis is: on account of the smoke which it emits.

The eighth part is Tarka,[358] that is, “arguing:” so when they say: “the mountain contains no fire,” it may be replied: “consequently it also emits no smoke.”

The ninth part is Nirnéya;[359] which is to find the truth immediately.

The tenth is Váda,[360] or “discussion;” that is, to raise questions about God and the saints.

The eleventh is Jalpa:[361] that is, “wrangling;” when one, in the establishment of what is right, endeavors to conquer his adversary.

The twelth part is Vitandá;[362] which means that 209 one pays no attention to his own position, but combats that of other persons.

The thirteenth part is hètwàbhása;[363] or “fallacious argument;” so when one says: “sound is eternal;” because what may be seen by the eye is like the sky, and just as the sky is perceived by sight, so is sound the perception of the ear.

The fourteenth part is Ch’hala,[364] “deceit;” this is when one substitutes one meaning for another: so as the Persian word náu kambil[365] means “a new cover,” or “nine covers,” it may give occasion to equivocation.

The fifteenth part is Játi[366] “futile argument;” and this may be applied to a lying purpose: so when one says that “sound is eternal,” because it is created, as is the sky; both are the works of a divinity; and whereas the sky is eternal, sound is everlasting.

The sixteenth part is Nigraha,[367] or “subjugation;” 210 that is, when one wishes to be a conqueror at the end of a dispute with another.

These are the sixteen parts of the Tarka.[368] The followers of this doctrine judge and affirm that, as this world is created, there must be a Creator; the mukt or “emancipation,” in their opinion means striving to approach the origin of beings, not uniting like the warp and the web, the threads of which, although near, are nevertheless separate from each other. This was related to me by the Imám Arastú, who was a chief of the learned and said to me that he had derived it from an old treatise upon logic, the precepts of which were without explanation, and to have bestowed on it that arrangement under which it now exists amongst the learned: he meant, probably, that the maxims are the same as those extracted from the Tarka. The same doctrine was taught in Greece: in confirmation of this, the Persians say, that the science of logic which was diffused among them was, with other sciences, translated into the language of Yonia and Rumi, by order of king Secander, the worshipper of science, in the time of his conquest, and sent to Rúmi.

Section the eleventh: on the tenets held by the followers of Buddha.—These sectaries are also 211 called Jatis.[369] They have no belief in incarnations or Avatárs of the Deity, but they admit the transmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several other dogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more detestable than the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune befals any one of them, they say: “Hast thou perchance done some good to a Brahman,” or drunk some water of the bone devourer: so they call the Ganges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead, throw their bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act. The Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; on which account they do not like to pass through water, for fear that an animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food, never put their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, they filter it first through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that no living animal may remain in it, and then steep this piece of cloth awhile in water, in order that, if a living being stick thereto, it may be separated, and take its place in the liquid. A great number of the Baníans or traders are of this sect; for the most part they sell corn, and some get a livelihood as servants. The durvishes of this 212 class are called Srivaras and Jatís.[370] They pluck the hair of their head and beard by means of tweezers.[371] When they travel, they carry a besom of the bark of a soft tree with them, and out of regard for the life of animals, they sweep the road with it before they put down their feet, that no living insect may be destroyed. When they speak, they hold a handkerchief before their mouth, not to swallow a fly or other insect.

They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy and sanctity; these they call Jatis, who never behold the face of a woman. Those of this sect who are married, called Grihast’ha,[372] show great regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement 213 of respect, they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a Jati in their house, they do whatever he orders, according to their power. They are divided into two classes: the Lunugí and Pujáris. The first are those who adore God as one, and think him free from all imperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and who worship no idol. The Pujáris venerate the image of a deity, and have temples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at the time of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take only as much food as may not cause a privation to the people of the house: thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. They drink no cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever any body has warm water for bathing, they take a little of it, and having thus collected sufficient water, they let it cool and then drink it.

Similar to the durvi hes of both classes is a third sect, called Mahá-átma; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they do not pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulate money, cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and take to them a wife. Farzánah Khushí says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a Śrivara, and requested him to give me a full account, which may be deemed true beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related as follows: “The men of my faith 214 may live retired from the world, or devoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are many of them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge.” One of the Maha-átmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich man devoted herself to his service; one day she complained to him of the unkindness of her husband; the Śrivara gave no answer; wherefore the woman said: “Another time I will not wait on thee, because thou takest no interest in me.” The Śrivara rejoined: “If even thy visit were agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee.” He then took up a bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to the woman, saying: “Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee.” The woman returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon a stone, intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband entered into the room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon the stone. When night fell in, they shut the door of the house. The stone at every moment jumped from its place, knocked against the board of the door, and fell back: the woman and her husband were astonished. The man asked his wife the reason of it, and she, from fear, told him what had taken place. The man rose and opened the door of the house; the stone was set in motion, and rolled 215 on until it reached the house of the Mahá-átma. Many other similar stories are told of the Srívaras. Khushi said that he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power of incantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declared that this man was really a Jati, but not a Mahá-átma.

The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number of Srivaras and their followers. From them he knew Meher chand, a Lúnú, in the year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotárah, which is under the dominion of Jodpur Márawár, he found also Síva rama, a Pujári, in Mírta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one named Jagna, a Banian, in Ráwel Pandi: he was adorned with all the good qualities of Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, he bought it of him and set it free. This sect do whatever they can for the liberation of living beings. Many of them are rájas in several places and countries. When one brings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and is disposed to kill it, they come from their shops and buy the animal at a high price; thus it has been seen that, having assembled from all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guzerat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one day, a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having picked vermin from his coat, was about to kill it; 216 the Banian interposed; the Durvish said: “If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;” the Banian offered a pie;[373] the other wanted more and more, until the bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which the Banian paid for the liberation of the offensive insect. Hafiz Shirázi says:

Section the twelfth: on various religious systems professed by the people of India.—It is to be recollected that, as has been stated, there are Samradíán, Khodaníán, Radián, Shíderangíán, Pâikeríán, Mílánían, Aláríán, Shídábíán, Akhshían, and Mazdakían, who are dispersed in Iran and Turan, and all appear in the dress of Muselmans, although in secret they follow each the path of their own chosen faith; in the same manner various sects are also established in India, but they do not appear in the dress of Muselmans. It is to be known, that the fundamental rule in the creed of the Hindus is the Smriti, that is, the “law,” and that all Rakshasas, that is, “devotees,” follow this way; the Véda, to them the heavenly book, prescribes the acts, and 217 is a text, from which every sect may derive proofs of its particular belief, and all may agree in some points.

I have already given an account of their religion, but I must here remind the reader of some points. They say Naránaya, that is, “the deity,” in the origin was alone; a flower, namely, the lotus, having a thousand leaves, rose from his navel, from which Brahma came forth, Brahma chatur mukha,[374] or “four faced;” one of these faces was cut off by Máhadéo; Brahma is also ashta báhu,[375] that is “eight armed;” in his navel was also a flower of five hundred leaves, from which Vichnu proceeded; Vichnu chatur báhu, or “four armed;” he carries in one hand a spear; in the other, the chakra, “the discus,” a weapon peculiar to the Hindus; in the third hand, the gadá, or “club;” and, in the fourth, the lotus flower. In the navel of Vichnu was a lotus of one hundred leaves, from which sprang Mahadéo, who is ashtamukha, or “eight faced” and “eight armed;” he rides upon a bull, his neck is surrounded by a snake, the hide of an elephant envelops him, and his body is rubbed with ashes; chandra, “the moon,” surya, “the sun,” and agni, or “fire,” are his three eyes. The sect of Sáivas adore Mahadéo, and his 218 wife is worshipped by the Akmían and Ashnían, as before shown.

Another sect is that of the Sanyásis, who are praised in the Smriti; they distinguish themselves by long and entangled hair, which is called jata.[376] The Saiva-Sanyásis are also called Avadutas; their numbers increased during the Kaliyug; they are very pious, intrepid, and charitable. At one time, a war broke out between them and the Sófís: the former were victorious.

Another sect is that of the Jangaman; these also cut the hair off their heads, they rub dust upon their bodies, and praise Mahadéo, to whom they attribute a real existence. They are divided into several classes. They say, among the celestial spirits are nine Brahmas, who are the anśus,[377] that is, “the rays” of Brahma. There are one thousand Vichnus, rays of Vichnu, who is also called Naráyana; there are eleven Rudras, rays of Rudra, which is a name of Mahádeo; they reckon twelve suns,[378] rays of the great luminary; sixteen kalas,[379] that is, 219 parts or rays of the moon; and they divide the effulgence of that body into sixteen parts, and enumerate eight and twenty of its mansions, or nakshatras,[380] and seven planets, besides the head and tail of the dragon. Ganesa is to them a god with the head of an elephant. They distinguish eight quarters of the world, besides the zenith and nadir, and call them asht dísa,[381] in the following order: purva, “east;” paśchima, “west;” dakchina, “south;” and uttara, “north;” between south and east, agni; between south and west, náirrita; between north and west, váyu, between north and east, íśána. Among the deities are Bhaírava[382] and Hanuman, and among 220 female spirits asht Durgás, or “eight Durgás,” in the following order: Kálaká, Chandra Kálanjarí, Káumarí, Váichnaví, Bábhraví, Chamundá,[383] Bhavání, and Parvati.[384] Maha Lakchmî Sarasvatí is the wife of Brahma. Rakshasas are termed the pious men of the Satya yug; Kaśyapa is the father of the sun; Vaśishta, the preceptor of Ram-avatár; Viśvamitra, a Kshatría, who by dint of pious austerity became a Brahman; Valmiki is the author of the poem Ramayána, which contains the history of Ráma; Angirasah Ihr Vyása composed the historical poem Mahabharata; Bhazadvája Jamadagni existed in the Dwapara yug; Gotama, Kapah, (Kapila?) Parására, Narada, in the Kali yug; Chonah, Apravanah, Aurdah, Jamed Kapeh, these are for ever living;[385] Saptarchaya, that is, seven Richis, or “saints,” are: Kaśyapa, Uttara, Bhardvája, Viśvamitra, Gotama, Jamadagni, and Vaśis’hta.[386]

It is to be known that there is a class among the Hindus who give themselves the term of Muselman-sofis, 221 and really agree in several tenets and opinions with the Sufís. Thus, in the first place, they devote themselves to celibacy. As they have heard that there are ten classes of Sanyásís, and twelve of Yogís, they also pretend to be divided into fourteen classes; when they meet together, the questions which they ask are: Who are the four sages, and which are the fourteen noble families? and they impose upon their disciples many years of service, before they reveal to them the four sages and the fourteen families; they say: The sage of sages is the illustrious Muhammed (may the peace of God be upon him!); after him, devoted to godliness, Ali (may the blessing of God be upon him!); from him the khalifat devolved upon Imam Hossain; then Khaja Hossen, of Basora, also was his disciple and a khalif: these four personages are the four sages. They say besides, from Khaja Hossen, of Basora, sprang two branches: the first was that of the khalif Hossen Basorí Habíb Ajemí, from whom nine families proceeded, named as follows: the Jíbíán, Táikeríán, Kerkhíán, Sikatíán, Jenídíán, Gazrúníán, Túsíán, Ferdusíán, and Soherwardíán. From the second khalifat of Hossen Basori, which was that of the Shaikh Abdul Wahid Zaid, came forth five families with the following titles: the Zebírían, Aiáśían, Adhamían, Habírían, and Cheshtíán: and these are the fourteen noble families. It is said, that there exists 222 a congregation of pious sectaries, who do not adhere to the prophet Muhammed, although they acknowledge him to be a blessed gatherer of the harvest of virtuous perfection: they relate, that one day the prophet was taking a pleasure-walk under the guidance of Jabríl, and came to a place where a great tumult was heard. Jabril said: “This is the threshold of pleasure: enter into the house.” The prophet consented to go in, and there he saw sitting forty persons as naked as they came from their mother, and a band busy serving; but whatever service the prophet requested them to command him to do, they did not comply, until the moment to grind bang[387] arrived. When they had ground it, they had no cloth through which they could strain and purify it; then the prophet, having taken his turban from his head, purified through it the juice of the bang, the color of which remained on the turban; whence the garment of the Biní Hashem is green. When the prophet rendered them this service, they were glad, and said among themselves: “Let us give to this messenger of God, who is always running to the door of the ignorant, a little of the bang, that he may obtain the secrets of the Almighty power:” so they gave the remains of the juice to the prophet. When he had drunk it, he 223 became possessed of the secrets of the angel of destiny, and whatever men heard from him, came through the means of this bounty.

There is a great number of this sect in Hindostan, and among the most celebrated of them are, in the first line, the Madárían, who, like the Sanyásís Avadhuts, wear the hair entangled; and the ashes which they and the Sanyásis rub upon their bodies are called bhasma;[388] besides, they carry iron chains on their heads and necks, and have black flags and black turbans; they know neither prayers nor fasts; they are always sitting at a fire; they drink a great deal of bang; and the most perfect among them go about without any dress, in severe cold, in Kabul, and Kachmir, and such places. These also consume much bang, and to the praise of one of their sect they say: “Such a one takes two or three seers[389] of bang.” When they sit together, they relate, that in the night, when the prophet ascended through 224 the seven stages of heaven, he received the command of God to wander through the heavens. When he arrived at the door of paradise, he found the entrance as narrow as the eye of a needle; the porter made him a sign to enter; the prophet said: “With this body, how shall I enter through this passage?” Jabríl replied: “Say: dam madar,” (“the breath of Madar,” a particular ejaculation of this sect). The prophet said so, upon which the narrow door opened, and he entered heaven.

They say, when Badih eddin Madar[390] came to Hindostan, he became a Yogi, whom the Hindus held in great esteem, and who had a great number of followers. Madar took a house; he sent a little boy, whose name was Jamen, with the order to fetch some dry cowdung with which he wanted to kindle a fire. It so happened that Jamen fell in with an assembly of Yogis, who, supposing him a Muselman, 225 killed, cut into pieces, and devoured the boy. Some time after, not receiving any thing to light up his fire, Madár went in search of Jamen, and found the assembly of Yogis, to whom he said: “What have you done with my good little boy?” They answered: “We have not seen him.” Madár called him loud by his name, and the members of Jamen, from within the bodies of the assembled Yogis, answered “Dam madar.” Madár then said to the Yogis: “Shall I bring forth Jamen from you all, or from one only of you?” They replied: “From one body only.” By the power of Madár, the limbs of the boy having united, in a manner that no body perceived any thing of it, in the belly of the principal Yogi, Jamen fell out from the nose of the same, so that neither the nostril of the Yogi’s nose was enlarged, nor the boy’s limbs diminished:[391] whereupon the Yogis chose to run away. Madár settled at this place, which till now is known by the name of Makanpúr.[392] The Madarían come, as many as possible, from all parts of the world, once a year, 226 on a fixed day, to Makanpur, and say that the blind and lame find their cure in that place.

They relate also, that Chistápá, the wife of Baharam Gul, in order to put to the test the Muhammedan and Indian durvishes and saints, came once among them who were assembled, and said: “Whoever will loosen the bracelet of beads (called Sámran) upon my arm, without betraying the least symptom of lust, he is a perfect saint.” All the pretenders to perfect sanctity, Muselmans and Hindus, presented themselves, but at the sight of Chistapa, they all were maddened with love, such was the beauty of her face: at last the turn came to Jamen, who approached her, and loosened the bracelet in a manner which, at the same time, evinced his manly strength, and his complete command over himself.[393] On that account, Jamen was proclaimed victorious over all the Muselmans and Hindus. And they have a great number of other similar stories.

Another sect, the Jelalían, are disciples of Said Jelal, of Bokhára;[394] his sepulchre is in the village Auch, in the district of Sind; these sectaries profess to be Shíáhs, whilst the Medárían are Sunís, on 227 which account they revile each other. The former know of neither prayers nor fasts, nor any other practices of piety with which the Sufís are occupied; they take a great deal of bang, and used to eat snakes and scorpions. When the adepts among them see a snake, they put it whole into their mouth and swallow it, saying: “This is a fish of the holy Alí;” in eating a scorpion they remark: “This is a prawn of Alí:” and the worms which are found in the water, they call the little crabs of Alí. Like the Medárian, the Jelalían go naked, and even in the severely cold season, wear no garment; they sit before the fire like the Medárian, but do not wear matted hair; frequently they shave four parts of their body, and lead a wandering life in the world. Some of them bring every thing that they gain to their master, and when they go for instruction to a preceptor, they deliver to him whatever they possess in ready money and other property; after which he presents them with a turban, and his list of saints; they wear that on their heads, and hang this on their necks. They believe that, when Jzráíl comes to take their soul, the turban, descending, covers their eyes so that they may not behold the face of the angel of death, which is exceedingly terrific. Their master looks every day for a new connexion with a woman; whenever he knows of a fine girl among his disciples, he orders trumpets to be blown, goes on 228 horseback, and betaking himself to their house, uses his own discretion with the girl, whom he now and then takes to his own house, but never marries. The author of this book asked one of the Jelális: “Hámed Mahommed, your master, does he take the daughter of one of his disciples without marrying her?” He answered: “The Safavian kings too take wives, daughters, and sons of their disciples, who are highly pleased with it, why should not Hámed Mahommed, who is truly the Khalif (substitute) of Alí, do the same?” This act is a sign of sovereignty, and a prerogative of the family of the prophet. In this country are many of his disciples, and he is a very great friend to hunting.

There is another sect who call themselves without tie and food; it is a laudable conduct with them to take nothing from any body beyond the required food and drink; and for their indispensable clothing, from the shreds which they find in the streets to stick together a coat, which they call kherka; and when they ask something from any body, they first revile him and call him bad names, wherefore they often receive bad treatment from the people. They say, God is a spirit, and Muhammed his body; his four friends are his two arms and two feet; dam mádar, that is, Mádar, is the breath and the spirit of God. They drink many sorts of spirituous and intoxicating liquors. They believe the unity of the 229 divine being, and some of them are also pious men. Their master was Gada Naráyana. The three just mentioned sects never shed the blood of animated beings.

Another sect, called Kakan, is in Kachmir; celibacy is their law, and their belief the unity of the divine being. They use much bang; a number of them is devoted to piety; their name of “Kakan” is derived from that of their master, who was Ibrahim Kakak. He lived, they say, in the time of the Pádshah Jehangír, who inhabits heaven, and drew to him whomever he chose; his very sight was such an attraction, that he on whom it fixed was irresistibly thrown at his feet; thus he attached to himself a great number of disciples, Hindus and Muselmans, none of whom he induced to change his religion; that is to say, to the Hindu he did not expound the Koran, nor propose circumcision; and to the Muselman he did not make an obligation of the Zunar, and of the mark of caste upon the forehead; neither the praise of Muselmans nor the blame of Hindus came ever upon his tongue; he never pronounced either the name of the prophet or that of an Avatar, which are the great objects of veneration to the Muselmans and to the Hindus; but he uttered Ruma, or Alla, or Khoda. He did not sleep at night, nor did his disciples, who sat back to back until morning before him. At a place of Kachmir, 230 he said to his followers: “A great number of men laid down; let us do the same.” The followers answered: “Let it be as you say:” he then first laid himself down to sleep, and the friends did the same. One day he heard the voice of a crier from the top of a minaret, and said: “This is the voice of God;” at this moment one of his companions broke wind; he subjoined: “This too is God; this too the divine tongue.” A student present said to him: “Do not blaspheme.” He replied: “The one and the other is an undulation of the air, and the air is subject to God.” The student reassumed: “But the bad smell, with the noise, what is it?” The answer was: “This proceeds from the association of ‘thou and I.’” The student said farther: “Drink no bang, because the bang-drinkers shall not pass over the bridge of judgment (sarat´h).” Kakak replied: “Great is the number of bang-drinkers; let us, on this side of the bridge, build a town and call it Bang pur, and not think of passing the bridge.” Goya Kásem composed a ludicrous account of these drunken sectaries. When the king Kásem Anwar (distributor of splendors) was near the habitation of excellence, he recited the following verses:

A great number of men in India think as these 231 sectaries. The Sanyásis assembled once in one of the sacred places of pilgrimage revered by the Hindus; by accident, an army of naked Jelális and Madáris came there at the same time, and having brought a cow, wanted to kill it; the Sanyásis bought the cow from them; they came a second time, with another cow, which the Sanyásis again, not without entreaties, purchased. These men, barefoot and bareheaded, having become insolent by their numbers, brought a third cow and killed it; the Sanyásis, indignant at this, attacked them, and a battle ensued, in which the Sanyásis at last obtained the victory, and killed seven hundred of the naked Jelális and Madáris; they educated the boys of these fanatics, whom they made prisoners on this occasion, in their own religion. The Sanyásis were frequently seen engaged in war.

Another class of the Hindus are the Yógis, who pretend to a high antiquity; an account of them has already been given.

Other sects, such as the Sankhyan, and the Patanjálís,[395] are devoted to piety, and practise the yóga, 232 and other pious austerities; also the Charvakíán, who believe the four classes of their sect to be very ancient: we have already treated of them, as well as of the Játis and Vairágis; the Nanak Panthíán will be introduced hereafter.

The Narayaníán are a sect of the Hindus, which holds its creed from Gosáin Haridas. He was of the tribe of Játs, from the village Kaníra, in the district of Saválik; he was a servant of Nabidás Sanyálá; which last name is that of a tribe of the numerous Rájaputs. Haridas, when hunting, shot an arrow at a deer which was with young, and brought down a fawn, which had also been pierced by the arrow. At the sight of this event, Haridas broke his bow and arrows, tore his garment into pieces, weeping and bewailing, and during twelve years had no intercourse with the society of men. Afterwards, he assembled many disciples about him. He died in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645 A. D.). This sect know nothing of idols, nor of temples, nor of the Kâbah, nor of any sort of worship; they do nothing towards obtaining the knowledge of, or union with, God; they confine themselves to the veneration of Naráyan, or “the supreme Being,” from which they derive the name of Naráyanían. They do not occupy 233 themselves with the affairs of the world; abnegation and solitude is their law. Some have an earthen cup to drink water in; some dispense even with this; they hurt no living being; they never pull up any grass or green herbs; they burn nothing; cook no meal; and when hungry, they go into the houses of the Hindus, and accept some food, but no flesh of any sort of animal. When one of them is about to die, he is asked: “Shall we burn thy body, or throw it into the water, or bury it in the earth?” Whichever he desires is done.

Another sect is that of the Dádu Panthians. Dádu was one of the cotton carders in the village Naráina, in the district of Marwar. In the time of the Padshah Akbár (who inhabits heaven!) Dádu devoted himself to the state of a Durvesh, and assembled many disciples about him. He prohibited his followers to worship idols, to eat the flesh of any animal, or to hurt any living being; but he did not order them to abandon woman and wife, or to withdraw from all business of the world; but he left it free to any one to give up, or to cultivate, the connection and intercourse with men. When one of them dies, they place his corpse upon the back of a quadruped, and send it into the desert, saying: “It is now better that rapacious and other animals may be satiated with it.”

The Píára panthíán hold their creed from Bábá 234 Píára; at the time of begging, they stand before the shops and houses, without looking at any body or saying any thing; they demand nothing with the tongue; they accept what is given, and go away when nothing is offered. The Mobed says:

They take no notice of the Muselmans, although they so call themselves.

The sect of the Vishnavas follow the doctrine of Gosáin Jáni. We hold the information from Jogendas, that they called their master Jehan, and his followers, composed of Hindus and Muselmans, adopted the creed of Vishnavi. This is as follows: they hurt no living being; they avoid fellowship with men of another creed among the Hindus and Muselmans; they pray five times a-day, with their face towards the east; they have the names of God, of the divinities, of the prophet upon their lips, such as Allah, Míkáíl, Jzráíl, Jibrail, Muhammed, Jl, and others; they bury their dead; they confer benefits upon others to the extent of their power; a number of their Durvishes pretend to be afflicted with maladies and beg alms, and whatever they so collect they distribute to the blind and lame, and to people of that description.

Further to be noticed is the sect of the Surya-mak-han,[396] 235 that is, of “the worshippers of the sun.” These derive their origin from an ancient nation of Hindus, and are divided into two classes. The one of them says: The great luminary is one of the divinities of the first rank; he has átmá and buddhi, that is, “soul and intellect;” the light of the stars and the splendor of the universe proceeds from him; he is the asht bhuvana loka,[397] that is, “the origin of the eight worlds,” and of all earthly beings; the sarva prabhá deva,[398] “the God of all radiance,” the chief and ruler of all divinities, the deity of heavens, the king of the stars; the Mahajyóti,[399] or “the great light,” worthy of praise; and of namaskara,[400] that is “respectful salutation,” and of adoration; and of hóm, or “sacrificial perfumes.” When the sun rises with his pure body, they stand opposite to him, and after adoration recite a Sanskrit prayer, the paraphrase of which is as follows:[401] “Whatever 236 beautiful light and high splendor thou possessest overflows the eyes from the excessive bounty of thy manifestation; thou art that light which is not surpassed by any other in the display of splendors; thine is the first prayer, for thou art the substitute of God, and we place our hope in thy bounty; to thee we address the prayers of our wants, that we may experience and loudly proclaim thy mercy. When this light is thy face, whatever we can say of the splendor, the beauty, and perfection of the supreme intellectual soul and of the pure wisdom, is but that one light which we recognise above in thy bountiful being, which thou temperest and displayest; this light derives its glory from thee, and supplication is due to this light. Give us thy assistance in the abnegation 237 of worldly pleasures; render us equal to thyself in the purity of light, and by thy knowledge grant us union with thee; the wish of all virtuous hearts is, that they may, far removed from all sensual delights, be made happy in the communion with those who are like thee: we abandon all worldly delights, that we may become similar to thee in splendor, and arrive to thee, and remain with thee.”

The other class of the Suryamakhan say: Whatever exists in the Swargaloka[402] and in the Bhúloka,[403] that is, in the upper and lower world, draws its origin from the sovereign great luminary; by his glorious appearance we fill our lojáni,[404] or “eyes,” with kalyanum,[405] or “auspicious light;” and we hear the Sanákáras,[406] that is, “the incorporeal beings;” by him we acquire buddhi, that is “intellect,” the professor of which attaches his heart to nothing exterior: on that account they call the sun natha, “a sovereign, or divine being,” and pay worship to him. Both classes abstain from hurting living 238 beings, and are on that account called jiva dayá,[407] “compassionate of life;” they do good to others as much as they can, wherefore they are termed punyavantas,[408] “virtuous;” they keep far away from falsehood and iniquity, for which they are entitled dharmamayás,[409] “righteous.” The gríhastha, or “householder,” contents himself with one strí,[410] or “wife.” They divide the sun into several parts, which they call dyuvá murtayas,[411] “figures of the sun;” but the first class reckons among the Pandits, or “learned,” an order of men who have a system about ákása,[412] “ether,” girayas,[413] “mountains,” tárá phal,[414] “starry firmament;” about the rising of heavenly bodies and the prognostics which are connected with them; they possess perfectly the canons of the Véda anga, “sacred science,” in which the medical is comprised; and they set a great value upon buddhí, “intellect;” and áharanam,[415] that is, “the application 239 of the thinking faculty;” and they say, that this is the mediator between what is sankhyanam,[416] “rational,” or probable, and sadhanam,[417] “substantiated,” which last is the form of things perceived; and the right appreciation of probabilities is attained by dint of buddhi and aharanam, that is, by high intelligence; this is fixing the thought of contemplation; or arriving at the science of what is perceived and what is probable or rational; this comprehends properly two sciences which are possessed by the jitèndriya loka,[418] that is, “by those sages who have subdued the senses.”

There is a class of durvishes who practise tapasya,[419] or “devout austerity,” and who, by great and difficult penances, banish every illusion from them, so that in their sleep they may not have unbecoming 240 dreams, which they say are produced by the influence of the imagination; and they guard their eyes from the wounds and impressions which also proceed from the imagination. They climb up to the tops of walls, without fear of falling down, and go to such places as are not easily accessible, which they say is a triumph over illusion; they pretend to have the power to cause rain to fall or to cease; to attract whomever they like, and to render him obedient to their will; to give information of whatever is concealed, and to reveal the secrets of the heart; to possess the knowledge of the good and the bad hidden in the minds; as well as that of the relations and history of the world; and upon the mirror of their hearts are reflected the lights of secrets, the djoti mandalam,[420] “the splendor of the universe.” When a misfortune happens, all the pious men assemble and hold council about the removal of it; they investigate the strange and astonishing events; they keep day and night their eyes shut, and, pondering, exercise their sagacity: these are called Dhyani.[421] Those who are not occupied with exterior things are called tyagî,[422] and others who shun all intercourse with women and have no 241 wife, take the title of Yatis; and there is a class who, with the same abnegation as the former, never mix with the people of the world, and never ask more from them than a small quantity of food: these are called Vaíragîs,[423] or Udasîs.[424] Others live in deserts and upon mountains, satisfied with fruits; the savage animals do them no harm; they are named Vanyasîs.[425] When, among them, a child is born or a marriage takes place in the house of a family-man, they do not offer him their congratulation; and when a misfortune occurs, such as the death of a friend, they do not grieve or take mourning. A desire for generation, and a relish for meat and drink, inasmuch as may be requisite, is permitted, but beyond this prohibited; and whoever desires more is excluded from their society. This order of men among them is called Grihasta; another division of them is formed by the Avach’háta,[426] “emaciated by abstinence,” who are the adepts of this sect; if I were to relate every thing of them, several volumes would not be sufficient to contain my account.

In the Nababship of Kalinga exists a sect called Sûrwar (Sûryar), and another entitled Gundwar. 242 They pay no tribute to any body; they worship the sun; from simplicity, they prefer brass and copper to gold, on account of bad smell. When one of them dies, they seize a stranger and kill him. They say that, as the Rái (prince) of Gund sits upon the ground, the lower people sit upon chairs, he being the lord of the earth and the others are not so.

The Chandra bakta,[427] or “worshippers of the moon,” call this planet one of the principal divinities, worthy of adoration and of worship; the regulation of the nether world is committed to his care; by the increase and decrease of the light of this heavenly body, the hours of night and day may be known; after the sun it is the greatest, and borrows its light from this great luminary, the access to which may also be obtained by the moon’s mediation.[428] These sectaries form an image of the moon, and worship it as an object of their devotion: they never hurt a sentient being.

Another sect venerates other stars. There is one who pays homage to Agni, or fire, and says that 243 fire is the pure essence of God, who is the sun himself: these are called Agni Pramána;[429] “the professors of fire.” They believe also the other stars proceed from its radiance, and that the earthly fire is an emanation of its rays; they venerate every sort of fire, through the mediation of which they think access to the sun may be obtained.

Another sect, the Pavana bhakta,[430] or “worshippers of the wind,” believe that the substance of God is air, and this also the intellectual soul.

The Jala bhakta,[431] or “worshippers of water,” hold water to be the representative of the being of God, on which account they pay veneration to the rivers and flowing streams.

The Prithivi bhakta[432] are “worshippers of the earth,” which they believe to be the substance of God worthy of their adoration.

Another sect, called Tripújas,[433] worship the three kingdoms of nature, in which every place and whatever presents itself to their view, becomes an object of their veneration.

244 The Manushya bhakta,[434] or “worshippers of mankind,” recognise the being of God in man; they know no being more perfect than mankind, and think that it contains nothing of a bad nature.

A particular sect is to be found in Kashíal, a place in the mountainous province of Kachmir. They worship idols; the son takes the property acquired by his father to himself; but leaves whatever he gains to his sons, so that it may be the firewood belonging to his father that may burn his body. When one of them dies, a barber from without the house goes before the dead, and then brings the message that such a one wants something for a meal, upon which they go to work to prepare it; and this society is kept up for some days; then, they burn the dead; after cremation, they erect over his ashes an image of stone, one half of which is male, and the other female; and when no son of his remains, they marry his wife with a column of the house, and whoever comes upon a visit of condolence, has intercourse with the woman until a son be produced, and to him the inheritance is bestowed. This sect have no regard for the life of animals.

Another sect exists in the mountains of Kachmir, with the name of Durds. Among them it is customary for brothers to have but one wife; occasionally they 245 sell house, land, wife, and children; whoever buys the house owns all these; they also pawn their wife. Some of them, even when they become Muselmans, still adhere to this custom. They also do not spare animals.

Further to be noticed in Hindostan is the tribe of Dhaids, one of the lowest classes of men; they eat every thing but men; they worship the sun. The author of this book met one day in Sikakul, in the district of Kalinga, one of these men, whose name was Nága, and asked him: “Who are the best men among all the tribes?” The man answered: “The Dhaids,” and subjoined: “When they leave the body, they unite with God; when a Brahman dies, he becomes a cow; when a Muselman expires, he is transformed into a plant.” I enquired further: “If the Dhaids be so highly favoured by God, why should they eat every thing which they find, the flesh of cows, horses, mice, and the like?” The man replied: “It is because God loves this tribe that he gave them this command: ‘Eat whatever you like.’”

The Choharas are now to be mentioned, known in Hindostan as cleaners of privies and sweepers of the ground; and in the exercise of this profession they visit the houses. They say, their master was Shah Jhuna; he, in one hand a besom of gold, and in the other a basket of silver, cleans now in the 246 fourth heaven the house of God, and sweeps the apartments of the Highest. This tribe too eat every thing as the Dhaids.

The Nânac-Panthians,[435] who are known as composing the nation of the Sikhs, have neither idols nor temples of idols. Nânac belonged to the tribe of Bédíans, who are Kshatriyas. His reputation rose in the time of Zehir-ed-din Baber Padshah[436] 247 (who inhabits heaven). Before the victory of this king over the Afghans, Nânac was a grain-factor[437] of Daulet khan Lodi,[438] who ranked among the distinguished Umras of Ibrahim Khan, the sovereign of Hindostan.

A durvish came to Nânac, and subdued his mind in such a manner that he, Nânac, having entered the granary, gave away the property of Daulet-Khan, and his own, whatever he found there and in his house, and abandoned his wife and children. Daulet Khan was struck with astonishment 248 at hearing this, but, recognising in Nânac the mark of a durvish, he withheld his hand from hurting him.[439] In a short time Nanac made a great progress in piety; at first he took little nourishment; afterwards he allowed himself but to taste a little cow-milk; next a little oil; then nothing but water, and at last he took nothing but air: such men the Hindus call pavana haris.[440]

Nanac had a great number of disciples. He professed the unity of God, which is called the law of Muhammed, and believed the metempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. Having prohibited his disciples to drink wine and to eat pork, he himself abstained from eating flesh, and ordered not to hurt any living being. After him, this precept was neglected by his followers; but Arjun mal, one of the substitutes of his faith, as soon as he found that it was wrong, renewed the prohibition to eat flesh, and said: “This has not been approved by Nânac.” Afterwards, Hargovind, son of Arjunmal, eat flesh, and went to hunt, and his followers imitated his example.

Nanac praised the religion of the Muselmans, as well as the Avatars and the divinities of the Hindus; 249 but he knew that these objects of veneration were created and not creators, and he denied their real descent from heaven, and their union with mankind. It is said that he wore the rosary of the Muselmans in his hand, and the Zunar, or the religious thread of the Hindus, around his neck.[441] Some of his distinguished disciples report of him more than can here find room.

One of these reports is, that Nanac, being dissatisfied with the Afghans, called the Moghuls into the country, so that in the year 932 of the Hejira (A. D. 1525) Zehir ed-din Baber padshah (who is in heaven) gained the victory over Ibrahim, the king of the Afghans.[442] They say also that Nanac, during one 250 of his journeys,[443] finding himself one night in a fort, was absorbed in a vision of God. Children played around him, and some put their hands upon his body, without any motion being perceived in him; they sewed his eye-lids, his nostrils, and his flesh together, and tied his hands fast. When Nanac recovered his senses, he found himself in this state, and went to a neighbouring house, at the threshold of which he called out: “Ho! is there any body in the house who may free my eye-lids sewed together and my hands?” A handsome woman, having conducted him into the house, untied his hands and tore the threads by which his eye-lids were sewed together with her teeth asunder, on which account the color of the mark of the woman’s caste remained upon Nanac’s forehead. After his having left the house, the neighbours saw the mark, and supposed his having had an intimate connexion with the woman; wherefore she was abused by the people and repudiated by her husband.

This woman came one day to Nanac, and said: “I 251 have, upon the way of God, rendered thee a service, and now they revile me for it.” Nanac answered: “To-morrow will the gate of the fort be shut, but shall not be opened unless thou appliest thy hand to it.” The next day, in spite of all efforts to open the gate, they could not succeed, and remained in great consternation. Men and beasts, far from water, could not go out to fetch it. The inhabitants addressed themselves to all men who had a reputation for sanctity, but their prayers were in vain. At last they had recourse to Nanac, and said: “O durvish, what is there to be done?” He answered: “The gate shall not be opened except by the hand of a woman who never lost her virtue with a stranger.” The inhabitants brought all the women who had a reputation for chastity to the gate of the fort, but it remained shut: on that account they sat down hopeless. At the time of evening prayer came at last the friend of Baba Nanac to the gate. The people laughed at her; her husband and her relations were ashamed and abused her. The woman, without listening to the speeches of the people, struck the gate with her hand and it opened. All men were astonished and ashamed: they fell at the feet of the woman.

The báni,[444] that is to say the poems, of Nânac, are, 252 as it were, perfumed with devotion and wisdom, still more can this be said of his speeches about the grandeur and sanctity of God. All is in the language of the Jats of the Panjab, and Jat in the dialect of the Penjab, means a villager or a rustic.

Nânac’s disciples are not conversant with the Sanscrit language. The precepts and regulations which Nânac established among them will be explained hereafter.

Nânac said in his poems that there are several heavens and earths; and that prophets, and saints, and those that are supposed to have descended from above (avatárs), and persons distinguished by piety, obtain perfection by zeal in the service of God; that whoever devotes himself to the veneration of God, whatever road he may choose, will come to God, and that the means to this is, to avoid hurting any living being.

Nánac left children in the Penj-ab,[446] they are called 253 Kartaris; but according to the opinion of some, he had no offspring. They say that, after Nánac’s decease, his place was by his order occupied by the Guru Angad, of the Srín tribe of Kshatriyas; next succeeded the Guru Amaradas, of the tribe of the Bholáyí-Kshatriyas; after him came the Guru Ráma-das, who was of the Sódahí-Kshatriyas, and also called the Srí-guru. Ráma-das, dying, left his dignity to his son Arjunmal. During the life of this Guru, the Sikhs, that is to say, his followers grew great in number and in faith. They said, Bábá Nânac is a god, and the world his creation; but Nánac in his poems reckons himself a servant of God, and he calls God Naránjen (Naráyana), Parabrahma, and Permaisher (Paramésvara), who is without a body, and has nothing corporeal, nor deigns to be united with a bodily frame. The Sikhs say that Nánac, in the same manner, had been without a real body, but visible by the power of his individuality,[447] and they believe that, when Nânac expired,[448] his spirit became 254 incarnate in the person of Angad,[449] who attended him as his confidential servant. Angad, at his death, transmitted his soul into the body of Amara das;[450] and thus Guru, in the same manner, conveyed his spirit into the body of Ráma-das;[451] whose soul transmigrated into the person of Arjunmal;[452] in short, they believe that, with a mere change of name, Nânac the First became Nânac the Second, and so on, to the Fifth, in the person of Arjunmal. They say, that whoever does not recognise in Arjunmal the 255 true Bábá Nânac, is an unbeliever; they have a number of tales about the founder of their sect, and assert that Bábá Nânac, in a former world, was the radja Janak.[453]