HENLEY’S BOOK OF RECIPES (continued 8)
Reading edition
Cement For Pallet Stones.
—Place small pieces of shellac around the stone when in position and subject it to heat. Often the lac spreads unevenly or swells up; and this, in addition to being unsightly, is apt to displace the stone. This can be avoided as follows: The pallets are
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held in long sliding tongs. Take a piece of shellac, heat it and roll it into a cylinder between the fingers; again heat the extremity and draw it out into a fine thread. This thread will break off, leaving a point at the end of the lac. Now heat the tongs at a little distance from the pallets, testing the degree of heat by touching the tongs with the shellac. When it melts easily, lightly touch the two sides of the notch with it; a very thin layer can thus be spread over them, and the pallet stone can then be placed in position and held until cold enough. The tongs will not lose the heat suddenly, so that the stone can easily be raised or lowered as required. The projecting particles of cement can be removed by a brass wire filed to an angle and forming a scraper. To cement a ruby pin, or the like, one may also use shellac dissolved in spirit, applied in the consistency of syrup, and liquefied again by means of a hot pincette, by seizing the stone with it.
Dental Cements:
Fairthorne’s Cement.—Powdered glass, 5 parts; powdered borax, 4 parts; silicic acid, 8 parts; zinc oxide, 200 parts. Powder very finely and mix; then tint with a small quantity of golden ocher or manganese. The compound, mixed before use with concentrated syrupy zinc-chloride solution, soon becomes as hard as marble and constitutes a very durable tooth cement.
Huebner’s Cement.—Zinc oxide, 500.0 parts; powdered manganese, 1.5 parts; yellow ocher, powdered, 1.5–4.0 parts; powdered borax, 10.0 parts; powdered glass, 100.0 parts.
As a binding liquid it is well to use acid-free zinc chloride, which can be prepared by dissolving pure zinc, free from iron, in concentrated, pure, hydrochloric acid, in such a manner that zinc is always in excess. When no more hydrogen is evolved the zinc in excess is still left in the solution for some time. The latter is filtered and boiled down to the consistency of syrup.
Commercial zinc oxide cannot be employed without previous treatment, because it is too loose; the denser it is the better is it adapted for dental cements, and the harder the latter will be. For this reason it is well, in order to obtain a dense product, to stir the commercial pure zinc oxide into a stiff paste with water to which 2 per cent of nitric acid has been added; the paste is dried and heated for some time at white heat in a Hessian crucible.
After cooling, the zinc oxide, thus obtained, is very finely powdered and kept in hermetically sealed vessels, so that it cannot absorb carbonic acid. The dental cement prepared with such zinc oxide turns very hard and solidifies with the concentrated zinc-chloride solution in a few minutes.
Phosphate Cement.—Concentrate pure phosphoric acid till semi-solid, and mix aluminum phosphate with it by heating. For use, mix with zinc oxide to the consistency of putty. The cement is said to set in 2 minutes.
Zinc Amalgam, Or Dentists’ Zinc.—This consists of pure zinc filings combined with twice their weight of mercury, a gentle heat being employed to render the union more complete. It is best applied as soon as made. Its color is gray, and it is said to be effective and durable.
Sorel’s Cement.—Mix zinc oxide with half its bulk of fine sand, add a solution of zinc chloride of 1.260 specific gravity, and rub the whole thoroughly together in a mortar. The mixture must be applied at once, as it hardens very quickly.
Metallic Cement.—Pure tin, with a small proportion of cadmium and sufficient mercury, forms the most lasting and, for all practical purposes, the least objectionable amalgam. Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into ingots, and reduce it to filings. Form these into a fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of the latter through leather. Work up the solid residue in the hand, and press it into the tooth. Or melt some beeswax in a pipkin, throw in 5 parts of cadmium, and when melted add 7 or 8 parts of tin in small pieces. Pour the melted metals into an iron or wooden box, and shake them until cold, so as to obtain the alloy in a powder. This is mixed with 2 1/2 to 3 times its weight of mercury in the palm of the hand, and used as above described.
CEMENT COLORS: See Stone.
CEMENT, MORDANT FOR: See Mordants.
CEMENT, PAINTS FOR: See Paint.
CEMENT, PROTECTION OF, AGAINST ACID: See Acid-Proofing. {164}
CHAIN OF FIRE: See Pyrotechnics.
CHAINS (WATCH), TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
CHALK FOR TAILORS.
Knead together ordinary pipe clay, moistened with ultramarine blue for blue, finely ground ocher for yellow, etc., until they are uniformly mixed, roll out into thin sheets, cut and press into wooden or metallic molds, well oiled to prevent sticking, and allow to dry slowly at ordinary temperature or at a very gentle heat.
CHAPPED HANDS: See Cosmetics.
CHARTA SINAPIS: See Mustard Paper.
CHARTREUSE: See Wines and Liquors.
CERAMICS
GROUND CERAMICS—LAYING OIL FOR: See Oil.
Notes For Potters, Glass-, And Brick-makers.
—It is of the highest importance in selecting oxides, minerals, etc., for manufacturing different articles, for potters’ use, to secure pure goods, especially in the purchase of the following: Lead, manganese, oxide of zinc, borax, whiting, oxide of iron, and oxide of cobalt. The different ingredients comprising any given color or glaze should be thoroughly mixed before being calcined, otherwise the mass will be of a streaky or variegated kind. Calcination requires care, especially in the manufacture of enamel colors. Over-firing, particularly of colors or enamels composed in part of lead, borax, antimony, or litharge, causes a dullness of shade, or film, that reduces their value for decorative purposes, where clearness and brilliancy are of the first importance.
To arrest the unsightly defect of “crazing,” the following have been the most successful methods employed, in the order given:
I.—Flux made of 10 parts tincal; 4 parts oxide of zinc; 1 part soda.
II.—A calcination of 5 parts oxide of zinc; 1 part pearl ash.
III.—Addition of raw oxide of zinc, 6 pounds to each hundredweight of glaze.
To glazed brick and tile makers, whose chief difficulty appears to be the production of a slip to suit the contraction of their clay, and adhere strongly to either a clay or a burnt brick or tile, the following method may be recommended:
Mix together:
Ball clay 10 parts
Cornwall stone 10 parts
China clay 7 parts
Flint 6 1/2 parts
To be mixed and lawned one week before use.
To Cut Pottery.
—Pottery or any soft or even hard stone substance can be cut without chipping by a disk of soft iron, the edge of which has been charged with emery, diamond, or other grinding powder, that can be obtained at any tool agency. The cutting has to be done with a liberal supply of water fed continually to the revolving disk and the substance to be cut.
Brick and Tilemakers’ Glazed Bricks:
White.—When the brick or tile leaves the press, with a very soft brush cover the part to be glazed with No. 1 Slip; afterwards dip the face in the same mixture.
No. 1 Slip.—
Same clay as brick 9 parts
Flint 1 part
Ball clay 5 parts
China 4 parts
Allow the brick to remain slowly drying for 8 to 10 hours, then when moist dip in the white body.
White Body.—
China clay 24 parts
Ball clay 8 parts
Feldspar 8 parts
Flint 4 parts
The brick should now be dried slowly but thoroughly, and when perfectly dry dip the face in clean cold water, and immediately afterwards in glaze.
Hard Glaze.—
Feldspar 18 parts
Cornwall stone 3 1/2 parts
Whiting 1 1/2 parts
Oxide of zinc 1 1/2 parts
Plaster of Paris 3/4 part
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Soft Glaze.—
White lead 13 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Plaster of Paris 1 part
Flint glass 13 parts
Cornwall stone 3 1/2 parts
Paris white 1 1/4 parts
Where clay is used that will stand a very high fire, the white lead and glass may be left out. A wire brush should now be used to remove all superfluous glaze, etc., from the sides and ends of the brick, which is then ready for the kiln. In placing, set the bricks face to face, about an inch space being left between the two glazed faces. All the mixtures, after being mixed with water to the consistency of cream, must be passed 2 or 3 times through a very fine lawn. The kiln must not be opened till perfectly cold.
Process For Colored Glazes.—Use color, 1 part, to white body, 7 parts. Use color, 1 part, to glaze, 9 parts.
Preparation Of Colors.—The specified ingredients should all be obtained finely ground, and after being mixed in the proportions given should, in a saggar or some clay vessel, be fired in the brick kiln and afterwards ground for use. In firing the ingredients the highest heat attainable is necessary.
Turquoise.—
Oxide of zinc 8 parts
Oxide of cobalt 1 1/4 parts
Grass Green.—
Oxide of chrome 6 parts
Flint 1 part
Oxide of copper 1/2 part
Royal Blue.—
Pure alumina 20 parts
Oxide of zinc 8 parts
Oxide of cobalt 4 parts
Mazarine Blue.—
Oxide of cobalt 10 parts
Paris white 9 parts
Sulphate barytes 1 part
Red Brown.—
Oxide of zinc 40 parts
Crocus of martis 6 parts
Oxide of chrome 6 parts
Red lead 5 parts
Boracic acid 5 parts
Red oxide of iron 1 part
Orange.—
Pure alumina 5 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Bichromate of potash 1 part
Iron scale 1/2 part
Claret Brown.—
Bichromate of potash 2 parts
Flint 2 parts
Oxide of zinc 1 part
Iron scale 1 part
Blue Green.—
Oxide of chrome 6 parts
Flint 2 parts
Oxide of cobalt 3/4 part
Sky Blue.—
Flint 9 parts
Oxide of zinc 13 parts
Cobalt 2 1/2 parts
Phosphate soda 1 part
Chrome Green.—
Oxide of chrome 3 parts
Oxide of copper 1 part
Carbonate of cobalt 1 part
Oxide of cobalt 2 parts
Olive.—
Oxide of chrome 3 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Flint 5 parts
Oxide of cobalt 1 part
Blood Red.—
Oxide of zinc 30 parts
Crocus martis 7 parts
Oxide of chrome 7 parts
Litharge 5 parts
Borax 5 parts
Red oxide of iron 2 parts
Black.—
Chromate of iron 24 parts
Oxide of nickel 2 parts
Oxide of tin 2 parts
Oxide of cobalt 5 parts
Imperial Blue.—
Oxide of cobalt 10 parts
Black color 1 1/2 parts
Paris white 7 1/2 parts
Flint 2 1/2 parts
Carbonate of soda 1 part
Mahogany.—
Chromate of iron 30 parts
Oxide of manganese 20 parts
Oxide of zinc 12 parts
Oxide of tin 4 parts
Crocus martis 2 parts
Gordon Green.—
Oxide of chrome 12 parts
Paris white 8 parts
Bichromate of potash 4 1/2 parts
Oxide of cobalt 3/4 part
Violet.—
Oxide of cobalt 2 1/2 parts
Oxide of manganese 4 parts
Oxide of zinc 8 parts
Cornwall stone 8 parts
Lavender.—
Calcined oxide of zinc 5 parts
Carbonate of cobalt 3/4 part
Oxide of nickel 1/4 part
Paris white 1 part
Brown.—
Manganese 4 parts
Oxide of chrome 2 parts
Oxide of zinc 4 parts
Sulphate barytes 2 parts
Dove.—
Oxide of nickel 7 parts
Oxide of cobalt 2 parts
Oxide of chrome 1 part
Oxide of flint 18 parts
Paris white 3 parts
Yellow Green.—
Flint 6 parts
Paris white 4 parts
Bichromate of potash 4 1/2 parts
Red lead 2 parts
Fluorspar 2 parts
Plaster of Paris 1 1/2 parts
Oxide of copper 1/2 part
Bodies Requiring No Stain:
Ivory.—
Cane marl 16 parts
Ball clay 12 parts
Feldspar 8 parts
China clay 6 parts
Flint 4 parts
Cream.—
Ball clay 22 parts
China clay 5 1/2 parts
Flint 5 parts
Feldspar 3 1/2 parts
Cane marl 12 parts
Black.—
Ball clay 120 parts
Ground ocher 120 parts
Ground manganese 35 parts
Buff.—
Ball clay 12 parts
China clay 10 parts
Feldspar 8 parts
Bull fire clay 16 parts
Yellow ocher 3 parts
Drab.—
Cane marl 30 parts
Ball clay 10 parts
Stone 7 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Brown.—
Red marl 50 parts
China clay 7 parts
Ground manganese 6 parts
Feldspar 3 parts
In making mazarine blue glazed bricks use the white body and stain the glaze only.
Mazarine blue 1 part
Glaze 7 parts
For royal blue use 1 part stain to 6 parts white body, and glaze unstained.
Blood-red Stain.—Numerous brick manufacturers possess beds of clay from which good and sound bricks or tiles can be made, the only drawback being that the clay does not burn a good color. In many cases this arises from the fact that the clay contains more or less sulphur or other impurity, which spoils the external appearance of the finished article. The following stain will convert clay of any color into a rich, deep red, mixed in proportions of stain, 1 part, to clay, 60 parts.
Stain.—
Crocus martis 20 parts
Yellow ocher 4 parts
Sulphate of iron 10 parts
Red oxide of iron 2 parts
A still cheaper method is to put a slip or external coating upon the goods. The slip being quite opaque, effectively hides the natural color of the brick or tile upon which it may be used.
The process is to mix:
Blood-red stain 1 part
Good red clay 6 parts
Add water until the mixture becomes about the consistency of cream, then with a sponge force the liquid two or three times through a very fine brass wire lawn, No. 80, and dip the goods in the liquid as soon as they are pressed or molded.
Blue Paviors.—Blue paving bricks may be produced with almost any kind of clay that will stand a fair amount of heat, by adopting the same methods as in the former case of blood-red bricks, that is, the clay may be stained throughout, or an outside coating may be applied.
Stain For Blue Paviors.—
Ground ironstone 20 parts
Chromate of iron 5 parts
Manganese 6 parts
Oxide of nickel 1 part
Use 1 part clay and 1 part stain for coating, and 50 or 60 parts clay and 1 part stain for staining through.
Fire blue paviors very hard.
Buff Terra-cotta Slip.—
Buff fire clay 16 parts
China clay 6 parts
Yellow ocher 3 parts
Ball clay 10 parts
Flint 4 parts
Add water to the materials after mixing well, pass through the fine lawn, and dip the goods when soft in the liquid.
Transparent Glaze.—
Ground flint glass 4 parts
Ground white lead 4 parts
Ground oxide of zinc 1/4 part
This glaze is suitable for bricks or tiles made of very good red clay, the natural color of the clay showing through the glaze. The goods must first be fired sufficiently hard to make them durable, afterwards glazed, and fired again. The glaze being comparatively soft will fuse at about half the heat required for the first burning. The glaze may be stained, if desired, with any of the colors given in glazed-brick recipes, in the following proportions: Stain, 1 part; glaze, 1 part.
Special Recipes For Pottery And Brick and Tile Works:
Vitrifiable Bodies.—The following mixtures will flux only at a very high heat. They require no glaze when a proper heat is attained, and they are admirably adapted for stoneware glazes.
I.— Cornwall stone 20 parts
Feldspar 12 parts
China clay 3 parts
Whiting 2 parts
Plaster of Paris 1 1/2 parts
II.— Feldspar 30 parts
Flint 9 parts
Stone 8 parts
China clay 3 parts
III.— Feldspar 20 parts
Stone 5 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Whiting 2 parts
Plaster of Paris 1 part
Soda crystals, dissolved 1 part
Special Glazes For Bricks Or Pottery At One Burning.—To run these glazes intense heat is required.
I.— Cornwall stone 40 parts
Flint 7 parts
Paris white 4 parts
Ball clay 15 parts
Oxide of zinc 6 parts
White lead 15 parts
II.— Feldspar 20 parts
Cornwall stone 5 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Flint 3 parts
Lynn sand 1 1/2 parts
Sulphate barytes 1 1/2 parts
III.— Feldspar 25 parts
Cornwall stone 6 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
China clay 2 parts
IV.— Cornwall stone 118 parts
Feldspar 40 parts
Paris white 28 parts
Flint 4 parts
V.— Feldspar 16 parts
China clay 4 parts
Stone 4 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Plaster of Paris 1 part
VI.— Feldspar 10 parts
Stone 5 parts
Flint 2 parts
Plaster ․1/2 part
The following glaze is excellent for bricks in the biscuit and pottery, which require an easy firing:
White.—
White lead 20 parts
Stone 9 parts
Flint 9 parts
Borax 4 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Feldspar 3 parts
These materials should be procured finely ground, and after being thoroughly mixed should be placed in a fire-clay crucible, and be fired for 5 or 6 hours, sharply, or until the material runs down into a liquid, then with a pair of iron tongs draw the crucible from the kiln and pour the liquid into a bucket of cold water, grind the flux to an extremely fine powder, and spread a coating upon the plate to be enameled, previously brushing a little gum thereon. The plate must then be fired until a sufficient heat is attained to run or fuse the powder.
Pottery Bodies And Glazes:
Ordinary.—
I.— China clay 2 1/2 parts
Stone 1 1/2 parts
Bone 3 parts
II.— China clay 5 parts
Stone 2 1/2 parts
Bone 7 parts
Barytes 3 parts
III.— Chain clay 5 parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint 1/4 part
Barytes 8 parts
Superior.—
I.— China clay 35 parts
Cornwall stone 23 parts
Bone 40 parts
Flint 2 parts
II.— China clay 35 parts
Cornwall stone 8 parts
Bone 50 parts
Flint 3 parts
Blue clay 4 parts
III.— China clay 8 parts
Cornwall stone 40 parts
Bone 29 parts
Flint 5 parts
Blue clay 18 parts
IV.— China clay 32 parts
Cornwall stone 23 parts
Bone 34 parts
Flint 6 parts
Blue clay 5 parts
V.— China clay 7 parts
Stone 40 parts
Bone 28 parts
Flint 5 parts
Blue clay 20 parts
Finest China Bodies.—
I.— China clay 20 parts
Bone 60 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
II.— China clay 30 parts
Bone 40 parts
Feldspar 30 parts
III.— China clay 25 parts
Stone 10 parts
Bone 45 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
IV.— China clay 30 parts
Stone 15 parts
Bone 35 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
Earthenware Bodies.—
I.— Ball clay 13 parts
China clay 9 1/2 parts
Flint 5 1/2 parts
Cornwall stone 4 parts
II.— Ball clay 12 1/2 parts
China clay 8 parts
Flint 5 1/2 parts
Cornwall stone 2 1/2 parts
One pint of cobalt stain to 1 ton of glaze.
III.— Ball clay 13 1/4 parts
China clay 11 parts
Flint 4 parts
Cornwall stone 5 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Stain as required.
IV.— Ball clay 18 1/2 parts
China clay 13 1/2 parts
Flint 8 1/2 parts
Stone 4 parts
Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.
V.— Ball clay 15 parts
China clay 12 parts
Flint 6 parts
Stone 4 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.
VI. (Parian).—
Stone 11 parts
Feldspar 10 parts
China clay 8 parts
Colored Bodies:
Ivory Body.—
Ball clay 22 parts
China 5 1/2 parts
Flint 5 parts
Stone 3 1/2 parts
Dark Drab Body.—
Cane marl 30 parts
Ball clay 10 parts
Cornwall stone 7 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Black Body.—
Ball clay 120 parts
Ocher 120 parts
Manganese 35 parts
Cobalt carbonate 2 parts
Grind the three last mentioned ingredients first.
Caledonia Body.—
Yellow clay 32 parts
China clay 10 parts
Flint 4 parts
Brown Body.—
Red clay 50 parts
Common clay 7 1/2 parts
Manganese 1 part
Flint 1 part
Jasper Body.—
Cawk clay 10 parts
Blue clay 10 parts
Bone 5 parts
Flint 2 parts
Cobalt 1/4 part
Stone Body.—
Stone 48 parts
Blue clay 25 parts
China clay 24 parts
Cobalt 10 parts
Egyptian Black.—
Blue clay 235 parts
Calcined ocher 225 parts
Manganese 45 parts
China clay 15 parts
Ironstone Body.—
Stone 200 parts
Cornwall clay 150 parts
Blue clay 200 parts
Flint 100 parts
Calx 1 part
Cream Body.—
Blue clay 1 1/2 parts
Brown clay 1 1/2 parts
Black clay 1 part
Cornish clay 1 part
Common ball clay 1/4 part
Buff color 1/4 part
Light Drab.—
Cane marl 30 parts
Ball clay 24 parts
Feldspar 7 parts
Sage Body.—
Cane marl 15 parts
Ball clay 15 parts
China clay 5 parts
Stained with turquoise stain.
Colored Glazes For Pottery:
Blue.—
White glaze 100 parts
Oxide of cobalt 3 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Flowing blue 3 parts
Enamel blue 3 parts
Grind.
Pink.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 8 parts
Marone pink U. G. 8 parts
Enamel red 3 parts
Grind.
Buff.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Buff color 8 parts
Grind.
Ivory.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 8 parts
Enamel amber 8 parts
Yellow underglaze 2 parts
Grind.
Turquoise.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Carbonate of soda 5 parts
Enamel blue 4 parts
Malachite, 110 4 parts
Grind.
Yellow.—
I.— White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Oxide of uranium 8 parts
Grind.
II.— Dried flint 5 parts
Cornwall stone 15 parts
Litharge 50 parts
Yellow underglaze 4 parts
Grind.
Green.—
I.— Oxide of copper 8 parts
Flint of glass 3 parts
Flint 1 part
Red lead 6 parts
Grind, then take:
Of above 1 part
White glaze 6 parts
Or stronger as required.
II.— Red lead 60 parts
Stone 24 parts
Flint 12 parts
Flint glass 12 parts
China clay 3 parts
Calcined oxide of copper 14 parts
Oxide of cobalt 1/4 part
Grind only.
Green Glaze, Best.—
III.— Stone 80 parts
Flint 8 parts
Soda crystals 4 parts
Borax 3 1/2 parts
Niter 2 parts
Whiting 2 parts
Oxide of cobalt 1/4 part
Glost fire, then take:
Above frit 60 parts
Red lead 57 parts
Calcined oxide of copper 5 1/4 parts
Black.—
Red lead 24 parts
Raddle 4 parts
Manganese 4 parts
Flint 2 parts
Oxide of cobalt 2 parts
Carbonate of cobalt 2 parts
Glost fire.
White Glazes:
China.—Frit:
I.— Stone 6 parts
Niter 2 parts
Borax 12 parts
Flint 4 parts
Pearl ash 2 parts
To mill:
Frit 24 parts
Stone 15 1/2 parts
Flint 6 1/2 parts
White lead 31 parts
II.—Frit:
Stone 24 parts
Borax 53 parts
Lynn sand 40 parts
Feldspar 32 parts
Paris white 16 parts
To mill:
Frit 90 parts
Stone 30 parts
White lead 90 parts
Flint 4 parts
Glass 2 parts
III.—Frit:
Stone 50 parts
Borax 40 parts
Flint 30 parts
Flint glass 30 parts
Pearl barytes 10 parts
To mill:
Frit 160 parts
Red lead 30 parts
Enamel blue 1/2 part
Flint glass 2 parts
IV.—Frit:
Borax 100 parts
China clay 55 parts
Whiting 60 parts
Feldspar 75 parts
To mill:
Frit 200 parts
China clay 16 parts
White clay 3 1/2 parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint 2 parts
V.—Frit:
Stone 40 parts
Flint 25 parts
Niter 10 parts
Borax 20 parts
White lead 10 parts
Flint glass 40 parts
To mill:
Frit 145 parts
Stone 56 parts
Borax 16 parts
Flint 15 parts
Red lead 60 parts
Flint glass 8 parts
Earthenware.—Frit:
I.— Flint 108 parts
China clay 45 parts
Paris white 60 parts
Borax 80 parts
Soda crystals 30 parts
To mill:
Frit 270 parts
Flint 20 parts
Paris white 15 parts
Stone 80 parts
White lead 65 parts
II.—Frit:
Flint 62 parts
China clay 30 parts
Paris white 38 parts
Boracic acid 48 parts
Soda crystals 26 parts
To mill:
Frit 230 parts
Stone 160 parts
Flint 60 parts
Lead 120 parts
III.—Frit:
Stone 56 parts
Paris white 55 parts
Flint 60 parts
China clay 20 parts
Borax 120 parts
Soda crystals 15 parts
To mill:
Frit 212 parts
Stone 130 parts
Flint 50 parts
Lead 110 parts
Stain as required.
IV.—Frit:
Stone 100 parts
Flint 44 parts
Paris white 46 parts
Borax 70 parts
Niter 10 parts
To mill:
Frit 200 parts
Stone 60 parts
Lead 80 parts
Pearl White Glaze.—Frit:
Flint 50 parts
Stone 100 parts
Paris white 20 parts
Borax 60 parts
Soda crystals 20 parts
To mill:
Frit 178 pounds
Lead 55 pounds
Stain 3 ounces
Opaque Glaze.—Frit:
Borax 74 parts
Stone 94 parts
Flint 30 parts
China clay 22 parts
Pearl ash 5 1/2 parts
To mill:
Frit 175 parts
Lead 46 parts
Flint 10 parts
Oxide of tin 12 parts
Flint glass 12 parts
Glaze For Granite.—Frit:
I.— Stone 100 parts
Flint 80 parts
China clay 30 parts
Paris white 30 parts
Feldspar 40 parts
Soda crystals 40 parts
Borax 80 parts
To mill:
Frit 360 parts
Flint 50 parts
Stone 50 parts
Lead 80 parts
II.—Frit:
Borax 100 parts
Stone 50 parts
Flint 50 parts
Paris white 40 parts
China clay 20 parts
To mill:
Frit 210 parts
Stone 104 parts
Flint 64 parts
Lead 95 parts
Raw Glazes.—White:
I.— White lead 160 parts
Borax 32 parts
Stone 48 parts
Flint 52 parts
Stain with blue and grind.
II.— White lead 80 parts
Litharge 60 parts
Boracic acid 40 parts
Stone 45 parts
Flint 50 parts
Treat as foregoing.
III.— White lead 100 parts
Borax 4 parts
Flint 11 parts
Cornwall stone 50 parts
IV.— Red lead 80 parts
Litharge 60 parts
Tincal 40 parts
Stone 40 parts
Flint 52 parts
Rockingham Glazes.
I.— Litharge 50 parts
Stone 7 1/2 parts
Red marl 3 parts
Oxide of manganese 5 parts
Red oxide of iron 1 part
II.— White lead 30 parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint 9 parts
Red marl 3 parts
Manganese 5 parts
III.— Red lead 20 parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint 2 parts
China clay 2 parts
Manganese 3 parts
Red oxide of iron 1 part
Stoneware Bodies.—
Ball clay 14 parts
China clay 10 parts
Stone 8 parts
Ball clay 8 parts
China clay 5 parts
Flint 3 parts
Stone 4 parts
Ball clay 14 parts
China clay 11 parts
Flint 4 parts
Stone 5 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Cane marl 16 parts
China clay 10 parts
Stone 9 parts
Flint 5 parts
Glazes.—Hard glaze:
Stone 10 parts
Flint 5 parts
Whiting 1 1/2 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Hard glaze:
Feldspar 25 parts
Flint 5 parts
Red lead 15 parts
Plaster 1 part
Softer:
White lead 13 parts
Flint glass 10 parts
Feldspar 18 parts
Stone 3 parts
Whiting 1 1/2 parts
Best:
Feldspar 20 parts
Flint glass 14 parts
White lead 14 parts
Stone 3 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Whiting 1 1/2 parts
Plaster 1 part
Rockingham Bodies.—
Ball clay 20 parts
China clay 13 parts
Flint 7 parts
Stone 1 part
Cane marl 22 parts
China clay 15 parts
Flint 8 parts
Feldspar 1 part
Glazes.—
I.— Red lead 60 parts
Stone 8 parts
Red clay 3 parts
Best manganese 5 parts
II.— White lead 60 parts
Feldspar 6 parts
Flint 16 parts
Red clay 6 parts
Manganese 12 parts
III.— Red lead 100 parts
Stone 15 parts
Flint 10 parts
China clay 10 parts
Manganese 40 parts
Crocus martis 2 parts
IV.— Litharge 100 parts
Feldspar 14 parts
China clay 20 parts
Manganese 40 parts
Oxide of iron 2 parts
Jet.—Procure some first-class red marl, add water, and, by passing through a fine lawn, make it into a slip, and dip the ware therein.
When fired use the following:
Glaze.—
Stone 60 parts
Flint 30 parts
Paris white 7 1/2 parts
Red lead 140 parts
One part mazarine blue stain to 10 parts glaze.
Mazarine Blue Stain.—
Oxide of cobalt 10 parts
Paris white 9 parts
Sulphate barytes 1 part
Calcine.
Another Process Body.—
Ball clay 16 parts
China clay 12 parts
Flint clay 9 parts
Stone clay 6 parts
Black stain 7 parts
Glaze.—
Litharge 70 parts
Paris white 3 parts
Flint 12 parts
Stone 30 parts
Black stain 20 parts
Black Stain.—
Chromate of iron 12 parts
Oxide of nickel 2 parts
Oxide of tin 2 parts
Carbonate of cobalt 5 parts
Oxide of manganese 2 parts
Calcine and grind.
Blue Stains.—
I.— Oxide of cobalt 2 1/2 parts
Oxide of zinc 7 1/2 parts
Stone 7 1/2 parts
Fire this very hard.
II.— Zinc 6 pounds
Flint 4 pounds
China clay 4 pounds
Oxide of cobalt 5 ounces
Hard fire.
III.— Whiting 3 3/4 parts
Flint 3 3/4 parts
Oxide of cobalt 2 1/2 parts
Glost fire.
Turquoise Stain.—
Prepared cobalt 1 1/2 parts
Oxide of zinc 6 parts
China clay 6 parts
Carbonate of soda. 1 part
Hard fire.
Materials:
Tin Ash.—
Old lead 4 parts
Grain tin 2 parts
Melt in an iron ladle, and pour out in water, then spread on a dish, and calcine in glost oven with plenty of air.
Oxide Of Tin.—
Granulated tin 5 pounds
Niter 1/2 pound
Put on saucers and fire in glost oven.
Oxide Of Chrome is made by mixing powdered bichromate of potash with sulphur as follows:
Potash 6 parts
Flowers of sulphur 1 part
Put in saggar, inside kiln, so that fumes are carried away, and place 4 or 5 pieces of red-hot iron on the top so as to ignite it. Leave about 12 hours, then pound very fine, and put in saggar again. Calcine in hard place of biscuit oven. Wash this until the water is quite clear, and dry for use.
Production Of Luster Colors On Porcelain And Glazed Pottery.—The luster colors are readily decomposed by acids and atmospheric influences, because they do not contain, in consequence of the low baking temperature, enough silicic acid to form resistive compounds. In order to attain this, G. Alefeld has patented a process according to which such compounds are added to the luster preparations as leave behind after the burning an acid which transforms the luster preparation into more resisting {173} compounds. In this connection the admixture of such bodies has been found advantageous, as they form phosphides with the metallic oxides of the lusters after the burning. These phosphides are especially fitted for the production of saturated resisting compounds, not only on account of their insolubility in water, but also on account of their colorings. Similarly titanic, molybdic, tungstic, and vanadic compounds may be produced. The metallic phosphates produced by the burning give a luster coating which, as regards gloss, is not inferior to the non-saturated metallic oxides, while it materially excels them in power of resistance. Since the lusters to be applied are used dissolved in essential oils, it is necessary to make the admixture of phosphoric substance also in a form soluble in essential oils. For the production of this admixture the respective chlorides, preeminently phosphoric chloride, are suitable. They are mixed with oil of lavender in the ratio of 1 to 5, and the resulting reaction product is added to the commercial metallic oxide luster, singly or in conjunction with precious metal preparations (glossy gold, silver, platinum, etc.) in the approximate proportion of 5 to 1. Then proceed as usual. Instead of the chlorides, nitrates and acetates, as well as any readily destructible organic compounds, may also be employed, which are entered into fusing rosin or rosinous liquids.
Metallic Luster On Pottery.—According to a process patented in Germany, a mixture is prepared from various natural or artificial varieties of ocher, to which 25–50 per cent of finely powdered more or less metalliferous or sulphurous coal is added. The mass treated in this manner is brought together in saggars with finely divided organic substances, such as sawdust, shavings, wood-wool, cut straw, etc., and subjected to feeble red heat. After the heating the material is taken out. The glazings now exhibit that thin but stable metallic color which is governed by the substances used. Besides coal, salts and oxides of silver, cobalt, cadmium, chrome iron, nickel, manganese, copper, or zinc may be employed. The color-giving layer is removed by washing or brushing, while the desired color is burned in and remains. In this manner handsome shades can be produced.
Metallic Glazes On Enamels.—The formulas used by the Arabs and their Italian successors are partly disclosed in manuscripts in the British and South Kensington Museums; two are given below:
Arab Italian
Copper sulphide 26.87 24.74
Silver sulphide 1.15 1.03
Mercury sulphide — 24.74
Red ocher 71.98 49.49
These were ground with vinegar and applied with the brush to the already baked enamel. A great variety of iridescent and metallic tones can be obtained by one or the other, or a mixture of the following formulas:
I II III IV V VI
Copper carbonate 30 — — 28 — 95
Copper oxalate — — — — 5 —
Copper sulphide — 20 — — — —
Silver carbonate — 3 — 2 1 5
Bismuth subnitrate — 12 — — 10 —
Stannous oxide — — 25 — — —
Red ocher 70 85 55 70 84 —
Silver chloride and yellow ocher may be respectively substituted for silver carbonate and red ocher. The ingredients, ground with a little gum tragacanth and water, are applied with a brush to enamels melting about 1814° F., and are furnaced at 1202° F. in a reducing atmosphere. After cooling the ferruginous deposit is rubbed off, and the colors thus brought out.
Sulphur, free or combined, is not necessary, cinnabar has no action, ocher may be dispensed with, and any organic gummy matter may be used instead of vinegar, and broom is not needed in the furnace. The intensity and tone of the iridescence depend on the duration of the reduction, and the nature of the enamel. Enamels containing a coloring base—copper, iron, antimony, nickel—especially in presence of tin, give the best results.
To Toughen China.—To toughen china or glass place the new article in cold water, bring to boil gradually, boil for 4 hours, and leave standing in the water till cool. Glass or china toughened in this way will never crack with hot water.
How To Tell Pottery And Porcelain.—The following simple test will serve: Hold the piece up to the light, and if it can be seen through—that is, if it is translucent—it is porcelain. Pottery is opaque, and not so hard and white as porcelain. The main differences in the manufacture of stoneware, earthenware, and porcelain are due to the ingredients used, to the way they are mixed, and to the degree of heat to which they are {174} subjected in firing. Most of the old English wares found in this country are pottery or semichina, although the term china is commonly applied to them all.
CHEESE
Manufacture.
—The process of cheese making is one which is eminently interesting and scientific, and which, in every gradation, depends on principles which chemistry has developed and illustrated. When a vegetable or mineral acid is added to milk, and heat applied, a coagulum is formed, which, when separated from the liquid portion, constitutes cheese. Neutral salts, earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and gum arabic, as well as some other substances, also produce the same effect; but that which answers the purpose best, and which is almost exclusively used by dairy farmers, is rennet, or the mucous membrane of the last stomach of the calf. Alkalies dissolve this curd at a boiling heat, and acids again precipitate it. The solubility of casein in milk is occasioned by the presence of the phosphates and other salts of the alkalies. In fresh milk these substances may be readily detected by the property it possesses of restoring the color of reddened litmus paper. The addition of an acid neutralizes the alkali, and so precipitates the curd in an insoluble state. The philosophy of cheese making is thus expounded by Liebig:
“The acid indispensable to the coagulation of milk is not added to the milk in the preparation of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the expense of the milk-sugar present. A small quantity of water is left in contact with a small quantity of a calf’s stomach for a few hours, or for a night; the water absorbs so minute a portion of the mucous membrane as to be scarcely ponderable; this is mixed with milk; its state of transformation is communicated (and this is a most important circumstance) not to the cheese, but to the milk-sugar, the elements of which transpose themselves into lactic acid, which neutralizes the alkalies, and thus causes the separation of the cheese. By means of litmus paper the process may be followed and observed through all its stages; the alkaline reaction of the milk ceases as soon as the coagulation begins. If the cheese is not immediately separated from the whey, the formation of lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and the cheese itself passes into a state of decomposition.
“When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place a series of transformation takes place, in consequence of which it assumes entirely new properties; it gradually becomes semi-transparent, and more or less soft, throughout the whole mass; it exhibits a feebly acid reaction, and develops the characteristic caseous odor. Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in water, but after having been left to itself for two or three years it becomes (especially if all the fat be previously removed) almost completely soluble in cold water, forming with it a solution which, like milk, is coagulated by the addition of the acetic or any mineral acid. The cheese, which whilst fresh is insoluble, returns during the maturation, or ripening, as it is called, to a state similar to that in which it originally existed in the milk. In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses which are nearly inodorous, and in the superior kinds of French cheese, the casein of the milk is present in its unaltered state.
“The odor and flavor of the cheese is due to the decomposition of the butter; the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic acids, and the volatile butyric acid, capric and caproic acids are liberated in consequence of the decomposition of glycerine. Butyric acid imparts to cheese its characteristic caseous odor, and the differences in its pungency or aromatic flavor depend upon the proportion of free butyric, capric, and caproic acids present. In the cheese of certain dairies and districts, valerianic acid has been detected along with the other acids just referred to. Messrs Jljenjo and Laskowski found this acid in the cheese of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of Roquefort.
“The transition of the insoluble into soluble casein depends upon the decomposition of the phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of the butter; margarate of lime is formed, whilst the phosphoric acid combines with the casein, forming a compound soluble in water.
“The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese, especially those called meager or poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetid products containing sulphur, and which are formed by the decomposition or putrefaction of the casein. The alteration which the butter undergoes (that is, in becoming rancid), or which occurs in the milk-sugar still present, being transmitted to the casein, changes both the composition of the latter substance and its nutritive qualities.
“The principal conditions for the preparation of the superior kinds of cheese {175} (other obvious circumstances being of course duly regarded) are a careful removal of the whey, which holds the milk-sugar in solution, and a low temperature during the maturation or ripening of the cheese.”
Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavor according to the method employed in its manufacture and the richness of the milk of which it is made. Much depends upon the quantity of cream it contains, and, consequently, when a superior quality of cheese is desired cream is frequently added to the curd. This plan is adopted in the manufacture of Stilton cheese and others of a like description. The addition of a pound or two of butter to the curd for a middling size cheese also vastly improves the quality of the product. To insure the richness of the milk, not only should the cows be properly fed, but certain breeds chosen. Those of Alderney, Cheddar, Cheshire, etc., have been widely preferred.
The materials employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is used either fresh or salted and dried; generally in the latter state. The milk may be of any kind, according to the quality of the cheese required. Cows’ milk is that generally employed, but occasionally ewes’ milk is used; and sometimes, though more rarely, that from goats.
In preparing his cheese the dairy farmer puts the greater portion of the milk into a large tub, to which he adds the remainder, sufficiently heated to raise the temperature to that of new milk. The whole is then whisked together, the rennet or rennet liquor added, and the tub covered over. It is now allowed to stand until completely “turned,” when the curd is gently struck down several times with the skimming dish, after which it is allowed to subside. The vat, covered with cheese cloth, is next placed on a “horse” or “ladder” over the tub, and filled with curd by means of the skimmer, care being taken to allow as little as possible of the oily particles or butter to run back with the whey. The curd is pressed down with the hands, and more added as it sinks. This process is repeated until the curd rises to about two inches above the edge. The newly formed cheese, thus partially separated from the whey, is now placed in a clean tub, and a proper quantity of salt, as well as of annotta, added when that coloring is used, after which a board is placed over and under it, and pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The cheese is next turned out and surrounded by a fresh cheese cloth, and then again submitted to pressure in the cheese press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is commonly removed from the press, salted all over, and again pressed for 15 to 20 hours. The quality of the cheese especially depends on this part of the process, as if any of the whey is left in the cheese it rapidly becomes bad-flavored. Before placing it in the press the last time the common practice is to pare the edges smooth and sightly. It now only remains to wash the outside of the cheese in warm whey or water, to wipe it dry, and to color it with annotta or reddle, as is usually done.
The storing of the newly made cheese is the next point that engages the attention of the maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which influence the maturation or ripening of fermented liquors also operate here. A cool cellar, neither damp nor dry, and which is uninfluenced by change of weather or season, is commonly regarded as the best for the purpose. If possible, the temperature should on no account be permitted to exceed 50° or 52° F. at any portion of the year. An average of about 45° F. is preferable when it can be procured. A place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese as it is for storing beer. “The quality of Roquefort cheese, which is prepared from sheep’s milk, and is very excellent, depends exclusively upon the places where the cheeses are kept after pressing and during maturation. These are cellars, communicating with mountain grottoes and caverns which are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to 42° F., by currents of air from clefts in the mountains. The value of these cellars as storehouses varies with their property of maintaining an equable and low temperature.”
It will thus be seen that very slight differences in the materials, in the preparation, or in storing of the cheese, materially influence the quality and flavor of this article. The richness of the milk; the addition to or subtraction of cream from the milk; the separation of the curd from the whey with or without compression; the salting of the curd; the collection of the curd, either whole or broken, before pressing; the addition of coloring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of flavoring; the place and method of storing; and the length of time allowed for maturation, all tend to alter the taste and odor of the cheese in some or other particular, and that in a way readily {176} perceptible to the palate of the connoisseur. No other alimentary substance appears to be so seriously affected by slight variations in the quality of the materials from which it is made, or by such apparently trifling differences in the methods of preparing.
The varieties of cheese met with in commerce are very numerous, and differ greatly from each other in richness, color, and flavor. These are commonly distinguished by names indicative of the places in which they have been manufactured, or of the quality of the materials from which they have been prepared. Thus we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stilton, skimmed milk, raw milk, cream, and other cheeses; names which explain themselves. The following are the principal varieties:
American Factory.
—Same as Cheddar.
Brickbat.
—Named from its form; made, in Wiltshire, of new milk and cream.
Brie.
—A soft, white, cream cheese of French origin.
Cheddar.
—A fine, spongy kind of cheese, the eyes or vesicles of which contain a rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses of considerable size (150 to 200 pounds).
Cheshire.
—From new milk, without skimming, the morning’s milk being mixed with that of the preceding evening’s, previously warmed, so that the whole may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this the rennet is added, in less quantity than is commonly used for other kinds of cheese. On this point much of the flavor and mildness of the cheese is said to depend. A piece of dried rennet, of the size of a half-dollar put into a pint of water over night, and allowed to stand until the next morning, is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk; in large, round, thick cheeses (100 to 200 pounds each). They are generally solid, homogeneous, and dry, and friable rather than viscid.
Cottenham.
—A rich kind of cheese, in flavor and consistence not unlike Stilton, from which, however, it differs in shape, being flatter and broader than the latter.
Cream.
—From the “strippings” (the last of the milk drawn from the cow at each milking), from a mixture of milk and cream, or from raw cream only, according to the quality desired. It is usually made in small oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a general pressure only (that of a 2- or 4-pound weight) being applied to press out the whey. After 12 hours it is placed upon a board or wooden trencher, and turned every day until dry. It ripens in about 3 weeks. A little salt is generally added, and frequently a little powdered lump sugar.
Damson.
—Prepared from damsons boiled with a little water, the pulp passed through a sieve, and then boiled with about one-fourth the weight of sugar, until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it is next poured into small tin molds previously dusted out with sugar. Cherry cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese, etc., are prepared in the same way, using the respective kinds of fruit. They are all very agreeable candies or confections.
Derbyshire.
—A small, white, rich variety, very similar to Dunlop cheese.
Dunlop.
—Rich, white, and buttery; in round forms, weighing from 30 to 60 pounds.
Dutch (Holland).
—Of a globular form, 5 to 14 pounds each. Those from Edam are very highly salted; those from Gouda less so.
Emmenthaler.
—Same as Gruyère.
Gloucester.
—Single Gloucester, from milk deprived of part of its cream; double Gloucester, from milk retaining the whole of the cream. Mild tasted, semi-buttery consistence, without being friable; in large, round, flattish forms.
Green Or Sage.
—From milk mixed with the juice of an infusion or decoction of sage leaves, to which marigold flowers and parsley are frequently added.
Gruyère.
—A fine kind of cheese made in Switzerland, and largely consumed on the Continent. It is firm and dry, and exhibits numerous cells of considerable magnitude.
Holland.
—Same as Dutch.
Leguminous.
—The Chinese prepare an actual cheese from peas, called tao-foo, which they sell in the streets of Canton. The paste from steeped ground peas is boiled, which causes the starch to dissolve with the casein; after straining the liquid it is coagulated by a solution of gypsum; this coagulum is worked up like sour milk, salted, and pressed into molds.
Limburger.
—A strong variety of cheese, soft and well ripened.
Lincoln.
—From new milk and cream; in pieces about 2 inches thick. Soft, and will not keep over 2 or 3 months.
{177}
Neufchâtel.
—A much-esteemed variety of Swiss cheese; made of cream, and weighs about 5 or 6 ounces.
Norfolk.
—Dyed yellow with annotta or saffron; good, but not superior; in cheeses of 30 to 50 pounds.
Parmesan.
—From the curd of skimmed milk, hardened by a gentle heat. The rennet is added at about 120°, and an hour afterwards the curdling milk is set on a slow fire until heated to about 150° F., during which the curd separates in small lumps. A few pinches of saffron are then thrown in. About a fortnight after making the outer crust is cut off, and the new surface varnished with linseed oil, and one side colored red.
Roquefort.
—From ewes’ milk; the best prepared in France. It greatly resembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal richness or quality, and possesses a peculiar pungency and flavor.
Roquefort, Imitation.
—The gluten of wheat is kneaded with a little salt and a small portion of a solution of starch, and made up into cheeses. It is said that this mixture soon acquires the taste, smell, and unctuosity of cheese, and when kept a certain time is not to be distinguished from the celebrated Roquefort cheese, of which it possesses all the peculiar pungency. By slightly varying the process other kinds of cheese may be imitated.
Sage.
—Same as green cheese.
Slipcoat Or Soft.
—A very rich, white cheese, somewhat resembling butter; for present use only.
Stilton.
—The richest and finest cheese made in England. From raw milk to which cream taken from other milk is added; in cheeses generally twice as high as they are broad. Like wine, this cheese is vastly improved by age, and is therefore seldom eaten before it is 2 years old. A spurious appearance of age is sometimes given to it by placing it in a warm, damp cellar, or by surrounding it with masses of fermenting straw or dung.
Suffolk.
—From skimmed milk; in round, flat forms, from 24 to 30 pounds each. Very hard and horny.
Swiss.
—The principal cheeses made in Switzerland are the Gruyère, the Neufchâtel, and the Schabzieger or green cheese. The latter is flavored with melitot.
Westphalian.
—Made in small balls or rolls of about 1 pound each. It derives its peculiar flavor from the curd being allowed to become partially putrid before being pressed. In small balls or rolls of about 1 pound each.
Wiltshire.
—Resembles Cheshire or Gloucester. The outside is painted with reddle or red ocher or whey.
York.
—From cream. It will not keep.
We give below the composition of some of the principal varieties of cheese:
Cheddar Double Gloucester Skim
Water 36.64 35.61 43.64
Casein 23.38 21.76 45.64
Fatty matter 35.44 38.16 5.76
Mineral matter 4.54 4.47 4.96
100.00 100.00 100.00
Stilton Cotherstone
Water 32.18 38.28
Butter 37.36 30.89
Casein 24.31 23.93
Milk, sugar, and extractive matters 2.22 3.70
Mineral matter 3.93 3.20
100.00 100.00
Gruyère (Swiss) Ordinary Dutch
Water 40.00 36.10
Casein 31.50 29.40
Fatty matter 24.00 27.50
Salts 3.00 .90
Non─nitrogenous organic matter and loss. 1.50 6.10
100.00 100.00
When a whole cheese is cut, and the consumption small, it is generally found to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose flavor before it is consumed. This is best prevented by cutting a sufficient quantity for a few days’ consumption from the cheese, and keeping the remainder in a cool place, rather damp than dry, spreading a thin film of butter over the fresh surface, and covering it with a cloth or pan to keep off the dirt. This removes the objection existing in small families against purchasing a whole cheese at a time. The common practice of buying small quantities of cheese should be avoided, as not only a higher price is paid for any given quality, but there is little likelihood of obtaining exactly the same flavor twice running. Should cheese become too dry to be {178} agreeable, it may be used for stewing, or for making grated cheese, or Welsh rarebits.
Goats’ Milk Cheese.
—Goats’ milk cheese is made as follows: Warm 20 quarts of milk and coagulate it with rennet, either the powder or extract. Separate the curds from the whey in a colander. After a few days the dry curd may be shaped into larger or smaller cheeses, the former only salted, the latter containing salt and caraway seed. The cheeses must be turned every day, and sprinkled with salt, and any mold removed. After a few days they may be put away on shelves to ripen, and left for several weeks. Pure goat’s milk cheese should be firm and solid all the way through. Twenty quarts of milk will make about 4 pounds of cheese.
CHEESE COLORANT: See Food.
CHEMICAL GARDENS: See Gardens, Chemical.
CHERRY BALSAM: See Balsam.
CHERRY CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.
CHEWING GUMS
Manufacture.
—The making of chewing gum is by no means the simple operation which it seems to be. Much experience in manipulation is necessary to succeed, and the published formulas can at best serve as a guide rather than as something to be absolutely and blindly followed. Thus, if the mass is either too hard or soft, change the proportions until it is right; often it will be found that different purchases of the same article will vary in their characteristics when worked up. But given a basis, the manufacturer can flavor and alter to suit himself. The most successful manufacturers attribute their success to the employment of the most approved machinery and the greatest attention to details. The working formulas and the processes of these manufacturers are guarded as trade secrets, and aside from publishing general formulas, little information can be given.
Chicle gum is purified by boiling with water and separating the foreign matter. Flavorings, pepsin, sugar, etc., are worked in under pressure by suitable machinery. Formula:
I.— Gum chicle 1 pound
Sugar 2 pounds
Glucose 1 pound
Caramel butter 1 pound
First mash and soften the gum at a gentle heat. Place the sugar and glucose in a small copper pan; add enough water to dissolve the sugar; set on a fire and cook to 244° F.; lift off the fire; add the caramel butter and lastly the gum; mix well into a smooth paste; roll out on a smooth marble, dusting with finely powdered sugar, run through sizing machine to the proper thickness, cut into strips, and again into thin slices.
II.— Chicle 6 ounces
Paraffine 2 ounces
Balsam of Tolu 2 drachms
Balsam of Peru 1 drachm
Sugar 20 ounces
Glucose 8 ounces
Water 6 ounces
Flavoring, enough.
Triturate the chicle and balsams in water, take out and add the paraffine, first heated. Boil the sugar, glucose, and water together to what is known to confectioners as “crack” heat, pour the syrup over the oil slab and turn into it the gum mixture, which will make it tough and plastic. Add any desired flavor.
III.— Gum chicle. 122 parts
Paraffine 42 parts
Balsam of Tolu. 4 parts
Sugar 384 parts
Water 48 parts
Dissolve the sugar in the water by the aid of heat and pour the resultant syrup on an oiled slab. Melt the gum, balsam, and paraffine together and pour on top of the syrup, and work the whole up together.
IV.— Gum chicle 240 parts
White wax 64 parts
Sugar 640 parts
Glucose 128 parts
Water 192 parts
Balsam of Peru 4 parts
Flavoring matter, enough.
Proceed as indicated in II.
V.— Balsam of Tolu 4 parts
Benzoin 1 part
White wax 1 part
Paraffine 1 part
Powdered sugar 1 part
Melt together, mix well, and roll into sticks of the usual dimensions.
Mix, and, when sufficiently cool, roll out into sticks or any other desirable form. {179}
Spruce Chewing Gum.—
Spruce gum 20 parts
Chicle 20 parts
Sugar, powdered 60 parts
Melt the gums separately, mix while hot, and immediately add the sugar, a small portion at a time, kneading it thoroughly on a hot slab. When completely incorporated remove to a cold slab, previously dusted with powdered sugar, roll out at once into sheets, and cut into sticks. Any desired flavor or color may be added to or incorporated with the sugar.
CHICKEN-COOP APPLICATION: See Insecticides.
CHICKEN DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.
CHICORY, TESTS FOR: See Foods.
CHILBLAINS: See Ointments.
CHILBLAIN SOAP: See Soap.
CHILDREN, DOSES FOR: See Doses.
CHILLS, BITTERS FOR: See Wines and Liquors.
CHINA CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.
CHINA: See Ceramics.
CHINA, TO REMOVE BURNED LETTERS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
CHINA REPAIRING: See Porcelain.
CHINA RIVETING.
China riveting is best left to practical men, but it can be done with a drill made from a splinter of a diamond fixed on a handle. If this is not to be had, get a small three-cornered file, harden it by placing it in the fire till red hot, and then plunging it in cold water. Next grind the point on a grindstone and finish on an oilstone. With the point pick out the place to be bored, taking care to do it gently for fear of breaking the article. In a little while a piece will break off, then the hole can easily be made by working the point round. The wire may then be passed through and fastened. A good cement may be made from 1 ounce of grated cheese, 1/2 ounce of finely powdered quicklime, and white of egg sufficient to make a paste. The less cement applied the better, using a feather to spread it over the broken edge.
CHLORIDES, PLATT’S: See Disinfectants.
CHLORINE-PROOFING: See Acid-Proofing.
CHOCOLATE.
Prepare 1,000 parts of finished cacao and 30 parts of fresh cacao oil, in a warmed, polished, iron mortar, into a liquid substance, add to it 800 parts of finely powdered sugar, and, after a good consistency has been reached, 60 parts of powdered iron lactate and 60 parts of sugar syrup, finely rubbed together. Scent with 40 parts of vanilla sugar. Of this mass weigh out tablets of 125 parts into the molds.
Coating Tablets With Chocolate.
—If a chocolate which is free from sugar be placed in a dish over a water bath, it will melt into a fluid of proper consistence for coating tablets. No water must be added. The coating is formed by dipping the tablets. When they are sufficiently hardened they are laid on oiled paper to dry.
CHOCOLATE CASTOR-OIL LOZENGES: See Castor Oil.
CHOCOLATE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.
CHOCOLATE EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.
CHOCOLATE SODA WATER: See Beverages.
CHOKING IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
CHOLERA REMEDIES:
Sun Cholera Mixture.—
Tincture of opium 1 part
Tincture of capsicum 1 part
Tincture of rhubarb 1 part
Spirit of camphor 1 part
Spirit of peppermint 1 part
Squibb’s Diarrhea Mixture.—
Tincture opium 40 parts
Tincture capsicum 40 parts
Spirit camphor 40 parts
Chloroform 15 parts
Alcohol 65 parts
Aromatic Rhubarb.—
Cinnamon, ground 8 parts
Rhubarb 8 parts
Calumba 4 parts
Saffron 1 part
Powdered opium 2 parts
Oil peppermint 5 parts
Alcohol, q. s. ad. 100 parts
Macerate the ground drugs with 75 parts alcohol in a closely covered percolator for several days, then allow percolation to proceed, using sufficient alcohol to obtain 95 parts of percolate. In percolate dissolve the oil of peppermint.
Rhubarb And Camphor.—
Tincture capsicum 2 ounces
Tincture opium 2 ounces
Tincture camphor 3 ounces
Tincture catechu 4 ounces
Tincture rhubarb 4 ounces
Spirit peppermint 4 ounces
Blackberry Mixture.—
Fluid extract blackberry root 2 pints
Fluid ginger, soluble 5 1/3 ounces
Fluid catechu 5 1/3 ounces
Fluid opium for tincture 160 minims
Brandy 8 ounces
Sugar 4 pounds
Essence cloves 256 minims
Essence cinnamon 256 minims
Chloroform 128 minims
Alcohol (25 per cent), q. s. ad. 1 gallon
CHOWCHOW: See Condiments.
CHROME YELLOW, TEST FOR: See Pigments.
CHROMIUM GLUE: See Adhesives.
CHROMO MAKING.
The production of chromo pictures requires a little skill. Practice is necessary. The glass plate to be used should be washed off with warm water, and then laid in a 10 per cent solution of nitric acid. After one hour, wash with clean, cold water, dry with a towel, and polish the plate with good alcohol on the inside—hollow side—until no finger marks or streaks are visible. This is best ascertained by breathing on the glass; the breath should show an even blue surface on the glass.
Coat the unmounted photograph to be colored with benzine by means of wadding, but without pressure, so that the retouching of the picture is not disturbed. Place 2 tablets of ordinary kitchen gelatin in 8 3/4 ounces of distilled or pure rain water, soak for an hour, and then heat until the gelatin has completely dissolved. Pour this warm solution over the polished side of the glass, so that the liquid is evenly distributed. The best way is to pour the solution on the upper right-hand corner, allowing it to flow into the left-hand corner, from there to the left below and right below, finally letting the superfluous liquid run off. Take the photograph, which has been previously slightly moistened on the back, lay it with the picture side on the gelatin-covered plate, centering it nicely, and squeeze out the excess gelatin solution gently, preferably by means of a rubber squeegee. Care must be taken, however, not to displace the picture in this manipulation, as it is easily spoiled.
The solution must never be allowed to boil, since this would render the gelatin brittle and would result in the picture, after having been finished, cracking off from the glass in a short time. When the picture has been attached to the glass plate without blisters (which is best observed from the back), the edge of the glass is cleansed of gelatin, preferably by means of a small sponge and lukewarm water, and the plate is allowed to dry over night.
When the picture and the gelatin are perfectly dry, coat the back of the picture a few times with castor oil until it is perfectly transparent; carefully remove the oil without rubbing, and proceed with the painting, which is best accomplished with good, not over-thick oil colors. The coloring must be observed from the glass side, and for this reason the small details, such as eyes, lips, beard, and hair, should first be sketched in. When the first coat is dry the dress and the flesh tints are painted. The whole surface may be painted over, and it is not necessary to paint shadows, as these are already present in the picture, and consequently show the color through in varying strength.
When the coloring has dried, a second glass plate should be laid on for protection, pasting the two edges together with narrow strips of linen.
CIDER
To Make Cider.
—Pick the apples off the tree by hand. Every apple before going into the press should be carefully
{181}
wiped. As soon as a charge of apples is ground, remove the pomace and put in a cask with a false bottom and a strainer beneath it, and a vessel to catch the drainage from pomace. As fast as the juice runs from the press place it in clean, sweet, open tubs or casks with the heads out and provide with a faucet, put in about two inches above bottom. The juice should be closely watched and as soon as the least sign of fermentation appears (bubbles on top, etc.) it should be run off into casks prepared for this purpose and placed in a moderately cool room. The barrels should be entirely filled, or as near to the bunghole as possible. After fermentation is well under way the spume or foam should be scraped off with a spoon several times a day. When fermentation has ceased the cider is racked off into clean casks, filled to the bunghole, and the bung driven in tightly. It is now ready for use or for bottling.
Champagne Cider.
—I.—To convert ordinary cider into champagne cider, proceed as follows: To 100 gallons of good cider add 3 gallons of strained honey (or 24 pounds of white sugar will answer), stir in well, tightly bung, and let alone for a week. Clarify the cider by adding a half gallon of skimmed milk, or 4 ounces of gelatin dissolved in sufficient hot water and add 4 gallons of proof spirit. Let stand 3 days longer, then syphon off, bottle, cork, and tie or wire down. Bunging the cask tightly is done in order to induce a slow fermentation, and thus retain in the cider as much carbonic acid as possible.
II.—Put 10 gallons of old and clean cider in a strong and iron-bound cask, pitched within (a sound beer cask is the very thing), and add and stir in well 40 ounces of simple syrup. Add 5 ounces of tartaric acid, let dissolve, then add 7 1/2 ounces sodium bicarbonate in powder. Have the bung ready and the moment the soda is added put it in and drive it home. The cider will be ready for use in a few hours.
Cider Preservative.
—I.—The addition of 154 grains of bismuth subnitrate to 22 gallons of cider prevents, or materially retards, the hardening of the beverage on exposure to air; moreover, the bismuth salt renders alcoholic fermentation more complete.
II.—Calcium sulphite (sulphite of lime) is largely used to prevent fermentation in cider. About 1/8 to 1/4 of an ounce of the sulphite is required for 1 gallon of cider. It should first be dissolved in a small quantity of cider, then added to the bulk, and the whole agitated until thoroughly mixed. The barrel should then be bunged and allowed to stand for several days, until the action of the sulphite is exerted. It will preserve the sweetness of cider perfectly, but care should be taken not to add too much, as that would impart a slight sulphurous taste.
Artificial Ciders.
—To 25 gallons of soft water add 2 pounds of tartaric acid, 25 or 30 pounds of sugar, and a pint of yeast; put in a warm place, and let ferment for 15 days, then add the flavoring matter to suit taste. The various fruit ethers are for sale at any wholesale drug house.
Bottling Sweet Cider.
—Champagne quarts are generally used for bottling cider, as they are strong and will stand pressure, besides being a convenient size for consumers. In making cider champagne the liquor should be clarified and bottled in the sweet condition, that is to say, before the greater part of the sugar which it contains has been converted into alcohol by fermentation. The fermentation continues, to a certain extent, in the bottle, transforming more of the sugar into alcohol, and the carbonic acid, being unable to escape, is dissolved in the cider and produces the sparkling.
The greater the quantity of sugar contained in the liquor, when it is bottled, the more complete is its carbonation by the carbonic-acid gas, and consequently the more sparkling it is when poured out. But this is true only within certain limits, for if the production of sugar is too high the fermentation will be arrested.
To make the most sparkling cider the liquor is allowed to stand for three, four, five, or six weeks, during which fermentation proceeds. The time varies according to the nature of the apples, and also to the temperature; when it is very warm the first fermentation is usually completed in 7 days.
Before bottling, the liquid must be fined, and this is best done with catechu dissolved in cold cider, 2 ounces of catechu to the barrel of cider. This is well stirred and left to settle for a few days.
The cider at this stage is still sweet, and it is a point of considerable nicety not to carry the first fermentation too far. The bottle should not be quite filled, so as to allow more freedom for the carbonic-acid gas which forms.
When the bottles have been filled, {182} corked, and wired down, they should be placed in a good cellar, which should be dry, or else the cider will taste of the cork. The bottles should not be laid for four or five weeks, or breakage will ensue. When they are being laid they should be placed on laths of wood or on dry sand; they should never be allowed on cold or damp floors.
Should the cider be relatively poor in sugar, or if it has been fermented too far, about 1 ounce of powdered loaf sugar can be added to each bottle, or else a measure of sugar syrup before pouring in the cider.
Imitation Cider.—
I.—A formula for an imitation cider is as follows:
Rain water 100 gallons
Honey, unstrained 6 gallons
Catechu, powdered 3 ounces
Alum, powdered 5 ounces
Yeast (brewer’s preferably) 2 pints
Mix and put in a warm place to ferment. Let ferment for about 15 days; then add the following, stirring well in:
Bitter almonds, crushed 8 ounces
Cloves 8 ounces
Let stand 24 hours, add two or three gallons of good whiskey, and rack off into clean casks. Bung tightly, let stand 48 hours, then bottle. If a higher color is desired use caramel sufficient to produce the correct tinge. If honey is not obtainable, use sugar-house molasses instead, but honey is preferable.
II.—The following, when properly prepared, makes a passable substitute for cider, and a very pleasant drink:
Catechu, powdered 3 parts
Alum, powdered 5 parts
Honey 640 parts
Water 12,800 parts
Yeast 32 parts
Dissolve the catechu, alum, and honey in the water, add the yeast, and put in some warm place to ferment. The container should be filled to the square opening, made by sawing out five or six inches of the center of a stave, and the spume skimmed off daily as it arises. In cooler weather from 2 weeks to 18 days will be required for thorough fermentation. In warmer weather from 12 to 13 days will be sufficient. When fermentation is complete add the following solution:
Oil of bitter almonds 1 part
Oil of clover 1 part
Caramel 32 parts
Alcohol 192 parts
The alcohol may be replaced by twice its volume of good bourbon whiskey. A much cheaper, but correspondingly poor substitute for the above may be made as follows:
Twenty-five gallons of soft water, 2 pounds tartaric acid, 25 pounds of brown sugar, and 1 pint of yeast are allowed to stand in a warm place, in a clean cask with the bung out, for 24 hours. Then bung up the cask, after adding 3 gallons of whiskey, and let stand for 48 hours, after which the liquor is ready for use.
CIDER VINEGAR: See Vinegar.
CIGARS
Cigar Sizes And Colors.
—Cigars are named according to their color and shape. A dead-black cigar, for instance, is an “Oscuro,” a very dark-brown one is a “Colorado,” a medium brown is a “Colorado Claro,” and a yellowish light brown is a “Claro.” Most smokers know the names of the shades from “Claro” to “Colorado,” and that is as far as most of them need to know. As to the shapes, a “Napoleon” is the biggest of all cigars—being 7 inches long; a “Perfecto” swells in the middle and tapers down to a very small head at the lighting end; a “Panatela” is a thin, straight, up-and-down cigar without the graceful curve of the “Perfecto”; a “Conchas” is very short and fat, and a “Londres” is shaped like a “Perfecto” except that it does not taper to so small a head at the lighting end. A “Reina Victoria” is a “Londres” that comes packed in a ribbon-tied bundle of 50 pieces, instead of in the usual four layers of 13, 12, 13 and 12.
How To Keep Cigars.
—Cigars kept in a case are influenced every time the case is opened. Whatever of taint there may be in the atmosphere rushes into the case, and is finally taken up by the cigars. Even though the cigars have the appearance of freshness, it is not the original freshness in which they were received from the factory. They have been dry, or comparatively so, and have absorbed more moisture than has been put in the case, and it matters not what that moisture may be, it can never restore the flavor that was lost during the drying-out process.
After all, it is a comparatively simple matter to take good care of cigars. All that is necessary is a comparatively air-tight, zinc-lined chest. This should be {183} behind the counter in a place where the temperature is even. When a customer calls for a cigar the dealer takes the box out of the chest, serves his customer, and then puts the box back again. The box being opened for a moment the cigars are not perceptibly affected. The cigars in the close, heavy chest are always safe from atmospheric influences, as the boxes are closed, and the chest is open but a moment, while the dealer is taking out a box from which to serve his customer.
Some of the best dealers have either a large chest or a cool vault in which they keep their stock, taking out from time to time whatever they need for use. Some have a number of small chests, in which they keep different brands, so as to avoid opening and closing one particular chest so often.
It may be said that it is only the higher priced cigars that need special care in handling, although the cheaper grades are not to be handled carelessly. The Havana cigars are more susceptible to change, for there is a delicacy of flavor to be preserved that is never present in the cheaper grades of cigars.
Every dealer must, of course, make a display in his show case, but he need not serve his patrons with these cigars. The shrinkage in value of the cigars in the case is merely a business proposition of profit and loss.
Cigar Flavoring.
—I.—Macerate 2 ounces of cinnamon and 4 ounces of tonka beans, ground fine, in 1 quart of rum.
II.—Moisten ordinary cigars with a strong tincture of cascarilla, to which a little gum benzoin and storax may be added. Some persons add a small quantity of camphor or oil of cloves or cassia.
III.— Tincture of valerian 4 drachms
Butyric aldehyde 4 drachms
Nitrous ether 1 drachm
Tincture vanilla 2 drachms
Alcohol 5 ounces
Water enough to make 16 ounces
IV.— Extract vanilla 4 ounces
Alcohol 1/2 gallon
Jamaica rum 1/2 gallon
Tincture valerian 8 ounces
Caraway seed 2 ounces
English valerian root 2 ounces
Bitter orange peel 2 ounces
Tonka beans 4 drachms
Myrrh 16 ounces
Soak the myrrh for 3 days in 6 quarts of water, add the alcohol, tincture valerian, and extract of vanilla, and after grinding the other ingredients to a coarse powder, put all together in a jug and macerate for 2 weeks, occasionally shaking; lastly, strain.
V.—Into a bottle filled with 1/2 pint of French brandy put 1 1/4 ounces of cascarilla bark and 1 1/4 ounces of vanilla previously ground with 1/2 pound of sugar; carefully close up the flask and distil in a warm place. After 3 days pour off the liquid, and add 1/4 pint of mastic extract. The finished cigars are moistened with this liquid, packed in boxes, and preserved from air by a well-closed lid. They are said to acquire a pleasant flavor and mild strength through this treatment.
Cigar Spots.
—The speckled appearance of certain wrappers is due to the work of a species of fungus that attacks the growing tobacco. In a certain district of Sumatra, which produces an exceptionally fine tobacco for wrappers, the leaves of the plant are commonly speckled in this way. Several patents have been obtained for methods of spotting tobacco leaves artificially. A St. Louis firm uses a solution composed of:
Sodium carbonate 3 parts
Calx chlorinata 1 part
Hot water 8 parts
Dissolve the washing soda in the hot water, add the chlorinated lime, and heat the mixture to a boiling temperature for 3 minutes. When cool, decant into earthenware or stoneware jugs, cork tightly, and keep in a cool place. The corks of jugs not intended for immediate use should be covered with a piece of bladder or strong parchment paper, and tightly tied down to prevent the escape of gas, and consequent weakening of the bleaching power of the fluid. The prepared liquor is sprinkled on the tobacco, the latter being then exposed to light and air, when, it is said, the disagreeable odor produced soon disappears.
CINCHONA: See Wines and Liquors.
CINNAMON ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.
CINNAMON OIL AS AN ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics.
CITRATE OF MAGNESIUM: See Magnesium Citrate.
CLARET LEMONADE AND CLARET PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades. {184}
CLARIFICATION OF GELATIN AND GLUE: See Gelatin.
CLARIFYING.
Clarification is the process by which any solid particles suspended in a liquid are either caused to coalesce together or to adhere to the medium used for clarifying, that they may be removed by filtration (which would previously have been impossible), so as to render the liquid clear.
One of the best agents for this purpose is albumen. When clarifying vegetable extracts, the albumen which is naturally present in most plants accomplishes this purpose easily, provided the vegetable matter is extracted in the cold, so as to get as much albumen as possible in solution.
Egg albumen may also be used. The effect of albumen may be increased by the addition of cellulose, in the form of a fine magma of filtering paper. This has the further advantage that the subsequent filtration is much facilitated.
Suspended particles of gum or pectin may be removed by cautious precipitation with tannin, of which only an exceedingly small amount is usually necessary. It combines with the gelatinous substances better with the aid of heat than in the cold. There must be no excess of tannin used.
Another method of clarifying liquids turbid from particles of gum, albumen, pectin, etc., is to add to them a definite quantity of alcohol. This causes the former substances to separate in more or less large flakes. The quantity of alcohol required varies greatly according to the nature of the liquid. It should be determined in each case by an experiment on a small scale.
Resinous or waxy substances, such as are occasionally met with in honey, etc., may be removed by the addition of bole, pulped filtering paper, and heating to boiling.
In each case the clarifying process may be hastened by making the separating particles specifically heavier; that is, by incorporating some heavier substance, such as talcum, etc., which may cause the flocculi to sink more rapidly, and to form a compact sediment.
Clarifying powder for alcoholic liquids:
Egg albumen, dry 40 parts
Sugar of milk 40 parts
Starch 20 parts
Reduce them to very fine powder, and mix thoroughly.
For clarifying liquors, wines, essences, etc., take for every quart of liquid 75 grains of the above mixture, shake repeatedly in the course of a few days, the mixture being kept in a warm room, then filter.
Powdered talcum renders the same service, and has the additional advantage of being entirely insoluble. However, the above mixture acts more energetically.
CLAY:
Claying Mixture For Forges.
—Twenty parts fire clay; 20 parts cast-iron turnings; 1 part common salt;
1
/
2
part sal ammoniac; all by measure.
The materials should be thoroughly mixed dry and then wet down to the consistency of common mortar, constantly stirring the mass as the wetting proceeds. A rough mold shaped to fit the tuyère opening, a trowel, and a few minutes’ time are all that are needed to complete the successful claying of the forge. This mixture dries hard and when glazed by the fire will last.
Plastic Modeling Clay.
—A permanently plastic clay can be obtained by first mixing it with glycerine, turpentine, or similar bodies, and then adding vaseline or petroleum residues rich in vaseline. The proportion of clay to the vaseline varies according to the desired consistency of the product, the admixture of vaseline varying from 10 to 50 per cent. It is obvious that the hardness of the material decreases with the amount of vaseline added, so that the one richest in vaseline will be the softest. By the use of various varieties of clay and the suitable choice of admixtures, the plasticity, as well as the color of the mass, may be varied.
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
(See also Soaps, Polishes, and Household Formulas).
To Remove Stains From The Hands:
Removal of Aniline-Dye Stains from the Skin.—Rub the stained skin with a pinch of slightly moistened red crystals of chromic trioxide until a distinct sensation of warmth announces the destruction of the dye stuff by oxidation and an incipient irritation of the skin. Then rinse with soap and water. A single application usually suffices to remove {185} the stain. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the poisonousness and strong caustic action of chromic trioxide; but only moderate caution is required to avoid evil effects.
Pyrogallic-acid Stains On The Fingers (see also Photography).—Pyro stains may be prevented fairly well by rubbing in a little wool fat before beginning work. A very effective way of eliminating developer stains is to dip the finger tips occasionally during development into the clearing bath. It is best to use the clearing bath, with ample friction, before resorting to soap, as the latter seems to have a fixing effect upon the stain. Lemon peel is useful for removing pyro stains, and so are the ammonium persulphate reducer and the thiocarbamide clearer.
To Clean Very Soiled Hands.—In the morning wash in warm water, using a stiff brush, and apply glycerine. Repeat the application two or three times during the day, washing and brushing an hour or so afterwards, or apply a warm solution of soda or potash, and wash in warm water, using a stiff brush as before. Finally, rub the hands with pumice or infusorial earth. There are soaps made especially for this purpose, similar to those for use on woodwork, etc., in which infusorial earth or similar matter is incorporated.
To Remove Nitric-acid Stains.—One plan to avoid stains is to use rubber finger stalls, or rubber gloves. Nitric-acid stains can be removed from the hands by painting the stains with a solution of permanganate of potash, and washing off the permanganate with a 5 per cent solution of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. After this wash the hands with pure castile soap. Any soap that roughens the skin should be avoided at all times. Castile soap is the best to keep the skin in good condition.
Cleaning Gilded Articles:
To Clean Gilt Frames And Gilded Surfaces Generally.—Dip a soft brush in alcohol to which a few drops of ammonia water has been added, and with it go over the surface. Do not rub—at least, not roughly, or harshly. In the course of five minutes the dirt will have become soft, and easy of removal. Then go over the surface again gently with the same or a similar brush dipped in rain water. Now lay the damp article in the sunlight to dry. If there is no sunlight, place it near a warm (but not hot) stove, and let dry completely. In order to avoid streaks, take care that the position of the article, during the drying, is not exactly vertical.
To Clean Fire-gilt Articles.—Fire-gilt articles are cleaned, according to their condition, with water, diluted hydrochloric acid, ammonia, or potash solution. If hydrochloric acid is employed thorough dilution with water is especially necessary. The acidity should hardly be noticeable on the tongue.
To clean gilt articles, such as gold moldings, etc., when they have become tarnished or covered with flyspecks, etc., rub them slowly with an onion cut in half and dipped in rectified alcohol, and wash off lightly with a moist soft sponge after about 2 hours.
Cleaning Gilded And Polychromed Work On Altars.—To clean bright gold a fine little sponge is used which is moistened but lightly with tartaric acid and passed over the gilding. Next go over the gilt work with a small sponge saturated with alcohol to remove all dirt. For matt gilding, use only a white flannel dipped in lye, and carefully wipe off the dead gold with this, drying next with a fine linen rag. To clean polychromed work sponge with a lye of rain water, 1,000 parts, and calcined potash, 68 parts, and immediately wash off with a clean sponge and water, so that the lye does not attack the paint too much.
Spot And Stain Removers:
To Remove Aniline Stains.—
I.— Sodium nitrate 7 grains
Diluted sulphuric acid 15 grains
Water 1 ounce
Let the mixture stand a day or two before using. Apply to the spot with a sponge, and rinse the goods with plenty of water.
II.—An excellent medium for the removal of aniline stains, which are often very stubborn, has been found to be liquid opodeldoc. After its use the stains are said to disappear at once and entirely.
Cleansing Fluids.—A spot remover is made as follows:
I.— Saponine 7 parts
Water 130 parts
Alcohol 70 parts
Benzine 1,788 parts
Oil mirbane 5 parts
II.— Benzene (benzol) 89 parts
Ascetic ether 10 parts
Pear oil 1 part
This yields an effective grease eradicator, of an agreeable odor. {186}
III.—To Remove Stains of Sulphate of copper, or of salts of mercury, silver, or gold from the hands, etc., wash them first with a dilute solution either of ammonia, iodide, bromide, or cyanide of potassium, and then with plenty of water; if the stains are old ones they should first be rubbed with the strongest acetic acid and then treated as above.
Removal Of Picric-acid Stains.—I.—Recent stains of picric acid may be removed readily if the stain is covered with a layer of magnesium carbonate, the carbonate moistened with a little water to form a paste, and the paste then rubbed over the spot.
II.—Apply a solution of
Boric acid 4 parts
Sodium benzoate 1 part
Water 100 parts
III.—Dr. Prieur, of Besançon, recommends lithium carbonate for the removal of picric-acid stains from the skin or from linen. The method of using it is simply to lay a small pinch on the stain, and moisten the latter with water. Fresh stains disappear almost instantly, and old ones in a minute or two.
To Remove Finger Marks From Books, Etc.—I.—Pour benzol (not benzine or gasoline, but Merck’s “c. p.” crystallizable) on calcined magnesia until it becomes a crumbling mass, and apply this to the spot, rubbing it in lightly, with the tip of the finger. When the benzol evaporates, brush off. Any dirt that remains can be removed by using a piece of soft rubber.
II.—If the foregoing fails (which it sometimes, though rarely, does), try the following: Make a hot solution of sodium hydrate in distilled water, of strength of from 3 per cent to 5 per cent, according to the age, etc., of the stain. Have prepared some bits of heavy blotting paper somewhat larger than the spot to be removed; also, a blotting pad, or several pieces of heavy blotting paper. Lay the soiled page face downward on the blotting pad, then, saturating one of the bits of blotter with the hot sodium hydrate solution, put it on the stain and go over it with a hot smoothing iron. If one application does not remove all the grease or stain, repeat the operation. Then saturate another bit of blotting paper with a 4 per cent or 5 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid in distilled water, apply it to the place, and pass the iron over it to neutralize the strong alkali. This process will instantly restore any faded writing or printing, and make the paper bright and fresh again.
Glycerine As A Detergent.—For certain kinds of obstinate spots (such as coffee and chocolate, for instance) there is no better detergent than glycerine, especially for fabrics with delicate colors. Apply the glycerine to the spot, with a sponge or otherwise, let stand a minute or so, then wash off with water or alcohol. Hot glycerine is even more efficient than cold.
Cleaning Skins And Leather
: See also Leather.
To Clean Colored Leather.—Pour carbon bisulphide on non-vulcanized gutta-percha, and allow it to stand about 24 hours. After shaking actively add more gutta-percha gradually until the solution becomes of gelatinous consistency. This mixture is applied in suitable quantity to oil-stained, colored leather and allowed to dry two or three hours. The subsequent operation consists merely in removing the coat of gutta-percha from the surface of the leather—that is, rubbing it with the fingers, and rolling it off the surface.
The color is not injured in the least by the sulphuret of carbon; only those leathers on which a dressing containing starch has been used look a little lighter in color, but the better class of leathers are not so dressed. The dry gutta-percha can be redissolved in sulphuret of carbon and used over again.
To Clean Skins Used For Polishing Purposes.—First beat them thoroughly to get rid of dust, then go over the surface on both sides with a piece of good white soap and lay them in warm water in which has been put a little soda. Let them lie here for 2 hours, then wash them in plenty of tepid water, rubbing them vigorously until perfectly clean. This bath should also be made alkaline with soda. The skins are finally rinsed in warm water, and dried quickly. Cold water must be avoided at all stages of the cleansing process, as it has a tendency to shrink and harden the skins.
The best way to clean a chamois skin is to wash and rinse it out in clean water immediately after use, but this practice is apt to be neglected so that the skin becomes saturated with dirt and grime. To clean it, first thoroughly soak in clean, soft water. Then, after soaping it and rolling it into a compact wad, beat with a small round stick—a buggy spoke, say—turning the wad over repeatedly, and keeping it well wet and soaped. This should suffice to loosen the dirt. Then rinse in clean water until the skin {187} is clean. As wringing by hand is apt to injure the chamois skin, it is advisable to use a small clothes wringer. Before using the skin again rinse it in clear water to which a little pulverized alum has been added.
Straw-hat Renovation:
To Renovate Straw Hats.—I.—Hats made of natural (uncolored) straw, which have become soiled by wear, may be cleaned by thoroughly sponging with a weak solution of tartaric acid in water, followed by water alone. The hat after being so treated should be fastened by the rim to a board by means of pins, so that it will keep its shape in drying.
II.—Sponge the straw with a solution of
By weight
Sodium hyposulphite 10 parts
Glycerine 5 parts
Alcohol 10 parts
Water 75 parts
Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours and then apply
By weight
Citric acid 2 parts
Alcohol 10 parts
Water 90 parts
Press with a moderately hot iron, after stiffening with weak gum water, if necessary.
III.—If the hat has become much darkened in tint by wear the fumes of burning sulphur may be employed. The material should be first cleaned by thoroughly sponging with an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate, followed by a similar application of water, and it is then suspended over the sulphur fumes. These are generated by placing in a metal or earthen dish, so mounted as to keep the heat from setting fire to anything beneath, some brimstone (roll sulphur), and sprinkling over it some live coals to start combustion. The operation is conducted in a deep box or barrel, the dish of burning sulphur being placed at the bottom, and the article to be bleached being suspended from a string stretched across the top. A cover not fitting so tightly as to exclude all air is placed over it, and the apparatus allowed to stand for a few hours.
Hats so treated will require to be stiffened by the application of a little gum water, and pressed on a block with a hot iron to bring them back into shape.
Waterproof Stiffening For Straw Hats.—If a waterproof stiffening is required use one of the varnishes for which formulas follow:
I.— Copal 450 parts
Sandarac 75 parts
Venice turpentine 40 parts
Castor oil 5 parts
Alcohol 800 parts
II.— Shellac 500 parts
Sandarac 175 parts
Venice turpentine 50 parts
Castor oil 15 parts
Alcohol 2,000 parts
III.— Shellac 750 parts
Rosin 150 parts
Venice turpentine 150 parts
Castor oil 20 parts
Alcohol 2,500 parts
How To Clean A Panama Hat.—Scrub with castile soap and warm water, a nail brush being used as an aid to get the dirt away. The hat is then placed in the hot sun to dry and in the course of two or three hours is ready for use. It will not only be as clean as when new, but it will retain its shape admirably. The cleaned hat will be a trifle stiff at first, but will soon grow supple under wear.
A little glycerine added to the rinsing water entirely prevents the stiffness and brittleness acquired by some hats in drying, while a little ammonia in the washing water materially assists in the scrubbing process. Ivory, or, in fact, any good white soap, will answer as well as castile for the purpose. It is well to rinse a second time, adding the glycerine to the water used the second time. Immerse the hat completely in the rinse water, moving it about to get rid of traces of the dirty water. When the hat has been thoroughly rinsed, press out the surplus water, using a Turkish bath towel for the purpose, and let it rest on the towel when drying.
Paint, Varnish, And Enamel Removers:
To Remove Old Oil, Paint, Or Varnish Coats.—I.—Apply a mixture of about 5 parts of potassium silicate (water glass, 36 per cent), about 1 part of soda lye (40 per cent), and 1 part of ammonia. The composition dissolves the old varnish coat, as well as the paint, down to the bottom. The varnish coatings which are to be removed may be brushed off or left for days in a hardened state. Upon being thoroughly moistened with water the old varnish may be readily washed off, the lacquer as well as the oil paint coming off completely. The ammonia otherwise employed dissolves the varnish, but not the paint. {188}