Henley's Twentieth Century Formulas, Recipes and Processes

HENLEY’S BOOK OF RECIPES (continued 20)

Reading edition

II.—Copper, 32 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 1 pound.

III.—Red Brass Free, for Turning.—Copper, 100 pounds; zinc, 50 pounds; lead, 10 pounds; antimony, 44 ounces.

IV.—Best Red Brass for Fine Castings.—Copper, 24 pounds; zinc, 5 pounds; bismuth, 1 ounce.

V.—Red Tombac.—Copper, 10 pounds; zinc, 1 pound.

VI.—Tombac.—Copper, 16 pounds; tin, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound.

VII.—Brass for Heavy Castings.—Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 1 part.

VIII.—Malleable Brass.—Copper, 70.10 parts; zinc, 29.90 parts.

IX.—Superior Malleable Brass.—Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts.

X.—Brass.—Copper, 73 parts; zinc, 27 parts.

XI.—Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts.

XII.—Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts.

XIII.—German Brass.—Copper, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound.

XIV.—Watchmakers’ Brass.—Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts.

XV.—Brass for Wire.—Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts.

XVI.—Brass for Tubes.—Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XVII.—Brass for Heavy Work.—Copper, 100 parts; tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15 parts.

XVIII.—Copper, 112 parts; tin, 13 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XIX.—Tombac or Red Brass.—Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XX.—Brass.—Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part.

XXI.—Buttonmakers’ Fine Brass.—Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts.

XXII.—Buttonmakers’ Common Brass.—Button brass, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part. Mix.

XXIII.—Mallet’s Brass.—Copper, 25.4 parts; zinc, 74.6 parts. Used to preserve iron from oxidizing.

XXIV.—Best Brass for Clocks.—Rose copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts; lead, 1 part.

Gold Alloys:

To Quickly Remove A Ring From A Swollen Finger.

—If the ring is of gold, pull the folds of the swollen muscles apart, so that it can be seen, then drop on it a little absolute alcohol and place the finger in a bowl of metallic mercury. In a very few minutes the ring will snap apart. If the ring is of brass, scrape the surface slightly, or put on a few drops of a solution of oxalic acid, or even strong vinegar, let remain in contact for a moment or two, then put into the mercury, and the result will be as before.

Soldering A Jeweled Ring.

—In order to prevent the bursting of the jewels of a ring while the latter is being soldered, cut a juicy potato into halves and make a hollow in both portions in which the part of the ring having jewels may fit exactly. Wrap the jeweled portion in soft paper, place it in the hollow, and bind up the closed potato with binding wire. Now solder with easy-flowing gold solder, the potato being held in the hand. Another method is to fill a small crucible with wet sand, bury the jeweled portion in the sand, and solder in the usual way.

JEWELRY, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

KALSOMINE

Sodium carbonate 8 parts

Linseed oil 32 parts

Hot water 8 parts

White glue 12 parts

Whiting 160 parts

Dissolve the sodium carbonate in the hot water, add the oil and saponify by heating and agitation. Cover the glue, broken into small pieces, with cold water and let soak overnight. In the morning pour the whole on a stout piece of stuff and let the residual water drain off, getting rid of as much as possible by slightly twisting the cloth. Throw the swelled glue into a capsule, put on the water bath, and heat gently until it is melted. Add the saponified oil and mix well; remove from the bath, and stir in the whiting, a little at a time, adding hot water as it becomes necessary. When the whiting is all stirred in, continue adding hot water, until a liquid is obtained that flows freely from the kalsomining brush.

The addition of a little soluble blue to the mixture increases the intensity of the white.

Sizing Walls For Kalsomine.

—A size to coat over “hot walls” for the reception of the kalsomine is made by using shellac, 1 part; sal soda,

part. Put these ingredients in

gallon of water and dissolve by steady heat. Another size is made of glue size prepared in the usual way, and alum. To

pound of white glue add

pound of alum, dissolving the alum in hot water before adding it to the glue size.

KARATS, TO FIND NUMBER OF: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

KERAMICS: See Ceramics.

KERIT: See Rubber.

KEROCLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

KEROSENE DEODORIZER:

KOUMISS SUBSTITUTE:

LACQUERS

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Varnishes, and Waterproofing.)

Lac And The Art Of Lacquering.

The art of lacquering includes various steps, which are divulged as little as possible. Without them nothing but a varnish of good quality would be realized. Thus in Tonkin, where the abundant {438} production is the object of an important trade with the Chinese, it is so used only for varnishing, while in China the same product from the same sources contributes to most artistic applications.

When the Annamites propose to lacquer an object, a box, for example, they first stop up the holes and crevices, covering all the imperfections with a coating of diluted lac, by means of a flat, close, short brush. Then they cover the whole with a thick coating of lac and white clay. This clay, oily to the touch, is found at the bottom of certain lakes in Tonkin; it is dried, pulverized, and sifted with a piece of fine silk before being embodied with the lac. This operation is designed to conceal the inequalities of the wood and produce a uniform surface which, when completely dry, is rendered smooth with pumice stone.

If the object has portions cut or sunk the clayey mixture is not applied, for it would make the details clammy, but in its place a single, uniform layer of pure lac.

In any case, after the pumicing, a third coating, now pure lac, is passed over the piece, which at this time has a mouse-gray color. This layer, known under the name of sou lot, colors the piece a brilliant black. As the lac possesses the remarkable property of not drying in dry air, the object is left in a damp place. When perfectly dried the piece is varnished, and the desired color imparted by a single operation. If the metallic applications are excepted, the lac is colored only black, brown, or red.

The following formulas are in use:

Black.—One part of turpentine is warmed for 20 minutes beyond the fusing point; then poured into 3 parts of lac; at the same time pheu deu (copperas) is added. The mixture is stirred for at least a day, sometimes more, by means of a large paddle.

Maroon.—This is prepared by a process similar to the preceding, replacing half of the copperas by an equal quantity of China vermilion.

Red.—The lac, previously stirred for 6 hours, is mixed with hot oil of trau, and the whole is stirred for a day, after which vermilion is added. The latter should be of good quality, so as to have it brilliant and unchangeable.

The operation of lacquering is then ended, but there are parts to be gilded. These are again covered with a mixture of lac and oil of trau. When this layer is dry the metallic leaves are applied, which are themselves protected by a coating, composed also of lac and oil of trau. All these lac and oil of trau mixtures are carefully filtered, which the natives effect by pressing the liquid on a double filtering surface formed of wadding and of a tissue on which it rests. It can only be applied after several months when the metallic leaf is of gold. In the case of silver or tin the protecting coat can be laid on in a few days. It favorably modifies the white tints of these two metals by communicating a golden color. The hue, at first reddish, gradually improves and acquires its full brilliancy in a few months.

Little information is procurable concerning the processes employed by the Chinese. The wood to be lacquered should be absolutely dry. It receives successive applications, of which the number is not less than 33 for perfect work. When the lac coating attains the thickness of ¹/₄ of an inch it is ready for the engravers. The Chinese, like the inhabitants of Tonkin, make use of oil of trau to mix with the lac, or oil of aleurites, and the greatest care is exercised in the drying of the different layers. The operation is conducted in dim-lighted rooms specially fitted up for the purpose; the moisture is maintained to a suitable extent by systematically watering the earth which covers the walls of this “cold stove.”

Lacquer For Aluminum.

—Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of ammonia, and heat the solution for about 1 hour moderately on the water bath. After cooling, the mixture is ready for use. The aluminum to be coated is cleaned in the customary manner. After it has been painted with the varnish, it is heated in the oven to about 572° F. The coating and heating may be repeated.

Lacquer For Brass.—

Annatto ¹/₄ ounce

Saffron ¹/₄ ounce

Turmeric 1 ounce

Seed lac in coarse powder 3 ounces

Alcohol 1 pint

Digest the annatto, saffron, and turmeric in the alcohol for several days, then strain into a bottle containing the seed lac; cork and shake until dissolved.

Lacquer For Bronze.

—I.—The following process yields a protective varnish for bronze articles and other metallic objects in various shadings, the lacquer produced excelling in high luster and permanency: Fill 40 parts of best pale shellac; 12 parts of pulverized Florentine

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lake; 30 parts gamboge; and 6 parts of dragon’s blood, likewise powdered, into a bottle and add 400 parts of spirit. Allow this mixture to form a solution preferably by heating the flask on the water bath, to nearly the boiling point of the water, and shaking now and then until all has dissolved. After the cooling pour off the liquid from the sediment, if any is present; this liquid constitutes a lacquer of dark-red color. In a second bottle dissolve in the same manner 24 parts of gamboge in 400 parts of spirit, which affords a lacquer of golden yellow color. According to the desired shade, the red lacquer is now mixed with the yellow one, thus producing any hue required from the deepest red to a golden tone. If necessary, thin with spirit of wine. The varnish is applied, as usual, on the somewhat warmed article, a certain temperature having to be adhered to, which can be ascertained by trials and is easily regulated by feeling.

II.—The following is equally suitable for boots and leather goods as for application on iron, stone, glass, paper, cloth, and other surfaces. The inexperienced should note before making this liquid that it does not give a yellowish bronze like gold paint, but a darkish iridescent one, and as it is a pleasing variation in aids to home decoration, it would doubtless sell well. Some pretty effects are obtained by using a little phloxine instead of part of the violet aniline, or phloxine alone will produce a rich reddish bronze, and a lustrous peacock green is obtained with brilliant aniline green crystals.

Quantities: Flexile methylated collodion, 1 gallon; pure violet aniline, 1 pound. Mix, stand away for a few days to allow the aniline to dissolve and stir frequently, taking care to bung down securely, as the collodion is a volatile liquid, then strain and bottle off. It is applied with a brush, dries rapidly, and does not rub off or peal.

Celluloid Lacquer.

—Dissolve uncolored celluloid in a mixture of strong alcohol and ether. The celluloid first swells up in the solvent, and after vigorous shaking, the bottle is allowed to stand quietly for the undissolved portion to settle, when the clear, supernatant fluid is poured off. The latter may be immediately used; it yields a colorless glossy lacquer, or may be colored, as desired, with aniline colors.

Colored Lacquer.

—Make a strong solution of any coloring matter which is soluble in methylated spirit, such as cochineal, saffron, the aniline dyes, etc. Filter through fine cambric, and to this filtered solution add brown shellac in flakes in the proportion of 4 to 5 ounces of shellac to each pint of methylated spirit. Shake once a day for about 8 days. If too thick it may be thinned by adding more colored spirit or plain spirit as required, and any lighter shade can be obtained by mixing with plain lacquer mixed in the above proportions. Lacquer works best in a warm, dry place, and the process is improved by slightly warming the articles, which must be absolutely free from grease, dirt, or moisture. The best results are obtained by applying many coats of thin, light-colored lacquer, each coat to be thoroughly dry before applying the next.

Apply with a soft camel’s-hair brush; it is better to use too small a brush than too large. When complete, warm the articles for a few seconds before a clear fire; the hotter the better; if too hot, however, the colors will fade. This makes the lacquer adhere firmly, especially to metallic surfaces. Aniline green works very well.

Lacquer For Copper.

—A lacquer which to a certain degree resists heat and acid liquids, but not alkaline ones, is obtained by heating fine, thickly liquid amber varnish, whereby it is rendered sufficiently liquid to be applied with the brush. The copper article is coated with this and left to stand until the lacquer has dried perfectly. Next, the object is heated until the lacquer commences to smoke and turns brown. If the operation is repeated twice, a coating is finally obtained, which, as regards resisting qualities to acid bodies, excels even enamel, but which is strongly attacked even by weakly alkaline liquids.

Ebony Lacquer.

—The ebony lacquer recommended by the well-known English authority, Mr. H. C. Standage, consists of

ounce aniline hydrochloride,

ounce alcohol, 1 part sulphate of copper, 100 parts of water. The aniline dye is dissolved in the alcohol and the copper sulphate in the water. The wood is first coated with the copper sulphate solution, and after this coating has been given plenty of time to dry the aniline salt tincture is applied. Shortly the copper salt absorbed by the wood will react on the aniline hydrochloride, developing a deep, rich black which acids or alkalies are powerless to destroy. Coat with shellac and give a French polish, thus bringing the ebony finish up to a durable and unsurpassed luster.

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Gold Lacquers:

I.—For Brassware.—A gold lacquer to improve the natural color of brassware is prepared from 16 parts gum lac, 4 parts dragon’s blood, and 1 part curcuma powder dissolved in 320 parts spirits of wine in the warmth and filtered well. The articles must be thoroughly cleaned by burning, grinding, or turning either dull or burnished, and then coated with a thin layer of the above mixture, applied with a soft hair brush or a pad of wadding. If the objects are colored the lacquer must be laid on by stippling. Should the color be too dark, it may be lightened by reduction with a little spirit until the correct shade is produced. The most suitable temperature for the metal during the work is about the warmth of the hand; if too hot or too cold, the lacquer may smear, and will then have to be taken off again with spirit or hot potash lye, the goods being dried in sawdust or recleaned as at first, before applying the lacquer again. Round articles may be fixed in the lathe and the lacquer laid on with a pad of wadding. In order to color brassware, a solution of 30 parts caustic soda; 10 parts cupric carbonate; 200 parts water (or 200 parts ammonia neutralized by acetic acid); 100 parts verdigris, and 60 parts sal ammoniac is employed, into which the warmed articles are dipped. After having dried they are coated with colorless shellac varnish.

II.—For Tin.—Transparent gold lacquer for tin (all colors) may be made as follows: Take ¹/₂ pint of alcohol, add 1 ounce gum shellac; ¹/₂ ounce turmeric; 1 ¹/₄ ounce red sanders. Set the vessel in a warm place and shake frequently for half a day. Then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle and return it, corking tightly for use. When this is used, it must be applied to the work freely and flowed on full, or if the work admits it, it may be dipped. One or more coats may be given as the color is required light or dark. For rose color substitute ¹/₄ ounce of finely ground lake in place of the turmeric. For blue, substitute Prussian blue. For purple, add a little of the blue to the turmeric.

For Bottle Caps, etc.—

I.— Gum gutta 10 parts

Shellac 100 parts

Turpentine 10 parts

Alcohol 450 parts

II.— Gum gutta 40 parts

Dragon’s blood 5 parts

Alcoholic extract of sandalwood 5 parts

Sandarac 75 parts

Venice turpentine 25 parts

Alcohol, 95 per cent 900 parts

Mix and dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.

Liquid Bottle Lac.

—Into a half-gallon bottle put 8 ounces of shellac, and pour over it 1

pints of alcohol of 94 per cent, and 2

ounces of sulphuric ether. Let stand, with occasional shaking, until the shellac is melted, and then add 4 ounces of thick turpentine and

ounce of boric acid. Shake until dissolved. To color, use the aniline colors soluble in alcohol—for red, eosine; blue, phenol blue; black, negrosin; green, aniline green; violet, methyl violet, etc. If it is desired to have the lac opaque, add 8 ounces of pulverized steatite, but remember to keep the lac constantly stirred while using, as otherwise the steatite falls to the bottom.

Lithographic Lacquer.

—Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 150 parts, by weight, of hot water. Boil for 2 minutes, shaking with 2.5 parts, by weight, of barium chloride. Dissolve in 25 parts, by weight, of water. Add to the mixture 100 parts, by weight, of aluminum hydrate of about 4 per cent. Cool, filter, and dry.

Lacquer For Microscopes, Mathematical Instruments, Etc.

—Pulverize 160 parts, by weight, turmeric root, cover it with 1,700 parts alcohol, digest in a warm place for 24 hours, and then filter. Dissolve 80 parts dragon’s blood, 80 parts sandarac, 80 parts gum elemi, 50 parts gum gutta, and 70 parts seed lac, put in a retort with 250 parts powdered glass, pour over them the colored alcohol first made, and hasten solution by warming in the sand or water bath. When completely dissolved, filter.

To Fix Alcoholic Lacquers On Metallic Surfaces.

—Dissolve 0.5 parts of crystallized boracic acid in 100 parts of the respective spirit varnish whereby the latter after being applied forms so hard a coating upon a smooth tin surface that it cannot be scratched off even with the finger-nails. The aforementioned percentage of boracic acid should not be exceeded in preparing the solution; otherwise the varnish will lose in intensity of color.

Lacquer For Oil Paintings.

—Dilute 100 parts of sulphate of baryta with 600 parts of water containing in solution 60 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17

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per cent. Boil the mixture for several minutes in a solution of 10 parts of barium chloride in 100 parts of water. After cooling, filter and dry.

Lacquers For Papers.

—I.—With base of baryta: Dissolve 30 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Add an emulsion obtained by mixing 10 parts of sulphate of alumina in 100 parts of water and 5 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 50 parts of water. Precipitate with a solution of 17.5 parts of barium chloride in 125 parts of water. Cool and filter.

II.—With base of lime: Dissolve 30 parts red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Boil for a few minutes with an emulsion prepared by mixing 10 parts sulphate of alumina with 100 parts of water and 2.5 parts of slaked lime in 100 parts of water. Filter after cooling.

Lacquer For Stoves And Other Articles To Withstand Heat.

—This is not altered by heat, and does not give off disagreeable odors on heating: Thin 1 part of sodium water glass with 2 parts of water in order to make the vehicle. This is to be thickened with the following materials in order to get the desired color: White, barium sulphate or white lead; yellow, baryta chromate, ocher, or uranium yellow; green, chromium oxide or ultramarine green; brown, cadmium oxide, manganese oxide, or sienna brown; red, either iron or chrome red. The coloring materials must be free from lumps, and well ground in with the vehicle. Bronze powders may also be used either alone or mixed with other coloring stuffs, but care must be taken, in either instance, to secure a sufficient quantity. The colors should be made up as wanted, and no more than can conveniently be applied at the time should be prepared. An excellent way to use the bronze powders is to lay on the coloring matter, and then to dust on the powder before the glass sets. Lines or ornamentation of any sort may be put on by allowing the coating of enamel to dry, and then drawing the lines or any desired design with a fresh solution of the water glass colored to suit the taste, or dusted over with bronze.

Miscellaneous Recipes:

Russian Polishing Lac.—

I.— Sticklac 925 parts

Sandarac 875 parts

Larch turpentine 270 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts

The sticklac is broken up and mixed with the sandarac, put into a suitable container with a wide mouth, the spirit poured over it and set aside. After standing for a week in a warm place, frequently stirring in the meantime (best with a glass rod) and fully dissolving, stir in the turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days longer, then filter through glass wool. The sandarac dissolves completely in the spirit, but the stick leaves a slight residue which may be added to the next lot of lac made up and thus be treated to a fresh portion of spirit. The larch turpentine should be of the best quality. This lac is used by woodcarvers and turners and is very much prized by them.

Mastic Lac.—

II.— Mastic, select 150 parts

Sandarac 400 parts

Camphor 15 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 1,000 parts

Prepare as directed in the first recipe.

Leather Polish Lac.—

III.— Shellac 16 parts

Venice turpentine 8 parts

Sandarac 4 parts

Lampblack, Swedish 2 parts

Turpentine oil 4 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 960 parts

The alcohol and turpentine oil are mixed and warmed under constant stirring in the sand or water bath. The shellac and sandarac are now stirred in, the stirring being maintained until both are dissolved. Finally add the turpentine and dissolve. Stir the lampblack with a little vinegar and then add and stir in. Instead of lampblack 125 to 150 parts of nigrosin may be used. This lac should be well shaken before application.

LACQUERED WARE, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LAKES: See Dyes.

LAMPBLACK:

Production of Lampblack.—The last oil obtained in the distillation of coal tar, and freed from naphthalene as far as possible, viz., soot oil, is burned in a special furnace for the production of various grades of lampblack. In this furnace is an iron plate, which must always be kept glowing; upon this plate the soot oil trickles through a small tube fixed above it. It is decomposed and {442} the smoke (soot) rises into four chambers through small apertures. When the quantity of oil destined for decomposition has been used up, the furnace is allowed to stand undisturbed for a few days, and only after this time has elapsed are the chambers opened by windows provided for that purpose. In the fourth chamber is the very finest lampblack, which the lithographers use, and in the third the fine grade employed by manufacturers of printers’ ink, while the first and second contain the coarser soot, which, well sifted, is sold as flame lampblack.

From grade No. 1 the calcined lampblack for paper makers is also produced. For preparing this black capsules of iron plate with closing lid are filled, the stuff is stamped firmly into them and the cover smeared up with fine loam. The capsules are next placed in a well drawing stove and calcined, whereby the empyreumatic oils evaporate and the remaining lampblack becomes odorless. Allow the capsules to cool for a few days before opening them, as the soot dries very slowly, and easily ignites again as soon as air is admitted if the capsules are opened before. This is semi-calcined lampblack.

For the purpose of preparing completely calcined lampblack, the semi-calcined article is again jammed into fresh capsules, closing them up well and calcining thoroughly once more. After 2 days the capsules are opened containing the all-calcined lampblack in compact pieces.

For the manufacture of coal soot another furnace is employed. Asphalt or pitch is burned in it with exclusion of air as far as practicable. It is thrown in through the doors, and the smoke escapes through the chimney to the soot chambers, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, assorting itself there.

When the amount of asphalt pitch destined for combustion has burned up completely, the furnace is left alone for several days without opening it. After this time has elapsed the outside doors are slowly opened and some air is admitted. Later on they can be opened altogether after one is satisfied that the soot has cooled completely. Chamber 4 contains the finest soot black, destined for the manufacture of leather cloth and oil cloth. In the other chambers is fine and ordinary flame black, which is sifted and packed in suitable barrels. Calcined lampblack may also be produced from it, the operation being the same as for oil black.

LAMP BURNERS AND THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas.

LAMPS:

Coloring Incandescent Lamps.

—Incandescent light globes are colored by dipping the bulbs into a thin solution of collodion previously colored to suit with anilines soluble in collodion. Dip and rotate quickly, bulb down, till dry.

For office desks, room lights, and in churches, it appears often desirable to modify the glaring yellowish rays of the incandescent light. A slight collodion film of a delicate bluish, greenish, or pink shade will do that.

For advertising purposes the bulbs are often colored in two or more colors. It is also easy with a little practice to paint words or pictures, etc., on the bulbs with colored collodion with a brush.

Another use of colored collodion in pharmacy is to color the show globes on their inside, thus avoiding freezing and the additional weight of the now used colored liquids. Pour a quantity of colored collodion into the clean, dry globe, close the mouth and quickly let the collodion cover all parts of the inside. Remove the balance of the collodion at once, and keep it to color electric bulbs for your trade.

LANOLINE CREAMS: See Cosmetics.

LANOLINE SOAP: See Soap.

LANTERN SLIDES: See Photography.

LARD:

Detection Of Cottonseed Oil In Lard.

—Make a 2 per cent solution of silver nitrate in distilled water, and acidify it by adding 1 per cent of nitrate acid, C. P. Into a test tube put a sample of the suspected lard and heat gently until it liquefies. Now add an equal quantity of the silver nitrate solution, agitate a little, and bring to a boil. Continue the boiling vigorously for about 8 minutes. If the lard remain clear and colorless, it may be accepted as pure. The presence of cottonseed oil or fat will make itself known by a coloration, varying from yellow, grayish green to brown, according to the amount present.

LATHE LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. {443}

LAUNDRY INKS: See Household Formulas.

LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS

Bluing Compounds:

Laundry Blue.—The soluble blue of commerce, when properly made, dissolves freely in water, and solutions so made are put up as liquid laundry blue. The water employed in making the solution should be free from mineral substances, especially lime, or precipitation may occur. If rain water or distilled water and a good article of blue be used, a staple preparation ought apparently to result; but whether time alone affects the matter of solubility it is impossible to state. As it is essential that the solution should be a perfect one, it is best to filter it through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may be modified by allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring filtration.

This soluble blue is said to be potassium ferri-ferrocyanide, and is prepared by gradually adding to a boiling solution of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an equivalent quantity of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2 hours and washing the precipitate on a filter until the washings assume a dark-blue color; the moist precipitate can then at once be dissolved by the further addition of a sufficient quantity of water. About 64 parts of the iron salt are necessary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the blue compound.

Leaf bluing for laundry use may be prepared by coating thick sized paper with soluble blue formed into a paste with a mixture of dextrin mucilage and glycerine. Dissolve a given quantity of dextrine in water enough to make a solution about as dense as ordinary syrup, add about as much glycerine as there was dextrine, rub the blue smooth with a sufficient quantity of this vehicle and coat the sheets with the paint. The amount of blue to be used will depend of course on the intended cost of the product, and the amount of glycerine will require adjustment so as to give a mixture which will not “smear” after the water has dried out and yet remain readily soluble.

Ultramarine is now very generally used as a laundry blue where the insoluble or “bag blue” is desired. It is mixed with glucose, or glucose and dextrine, and pressed into balls or cakes. When glucose alone is used, the product has a tendency, it is said, to become soft on keeping, which tendency may be counteracted by a proper proportion of dextrin. Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a “filler” to cheapen the product, the quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed being both regulated by the price at which the product is to sell.

The coal-tar or aniline blues are not offered to the general public as laundry blues, but laundry proprietors have them frequently brought under their notice, chiefly in the form of solutions, usually 1 to 1 ¹/₂ per cent strong. These dyes are strong bluing materials, and, being in the form of solution, are not liable to speck the clothes. Naturally their properties depend upon the particular dye used; some are fast to acids and alkalies, others are fast to one but not to another; some will not stand ironing, while others again are not affected by the operation; generally they are not fast to light, but this is only of minor importance. The soluble, or cotton, blues are those most favored; these are made in a great variety of tints, varying from a reddish blue to a pure blue in hue, distinguished by such brands as 3R, 6B, etc. Occasionally the methyl violets are used, especially the blue tints. Blackley blue is very largely used for this purpose, being rather faster than the soluble blues. It may be mentioned that a 1 per cent solution of this dye is usually strong enough. Unless care is taken in dissolving these dyes they are apt to produce specks. The heat to which the pure blues are exposed in ironing the clothes causes some kinds to assume a purple tinge.

The cheapest aniline blue costs about three times as much as soluble blue, yet the tinctorial power of the aniline colors is so great that possibly they might be cheapened.

Soluble Blue.—I.—Dissolve 217 parts of prussiate of potash in 800 parts of hot water and bring the whole to 1,000 parts. Likewise dissolve 100 parts of ferric chloride in water and bring the solution also to 1,000 parts. To each of these solutions add 2,000 parts of cooking salt or Glauber’s salt solution saturated in the cold and mix well. The solutions thus prepared of prussiate of potash and ferric chloride are now mixed together with stirring. Allow to settle and remove by suction the clear liquid containing undecomposed ferrocyanide of {444} potassium and Glauber’s salt; this is kept and used for the next manufacture by boiling it down and allowing the salts to crystallize out. The percentage of ferrocyanide of potassium is estimated by analysis, and for the next production proportionally less is used, employing that obtained by concentration.

After siphoning off the solution the precipitate is washed with warm water, placed on a filter and washed out on the latter by pouring on cold water until the water running off commences to assume a strong blue color. The precipitate is then squeezed out and dried at a moderate heat (104° F.). The Paris blue thus obtained dissolves readily in water and can be extensively employed in a similar manner as indigo carmine.

II.—Make ordinary Prussian blue (that which has been purified by acids, chlorine, or the hypochlorites) into a thick paste with distilled or rain water, and add a saturated solution of oxalic acid sufficient to dissolve. If time be of no consequence, by leaving this solution exposed to the atmosphere, in the course of 60 days the blue will be entirely precipitated in soluble form. Wash with weak alcohol and dry at about 100° F. The resultant mass dissolves in pure water and remains in solution indefinitely. It gives a deep, brilliant blue, and is not injurious to the clothing or the hands of the washwoman.

The same result may be obtained by precipitating the soluble blue from its oxide solution by the addition of alcohol of 95 per cent, or with a concentrated solution of sodium sulphate. Pour off the mother liquid and wash with very dilute alcohol; or throw on a filter and wash with water until the latter begins to come off colored a deep blue.

Liquid Laundry Blue.—This may be prepared either with liquid Prussian blue or indigo carmine. Make a solution of gum dragon (gum tragacanth) by dissolving 1 to 2 ounces of the powdered gum in 1 gallon of cold water in which ¹/₂ ounce oxalic acid has been dissolved. The gum will take several days to dissolve, and will require frequent stirring and straining before use. To the strained portion add as much Prussian blue in fine powder as the liquid will dissolve without precipitating, and the compound is ready for use.

Instead of powdered Prussian blue, soluble Prussian blue may be used. This is made by dissolving solid Prussian blue in a solution of oxalic acid, but as the use of oxalic acid is to be deprecated for the use of laundresses, as it would set up blood poisoning should it get into any cuts in the flesh, it is best to prepare liquid blue by making a solution of yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of potassium) with water, and then by adding a sufficient quantity of chloride of iron to produce a blue, but not enough to be precipitated.

Ball Blue.—The ball sold for laundry use consists usually, if not always, of ultramarine. The balls are formed by compression, starch or some other excipient of like character being added to render the mass cohesive. Blocks of blue can, of course, be made by the same process. The manufacturers of ultramarine prepare balls and cubes of the pigment on a large scale, and it does not seem likely that there would be a sufficient margin of profit to justify the making of them in a small way from the powdered pigment. Careful experiments, however, would be necessary to determine this positively. Ultramarine is of many qualities, and it may be expected that the balls will vary also in the amount of “filling” according to the price at which they are to be sold.

Below is a “filled” formula:

Ultramarine 6 ounces

Sodium carbonate 4 ounces

Glucose 1 ounce

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets. The balls in bulk can be obtained only in large packages of the manufacturers, say barrels of 200 pounds; but put up in 1-pound boxes they can be bought in cases as small as 28 pounds.

Laundry Blue Tablets.—

Ultramarine 6 ounces

Sodium carbonate 4 ounces

Glucose 1 ounce

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets.

Polishes Or Glazes For Laundry Work.—I.—To a mixture of 200 parts each of Japan wax and paraffine, add 100 parts of stearic acid, melt together, and cast in molds. If the heated smoothing iron be rubbed with this wax the iron will not merely get over the surface much more rapidly, but will leave a handsome polish.

Laundry Gloss Dressing.—

II.—Dissolve white wax, 5.0 parts, in ether, 20.5 parts, and add spirit, 75.0 parts. Shake before use.

Heat until melted, in a pot, 1,000 parts {445} of wax and 1,000 parts of stearine, as well as a few drops of an essential oil. To the hot liquid add with careful stirring 250 parts of ammonia lye of 10 per cent, whereby a thick, soft mass results immediately. Upon further heating same turns thin again, whereupon it is diluted with 20,000 parts of boiling water, mixed with 100 parts of starch and poured into molds.

Starches.

Most laundry starches now contain some polishing mixture for giving a high luster.

I.—Dissolve in a vessel of sufficient capacity, 42 parts of crystallized magnesium chloride in 30 parts of water. In another vessel stir 12 parts of starch in 20 parts of water to a smooth paste. Mix the two and heat under pressure until the starch is fluidified.

II.—Pour 250 parts, by weight, of water, over 5 parts, by weight, of powdered gum tragacanth until the powder swells uniformly; then add 750 parts, by weight, of boiling water, dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of borax in it, and stir 50 parts, by weight, of stearine and 50 parts, by weight, of talcum into the whole. Of this fluid add 250 parts to 1,000 parts of boiled starch, or else the ironing oil is applied by means of a sponge on the starched wash, which is then ironed.

By weight

III.— Starch 1,044 parts

Borax 9 parts

Common salt 1 part

Gum arabic 8 parts

Stearine 20 parts

Washing Fluids, Bricks And Powders:

Washing Fluids.—Rub up 75 parts of milk of sulphur with 125 parts of glycerine in a mortar, next add 50 parts of camphorated spirit and 1 part of lavender oil, and finally stir in 250 parts of rose water and 1,000 parts of distilled water. The liquid must be stirred constantly when filling it into bottles, since the sulphur settles rapidly and would thus be unevenly distributed.

Grosser’s Washing Brick.—

Water 54 parts

Sodium hydrate 38.21 parts

Sodium biborate 6.61 parts

Sodium silicate 1.70 parts

Haenkel’s Bleaching Solution.—

Water 36.15 parts

Sodium hydrate 40.22 parts

Sodium silicate 23.14 parts

Luhn’s Washing Extract.—

Water 34.50 parts

Sodium hydrate 25.33 parts

Soap 39.40 parts

Washing Powders.—

I.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 2 parts

Soda ash 1 part

II.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 6 parts

Soda ash 3 parts

Yellow soap 1 part

III.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 3 parts

Soap bark 1 part

IV.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 1 part

Borax 1 part

Yellow soap 1 part

V.—A good powder can be made from 100 parts of crystal soda, 25 parts of dark-yellow rosin-cured soap, and 5 parts of soft soap. The two latter are placed in a pan, along with one-half the soda (the curd soap being cut into small lumps), and slowly heated, with continual crutching, until they are thoroughly melted—without, however, beginning to boil. The fire is then drawn and the remaining soda crutched in until it, too, is melted, this being effected by the residual heat of the mass and the pan. The mass will be fairly thick by the time the soda is all absorbed. After leaving a little longer, with occasional stirring, the contents are spread out on several thin sheets of iron in a cool room, to be then turned over by the shovel at short intervals, in order to further cool and break down the mixture. The soap will then be in a friable condition, and can be rubbed through the sieve, the best results being obtained by passing through a coarse sieve first, and one of finer mesh afterwards. With these ingredients a fine yellow-colored powder will be obtained. White stock soap may also be used, and, if desired, colored with palm oil and the same colorings as are used for toilet soaps. The object of adding soft soap is to increase the solubility and softness of the powder, but the proportion used should not exceed one-third of the hard soap, or the powder will be smeary and handle moist. The quality of the foregoing product is good, the powder being stable and not liable to ball, even after prolonged storage; neither does it wet the paper in which it is packed, nor swell up, and therefore the packets retain their appearance. {446}

In making ammonia-turpentine soap powder the ammonia and oil of turpentine are crutched into the mass shortly before removing it from the pan, and if the powder is scented—for which purpose oil of mirbane is mostly used—the perfume is added at the same stage.

To Whiten Flannels.—Dissolve, by the aid of heat, 40 parts of white castile soap, shaved fine, in 1,200 parts of soft water, and to the solution, when cold, gradually add, under constant stirring, 1 part of the strongest water of ammonia. Soak the goods in this solution for 2 hours, then let them be washed as usual for fine flannels. A better process, in the hands of experts, is to soak the goods for an hour or so in a dilute solution of sodium hyposulphite, remove, add to the solution sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to decompose the hyposulphite. Replace the goods, cover the tub closely, and let remain for 15 minutes longer. Then remove the running water, if convenient, and if not, wring out quickly, and rinse in clear water. One not an expert at such work must be very careful in the rinsing, as care must be taken to get out every trace of chemical. This is best done by a second rinsing.

Ink For The Laundry.—The following is said to make a fine, jet-black laundry ink:

a. Copper chloride, crystals 85 parts

Sodium chlorate 106 parts

Ammonium chloride 53 parts

Water, distilled 600 parts

b. Glycerine 100 parts

Mucilage gum arabic (gum, 1 part; water, 2 parts) 200 parts

Aniline hydrochlorate 200 parts

Distilled water 300 parts

Make solutions a and b and preserve in separate bottles. When wanted for use, mix 1 part of solution a with 4 parts of solution b.

Laces, Curtains, Etc.—I.—To give lace curtains, etc., a cream color, take 1 part of chrysoidin and mix with 2 parts of dextrin and dissolve in 250 parts of water. The articles to be washed clean are plunged in this solution. About an ounce of chrysoidin is sufficient for 5 curtains.

II.—Washing curtains in coffee will give them an ecru color, but the simplest way to color curtains is with “Philadelphia yellow” (G. or R. of the Berlin Aktiengesellschaft’s scale).

LAUNDRY SOAP: See Soap.

LAVATORY DEODORANT: See Household Formulas.

LAXATIVES FOR CATTLE AND HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

LEAD:

Simple Test For Red Lead And Orange Lead.

—Take a little of the sample in a test tube, add pure, strong nitric acid and heat by a Bunsen burner until a white, solid residue is obtained. Then add water, when a clear, colorless solution will be obtained. A white residue would indicate adulteration with barytes, a red residue or a yellow solution with oxide of iron. The presence of iron may be ascertained by adding a few drops of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) to the solution, when a blue precipitate will be obtained if there be the least trace of iron present.

LEAD, TO TAKE BOILING, IN THE MOUTH: See Pyrotechnics.

LEAD ALLOYS: See Alloys.

LEAD PAPER: See Paper.

LEAD PLATE, TINNED: See Plating.

LEAKS, IN BOILERS, STOPPING: See Putties.

LEAKS:

To Stop Leakage In Iron Hot-water Pipes.

—Take some fine iron borings or filings and mix with them sufficient vinegar to form a sort of paste, though the mixture is not adhesive. With this mixture fill up the cracks where the leakage is found, having previously dried the pipe. It must be kept dry until the paste has become quite hard. If an iron pipe should burst, or there should be a hole broken into it by accident, a piece of iron may be securely fastened over it, by bedding it on in paste made of the borings and vinegar as above, but the pipe should not be disturbed until it has become perfectly dry.

To Prevent Wooden Vessels From Leaking.

(See also Casks.)—Wooden

{447}

vessels, such as pails, barrels, etc., often become so dry that the joints do not meet, thus causing leakage. In order to obviate this evil stir together 60 parts hog’s lard, 40 parts salt, and 33 parts wax, and allow the mixture to dissolve slowly over a fire. Then add 40 parts charcoal to the liquid mass. The leaks in the vessels are dried off well and filled up with putty while still warm. When the latter has become dry, the barrels, etc., will be perfectly tight. If any putty is left, keep in a dry place and heat it to be used again.

LEATHER

(See also Shoes.)

Artificial Leather.

—Pure Italian hemp is cut up fine; 1 part of this and

part of coarse, cleaned wool are carded together and formed into wadding. This wadding is packed in linen and felted by treatment with hot acid vapors. The resulting felt is washed out, dried, and impregnated with a substance whose composition varies according to the leather to be produced. Thus, good sole leather, for instance, is produced according to a Danish patent, in the following manner: Mix together 50 parts of boiled linseed oil; 20 parts of colophony; 25 parts of French turpentine; 10 parts of glycerine, and 10 parts of vegetable wax, and heat over a water bath with some ammonia water. When the mass has become homogeneous, add 25 parts of glue, soaked in water, as well as a casein solution, which latter is produced by dissolving 50 parts, by weight, of moist, freshly precipitated casein in a saturated solution of 16 parts of borax and adding 10 parts of potassium bichromate, the last two also by weight. Finally, mineral dyestuffs as well as antiseptic substances may be added to the mass. The whole mixture is now boiled until it becomes sticky and the felt is impregnated with it by immersion. The impregnated felt is dried for 24 hours at an ordinary temperature; next laid into a solution of aluminum acetate and finally dried completely, dyed, and pressed between hot rollers.

Black Dye For Tanned Leather.

—This recipe takes the place of the ill-smelling iron blacking, and is not injurious to the leather. Gallnuts, pulverized, 150 parts; vitriol, green or black, 10 parts; rock candy, 60 parts; alum, 15 parts; vinegar, 250 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts. Dissolve with 4,000 parts of distilled water.

Boil this solution slowly and the blacking is done. When it has cooled and settled, pour through linen, thus obtaining a pure, good leather blacking.

Bronze Leather.

—All sorts of skins—sheepskins, goatskins, coltskins, and light calfskins—are adapted for the preparation of bronze leather. In this preparation the advantage lies not only in the use of the faultless skins, but scarified skins and those of inferior quality may also be employed. The dressing of the previously tanned skin must be carried out with the greatest care, to prevent the appearance of spots and other faults. After tanning, the pelts are well washed, scraped, and dried. Then they are bleached. For coloring, it is customary to employ methyl violet which has previously been dissolved in hot water, taking 100 parts, by weight, of the aniline color to 8,000 parts, by weight, of water. If in the leather-dressing establishment a line of steam piping be convenient, it is advisable to boil up all the coloring dyes, rather than simply to dissolve them; for in this way complete solution is effected. Where steam is used no special appliance is required for boiling up the dyes, for this may take place without inconvenience in the separate dye vats. A length of steam hose and a brass nozzle with a valve is all that is needed. It may be as well to add here that the violet color for dyeing may be made cheaper than as above described. To 3,000 parts, by weight, of pretty strong logwood decoction add 50 parts, by weight, of alum and 100 parts, by weight, of methyl violet. This compound is almost as strong as the pure violet solution, and instead of 8,000 parts, by weight, we now have 30,000 parts, by weight, of color.

The color is applied and well worked in with a stiff brush, and the skins allowed to stand for a short time, sufficient to allow the dye to penetrate the pores, when it is fulled. As for the shade of the bronze, it may be made reddish, bluish, or brownish, according to taste.

For a reddish or brownish ground the skins are simply fulled in warm water, planished, fulled again, and then dyed. According to the color desired, the skins are treated with cotton blue and methyl violet R, whereupon the application of the bronze follows.

The bronze is dissolved in alcohol, and it is usual to take 200 parts, by weight, of bronze to 1,000 of alcohol. By means of this mixture the peculiar component parts of the bronze are dissolved. For a fundamental or thorough {448} solution a fortnight is required. All bronze mixtures are to be well shaken or agitated before using. Skins may be bronzed, however, without the use of the bronze colors, for it is well known that all the aniline dyes present a bronze appearance when highly concentrated, and this is particularly the case with the violet and red dyes. If, therefore, the violet be applied in very strong solutions, the effect will be much the same as when the regular bronze color is employed.

Bronze color on a brown ground is the most beautiful of all, and is used to the greatest advantage when it is desirable to cover up defects. Instead of warm clear water in such a case, use a decoction of logwood to which a small quantity of alum has been added, and thus, during the fulling, impart to the skins a proper basic tint, which may, by the application of a little violet or bronze color, be converted into a most brilliant bronze. By no means is it to be forgotten that too much coloring matter will never produce the desired results, for here, as with the other colors, too much will bring out a greenish tint, nor will the gloss turn out so beautiful and clear. Next rinse the skins well in clean water, and air them, after which they may be dried with artificial heat. Ordinary as well as damaged skins which are not suitable for chevreaux (kid) and which it is desirable to provide with a very high polish, in order the more readily to conceal the defects in the grain, and other imperfections, are, after the drying, coated with a mixture, compounded according to the following simple formula: Stir well 1 pint of ox blood and 1 pint of unboiled milk in 10 quarts of water, and with a soft sponge apply this to the surface of the skin. The blood has no damaging effect upon the color. Skins thus moistened must not be laid one upon another, but must be placed separately in a thoroughly well-warmed chamber to dry. When dry they are glossed, and may then be pressed into shagreen or pebbled. The thin light goatskins are worked into kid or chevreaux. Properly speaking, they are only imitation chevreaux (kid), for although they are truly goatskins, under the term chevreaux one understands only such skins as have been cured in alum and treated with albumen and flour.

After drying, these skins are drawn over the perching stick with the round knife, then glossed, stretched, glossed again, and finally vigorously brushed upon the flesh side with a stiff brush. The brushing should be done preferably by hand, for the brushing machines commonly pull the skins out of all shape. Brushing is intended only to give the flesh side more of a flaky appearance.

During the second glossing care must be taken that the pressure is light, for the object is merely to bring the skin back into its proper shape, lost in the stretching; the glossing proper should have been accomplished during the first operation.

Cracked Leather.

—The badly cracked and fissured carriage surface greets the painter on every hand. The following is the recipe for filling up and facing over such a surface: Finest pumice stone, 6 parts; lampblack (in bulk), 1 part; common roughstuff filler, 3 parts. Mix to stiff paste in good coach japan, 5 parts; hard drying rubbing varnish, 1 part. Thin to a brushing consistency with turpentine, and apply 1 coat per day. Put on 2 coats of this filler and then 2 coats of ordinary roughstuff. Rub with lump pumice stone and water. This process does not equal burning off in getting permanently rid of the cracks, but when the price of painting forbids burning off, it serves as an effective substitute. Upon a job that is well cared for, and not subjected to too exacting service, this filler will secrete the cracks and fissures for from 3 to 5 months.

Dressings For Leather:

For Carriage Tops.—I.—Here is an inexpensive and quickly prepared dressing for carriage tops or the like: Take 2 parts of common glue; soak and liquefy it over a fire. Three parts of castile soap are then dissolved over a moderate heat. Of water, 120 parts are added to dissolve the soap and glue, after which an intimate mixture of the ingredients is effected. Then 4 parts of spirit varnish are added; next, 2 parts of wheat starch, previously mixed in water, are thrown in. Lampblack in a sufficient quantity to give the mixture a good coloring power, without killing the gloss, is now added. This preparation may be used as above prepared, or it may be placed over a gentle fire and the liquid ingredients slowly evaporated. The evaporated mass is then liquefied with beer as shop needs demand.

II.—Shabby dark leather will look like new if rubbed over with either linseed oil or the well-beaten white of an egg mixed with a little black ink. Polish with soft dusters until quite dry and glossy.

Polishes.—I.—Dissolve sticklac, 25 {449} parts; shellac, 20 parts; and gum benzoin, 4 parts, all finely powdered, in a rolling cask containing 100 parts of 96 per cent alcohol; perfume with 1 part of oil of rosemary. Upon letting stand for several days, filter the solution, whereupon a good glossy polish for leather, etc., will be obtained.

II.—Dissolve 2 pounds of borax in 4 gallons of water and add 5 pounds of shellac to the boiling liquid in portions, till all is dissolved. Then boil half an hour, and finally stir in 5 pounds of sugar, 2 ¹/₂ pounds of glycerine, and 1 ¹/₂ pounds of soluble nigrosin. When cold add 4 pounds of 95 per cent methylated spirit.

III.— Ox blood, fresh, clean 1,000 parts

Commercial glycerine 200 parts

Oil of turpentine 300 parts

Pine oil (rosin oil) 5,000 parts

Ox gall 200 parts

Formalin 15 parts

Mix in the order named, stirring in each ingredient. When mixed strain through linen.

Kid Leather Dressings.—Creams for greasing fine varieties of leather, such as kid, patent leather, etc., are produced as follows, according to tried recipes:

White Cream.—

Lard 75 parts

Glycerine, technical 25 parts

Mirbane oil, ad libitum.

Black Cream.—

Lard 100 parts

Yellow vaseline 20 parts

Glycerine, technical 10 parts

Castor oil, technical 10 parts

Dye black with lampblack and perfume with oil of mirbane.

Colored Cream.—

Lard 100 parts

Castor oil 20 parts

Yellow wax 25 parts

White vaseline 30 parts

Dye with any desired dyestuff, e. g., red with anchusine, green with chlorophyl. In summer it is well to add some wax to the first and second prescriptions.

These are for either Morocco or kid:

I.— Shellac 2 parts

Benzoin 2 parts

Yellow wax 5 parts

Soap liniment 7 parts

Alcohol 600 parts

Digest until solution is effected, then allow the liquid to stand in a cool place for 12 hours and strain. Apply with a bit of sponge or soft rag; spread thinly and evenly over the surface, without rubbing much. If dirty, the leather should first be washed with a little soft soap and warm water, wiped well, and allowed to dry thoroughly before the dressing is put on.

II.— Oil of turpentine 8 ounces

Suet 2 pounds

Soft soap 8 ounces

Water 16 ounces

Lampblack 4 ounces

Patent Leather Dressings.—

I.— Wax 22 parts

Olive oil 60 parts

Oil turpentine, best 20 parts

Lavender oil 10 parts

With gentle heat, melt the wax in the oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. Add the turpentine oil, incorporate, and when nearly cold, add and incorporate the lavender oil.

II.— Wax 22 parts

Olive oil 60 parts

Oil of turpentine 30 parts

With gentle heat, melt the wax in the olive oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. When nearly cold stir in the turpentine.

Red Russia Leather Varnish.—

Shellac 1.20 parts

Dammar rosin, powdered 0.15 parts

Turpentine, Venice 0.60 parts

Dissolve with frequent shaking in 12 parts of alcohol (95 per cent), add 1.8 parts of powdered red sanders wood, let stand for 3 days and filter. The object of this varnish is to restore the original color to worn Russia leather boots, previously cleaned with benzine.

Russet Leather Dressing.—The following formulas are said to yield efficient preparations that are at once detersive and polishing, thus rendering the use of an extra cleaning liquid unnecessary.

I.— Soft soap 2 parts

Linseed oil 3 parts

Annatto solution (in oil) 8 parts

Beeswax 3 parts

Turpentine 8 parts

Water 8 parts

Dissolve the soap in the water, and add the annatto; melt the wax in the oil and turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution, stirring until cold. {450}

II.— Palm oil 16 parts

Common soap 48 parts

Oleic acid 32 parts

Glycerine 10 parts

Tannic acid 1 part

Melt the soap and palm oil together at a gentle heat, and add the oleic acid; dissolve the tannic acid in the glycerine, add to the hot soap and oil mixture, and stir until perfectly cold.

Shoe Leather Dressing.—Over a water bath melt 50 parts, by weight, of oil of turpentine; 100 parts, by weight, of olive oil; 100 parts, by weight, of train oil; 40 parts, by weight, of carnauba wax; 15 parts, by weight, of asphaltum; and 2 parts, by weight, of oil of bitter almonds.

Dyeing Leather.

In dyeing leather, aniline or coal-tar colors are generally used. These dyes, owing to their extremely rapid action on organic substances, such as leather, do not readily adapt themselves to the staining process, because a full brushful of dye liquor would give a much deeper coloration than a half-exhausted brush would give. Consequently, to alter and to color leather by the staining process results in a patchy coloration of the skin. In the dyeing operation a zinc shallow trough, 4 to 6 inches deep, is used, into which the dye liquor is put, and to produce the best results the contents of the trough are kept at a uniform temperature by means of a heating apparatus beneath the trough, such as a gas jet or two, which readily allows of a heat being regulated. The skins to be dyed are spread out flat in the dye trough, one at a time, each skin remaining in the dye liquor the time prescribed by the recipe. The best coloration of the skin is produced by using 3 dye troughs of the same dye liquor, each of different strength, the skin being put in the weakest liquor first, then passed into the second, and from there into the third dye liquor, where it is allowed to remain until its full depth of color is obtained. Very great skill is required in the employment of aniline dyes, as if the heat be too great, or the skins remain too long in the final bath, “bronzing” of the color occurs. The only remedy for this (and that not always effectual) is to sponge the skin with plenty of cold, clean water, directly it is taken out of the final dye bath. The dyed skins are dried and finished as before.

Leather Brown.—

Extract of fustic 5 ounces

Extract of hypernic 1 ounce

Extract of logwood ¹/₂ ounce

Water 2 gallons

Boil all these ingredients for 15 minutes, and then dilute with water to make 10 gallons of dye liquor. Use the dye liquor at a temperature of 110° F.

Mordant.—Dissolve 3 ounces of white tartar and 4 ounces of alum in 10 gallons of water.

Fast Brown.—Prepare a dye liquor by dissolving 1 ¹/₂ ounces fast brown in 1 gallon of water, and make a 10-gallon bulk of this. Use at a temperature of 110° F., and employ the same mordanting liquor as in last recipe.

Bismarck Brown.—

Extract of fustic 4 ounces

Extract of hypernic 1 ounce

Extract of logwood ¹/₂ ounce

Water 2 gallons

Preparation.—Boil all together for 15 minutes.

Method of Dyeing.—First mordant the skins with a mordanting fluid made by dissolving 3 ounces tartar and ¹/₂ ounce borax in 10 gallons of water. Then put the skins into the above foundation bath at a temperature of 100° F. Take them out, and then put in 1 ounce of Bismarck brown, dissolved in boiling water. Put the skins in again until colored deep enough, then lift out, drip and dry.

Harness Preparations:

Blacking For Harness.—I.—In a water bath dissolve 90 parts of yellow wax in 900 parts of oil of turpentine; aside from this mix well together, all the ingredients being finely powdered, 10 parts of Prussian blue, 5 parts of indigo, 50 parts of bone black, and work this into a portion of the above-mentioned waxy solution. Now throw this into the original solution, which still remains in the water bath, and stir it vigorously until the mass becomes homogeneous, after which pour it into any convenient earthenware receptacle.

II.—Best glue, 4 ounces; good vinegar, 1 ¹/₂ pints; best gum arabic, 2 ounces; good black ink, ¹/₂ pint; best isinglass, 2 drachms. Dissolve the gum in the ink, and melt the isinglass in another vessel in as much hot water as will cover it. Having first steeped the glue in the vinegar until soft, dissolve it completely by the aid of heat, stirring to prevent burning. The heat should not exceed 180° F. Add the gum and ink, and allow the mixture to rise again to the same temperature. Lastly mix the solution in isinglass, and remove from fire. When {451} used, a small portion must be heated until fluid, and then applied with a sponge and allowed to dry on.

Dressings For Harness.—

I.— Ox blood, fresh and well purified 100 parts

Glycerine, technical 20 parts

Turpentine oil 30 parts

Pine oil 50 parts

Ox gall 20 parts

Formalin 1 ¹/₂ parts

The raw materials are stirred together cold in the order named. Pour the mixture through thin linen. It imparts a wonderful mild, permanent gloss.

II.—A French harness dressing of good quality consists of oil of turpentine, 900 parts; yellow wax, 90 parts; Berlin blue, 10 parts; indigo, 5 parts; and bone black, 50 parts. Dissolve the yellow wax in the oil of turpentine with the aid of moderate heat in a water bath, mix the remaining substances, which should previously be well pulverized, and work them with a small portion of the wax solution. Finally, add the rest of the wax solution, and mix the whole well in the water bath. When a homogeneous liquid has resulted, pour it into earthen receptacles.

Harness Oils.—

I.— Neatsfoot oil 10 ounces

Oil of turpentine 2 ounces

Petrolatum 4 ounces

Lampblack ¹/₂ ounce

Mix the lampblack with the turpentine and the neatsfoot oil, melt the petrolatum and mix by shaking together.

II.— Black aniline 35 grains

Muriatic acid 50 minims

Bone black 175 grains

Lampblack 18 grains

Yellow wax 2 ¹/₂ av. ounces

Oil of turpentine 22 fluidounces

III.— Oil of turpentine 8 fluidounces

Yellow wax 2 av. ounces

Prussian blue ¹/₂ av. ounce

Lampblack ¹/₄ av. ounce

Melt the wax, add the turpentine, a portion first to the finely powdered Prussian blue and lampblack, and thin with neatsfoot oil.

Harness Pastes.—

I.— Ceresine, natural yellow 1.5 parts

Yellow beeswax 1.5 parts

Japan wax 1.5 parts

Melt on the water bath, and when half cooled stir in 8 parts of turpentine oil.

Harness Grease.—

By weight

II.— Ceresine, natural yellow 2.5 parts

Beeswax, yellow 0.8 parts

French colophony, pale 0.4 parts

III.— French oil turpentine 2.0 parts

Intimately mixed in the cold with American lampblack 1.5 parts

Put mixture I in a kettle and melt over a fire. Remove from the fire and stir in mixture II in small portions. Then pour through a fine sieve into a second vessel, and continue pouring from one kettle into the other until the mass is rather thickish. Next fill in cans.

Should the mixture have become too cold during the filling of the cans, the vessel containing the grease need only be placed in hot water, whereby the contents are rendered liquid again, so that pouring out is practicable. For perfuming, use cinnamon oil as required.

This harness grease is applied by means of a rag and brushed.

Waterproof Harness Composition.—

Patent And Enameled Leather.

Patent leather for boots and shoes is prepared from sealskins, enameled leather for harness from heavy bullock’s hides. The process of tanning is what is called “union tannage” (a mixture of oak and hemlock barks). These tanned skins are subjected to the process of soaking, unhairing, liming, etc., and are then subjected to the tanning process. When about one-third tanned a buffing is taken off (if the hides are heavy), and the hide is split into three layers. The top or grain side is reserved for enameling in fancy colors for use on tops of carriages; the middle layer is finished for splatter {452} boards and carriage trimmings, and some parts of harness; the underneath layer, or flesh side is used for shoe uppers and other purposes. The tanning of the splits is completed by subjecting them to a gambier liquor instead of a bark liquor.

When the splits are fully tanned they are laid on a table and scored, and then stretched in frames and dried, after which each one is covered on one side with the following compound, so as to close the pores of the leather that it may present a suitable surface for receiving the varnish: Into 14 parts of raw linseed oil put 1 part dry white lead and 1 part silver litharge, and boil, stirring constantly until the compound is thick enough to dry in 15 or 20 minutes (when spread on a sheet of iron or china) into a tough, elastic mass, like caoutchouc. This compound is laid on one side of the leather while it is still stretched in the frame. If for enameled leather (i. e., not the best patent), chalk or yellow ocher may be mixed in the above compound while boiling, or afterwards, but before spreading it on the leather.

The frames are then put into a rack in a drying closet, and the coated leather dried by steam heat at 80° to 160° F., the heat being raised gradually. After removal from the drying closet, the grounding coat previously laid on is pumiced, to smooth out the surface, and then given 2 or 3 coats of the enameling varnish, which consists of Prussian blue and lampblack boiled with linseed oil and diluted with turpentine, so as to enable it to flow evenly over the surface of the coated leather. When spread on with a brush, each coating of the enamel is dried before applying the next, and pumiced or rubbed with tripoli powder on a piece of flannel (the coat last laid on is not subjected to this rubbing), when the leather is ready for market.

To prepare the enameling composition, boil 1 part asphaltum with 20 parts raw linseed oil until thoroughly combined; then add 10 parts thick copal varnish, and when this mixture is homogeneous dilute with 20 parts spirit of turpentine.

Instead of the foregoing enameling varnish the following is used for superior articles:

Prussian blue 18 ounces

Vegetable black 4 ounces

Raw linseed oil 160 fluidounces

Boil together as previously directed, and dilute with turpentine as occasion requires. These enameling varnishes should be made and kept several weeks in the same room as the varnishing is carried on, so that they are always subjected to the same temperature.

Stains For Patent Leather:

Black Stain.—

Vinegar 1 gallon

Ivory black 14 ounces

Ground iron scales 6 pounds

Mix well and allow to stand a few days.

Red Stain.—Water, 1 quart; spirit of hartshorn, 1 quart; cochineal, ¹/₄ pound. Heat the water to near the boiling point, and then dissolve in it the cochineal, afterwards adding the spirit of hartshorn. Stir well to incorporate.

Liquid Cochineal Stain.—

Good French carmine 2 ¹/₂ drachms

Solution of potash ¹/₂ ounce

Rectified spirit of wine 2 ounces

Pure glycerine 4 ounces

Distilled water to make 1 pint.

To the carmine in a 20-ounce bottle add 14 ounces of distilled water. Then gradually introduce solution of potash, shaking now and again until dissolved. Add glycerine and spirit of wine, making up to 20 ounces with distilled water, and filter.

Blue Black.—Ale droppings, 2 gallons; bruised galls, ¹/₂ pound; logwood extract, ¹/₄ pound; indigo extract, 2 ounces; sulphate of iron, 3 ¹/₂ ounces. Heat together and strain.

Finishers’ Ink.—Soft water, 1 gallon; logwood extract, 1 ¹/₄ ounces; green vitriol, 2 ¹/₂ ounces; potassium bichromate, ¹/₂ ounce; gum arabic, ¹/₂ ounce.

Grind the gum and potassium bichromate to powder and then add all the coloring ingredients to the water and boil.

To Restore Patent Leather Dash.—Take raw linseed oil, 1 part; cider vinegar, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; butter of antimony, 1 ounce; aqua ammonia, ¹/₂ ounce; spirits of camphor, ¹/₂ ounce; lavender, ¹/₂ ounce. Shake well together; apply with a soft brush.

Preservatives For Leather.

I.— Mutton suet 50 parts

Sweet oil 50 parts

Turpentine 1 part

Melt together.

The application should be made on the dry leather warmed to the point where it will liquefy and absorb the fat.

II.—Equal parts of mutton fat and linseed oil, mixed with one-tenth their {453} weight of Venice turpentine, and melted together in an earthen pipkin, will produce a “dubbin” which is very efficacious in preserving leather when exposed to wet or snow, etc. The mixture should be applied when the leather is quite dry and warm.

III.—A solution of 1 ounce of solid paraffine in 1 pint light naphtha, to which 6 drops of sweet oil have been added, is put cold on the soles, until they will absorb no more. One dressing will do for the uppers. This process is claimed to vastly increase the tensile strength.

Patent Leather Preserver.—

Carnauba wax 1.0 part

Turpentine oil 9.5 parts

Aniline black, soluble in fat 0.06 parts

Melt the wax, stir in the turpentine oil and the dye and scent with a little mirbane oil or lavender oil. The paste is rubbed out on the patent leather by means of a soft rag, and when dry should be polished with a soft brush.

Revivers And Regenerators.

By weight.

I.— Methylic alcohol 22 ¹/₂ parts

Ground ruby shellac 2.250 parts

Dark rosin 0.910 parts

Gum rosin 0.115 parts

Sandarac 0.115 parts

Lampblack 0.115 parts

Aniline black, spirit-soluble 0.115 parts

The gums are dissolved in spirit and next the aniline black soluble in spirit is added; the lampblack is ground with a little liquid to a paste, which is added to the whole, and filtering follows.

Kid Reviver.—

By weight.

II.— Clear chloride of lime solution 3.5 parts

Spirit of sal ammoniac 0.5 parts

Scraped Marseilles soap 4.5 parts

Water 6.0 parts

Mix chloride of lime solution and spirit of sal ammoniac and stir in the soap dissolved in water. Revive the gloves with the pulpy mass obtained, by means of a flannel rag.

Tanning Leather.

Pickling Process.—Eitner and Stiazny have made a systematic series of experiments with mixtures of salt and various acids for pickling skins preparatory to tanning. Experiments with hydrochloric acid, acetic and lactic acids showed that these offered no advantages over sulphuric acid for use in pickling, the pickled pelts and the leather produced from them being similar in appearance and quality. By varying the concentration of the pickle liquors, it was found that the amount of salt absorbed by the pelt from the pickle liquor was controlled by the concentration of the solution, 23 to 25 per cent of the total amount used being taken up by the pelt, and that the absorption capacity of the pelt for acid was limited.

The goods pickled with the largest amount of acid possessed a more leathery feel and after drying were fuller and stretched much better than those in which smaller amounts of acids were employed. Dried, pickled pieces, containing as much as 3 per cent of sulphuric acid, showed no deterioration or tendering of fiber. The pickled skins after chrome tanning still retained these characteristics. An analysis of the leather produced by tanning with sumac showed that no free acid was retained in the finished leather. An Australian pickled pelt was found to contain 19.2 per cent of salt and 2.8 per cent of sulphuric acid.

From a very large number of experiments the following conclusions were drawn: 1. That sulphuric acid is quite equal in efficiency to other acids for the purpose. 2. To a certain limit increasing softness is produced by increasing the quantity of acid used. 3. For naturally soft skins and when a leather not very soft is required the best results are obtained by using 22 pounds of salt, 2.2 pounds of sulphuric acid, and 25 gallons of water for 110 pounds of pelt in the drum. 4. For material which is naturally hard and when a soft leather is required, the amount of acid should be increased to 4.4 pounds, using similar amounts as those given above of pelt, salt, and water.

French Hide Tanning Process.—I.—The prepared pelts are submitted to a 3 to 4 hours’ immersion in a solution of rosin soap, containing 5 to 10 per cent of caustic soda. The goods are afterwards placed in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of a salt of chromium, iron, copper, or aluminum (preferably aluminum sulphate) for 3 to 4 hours.

II.—The hides are soaked in a solution of sodium carbonate of 10° Bé. for 3 to 6 hours. After washing with water they are allowed to remain for 5 hours in {454} a bath of caustic soda, the strength of which may vary from 2° to 30° Bé. From this they are transferred to a bath of hydrochloric acid (1° to 5° Bé.) in which they remain for 2 hours. Finally the hides are washed and the beam-work finished in the usual way. The tannage consists of a special bath of sodium or ammonium sulphoricinoleate (2 to 30 per cent) and sumac extract, or similar tanning material (2 to 50 per cent). The strength of this bath is gradually raised from 4° to 30° or 40° Bé.

Tanning Hides For Robes.—The hides should be very thoroughly soaked in order to soften them completely. For dry hides this will require a longer time than for salted. A heavy hide requires longer soaking than a skin. Thus it is impossible to fix a certain length of time. After soaking, the hide is fleshed clean, and is now ready to go into the tan liquor, which is made up as follows: One part alum; 1 part salt; ¹/₄ to ¹/₂ part japonica. These are dissolved in hot water in sufficient quantity to make a 35° liquor. The hide, according to the thickness, is left in the tan from 5 to 10 days. Skins are finished in about 2 or 3 days. The hide should be run in a drum for about 2 hours before going into tan, and again after that process. In tanning hides for robes, shaving them down is a main requisite for success, as it is impossible to get soft leather otherwise. After shaving put back into the tan liquor again for a day or two and hang up to dry. When good and hard, shave again and lay away in moist sawdust and give a heavy coat of oil. When dry, apply a solution of soft soap; roll up and lay away in moist sawdust again. Run the hides on a drum or wheel until thoroughly soft. The composition of the tan liquor may be changed considerably. If the brownish tinge of the japonica be objectionable, that article may be left out entirely. The japonica has the effect of making the robe more able to resist water, as the alum and salt alone are readily soaked out by rain.

Lace Leather.—Take cow hides averaging from 25 to 30 pounds each; 35 hides will make a convenient soak for a vat containing 1,000 gallons of water, or 25 hides to a soak of 700 gallons. Soak 2 days or more, as required. Change water every 24 hours. Split and flesh; resoak if necessary. When thoroughly soft put in limes. Handle and strengthen once a day, for 5 or 6 days. Unhair and wash. Bathe in hen manure, 90° F. Work out of drench, wash well, drain 4 of 5 hours. Then process, using 45 pounds vitriol and 600 pounds of soft water to 700 gallons of water. In renewing process for second or consecutive packs, use 15 pounds vitriol and 200 pounds salt, always keeping stock constantly in motion during time of processing. After processing, drain over night, then put in tan in agitated liquors, keeping the stock in motion during the whole time of tanning. Pack down overnight. Use 200 pounds dry leather to each mill in stuffing.

For stuffing, use 3 gallons curriers’ hard grease and 3 gallons American cod oil. Strike out from mill, on flesh. Set out on grain. Dry slowly. Trim and board, length and cross. The stock is then ready to cut. The time for soaking the hides may be reduced one-half by putting the stock into a rapidly revolving reel pit, with a good inflow of water, so that the dirty water washes over and runs off. After 10 hours in the soak, put the stock into a drum, and keep it tumbling 5 hours. This produces soft stock.

In liming, where the saving of the hair is no object, softer leather is obtainable by using 35 pounds sulphide of sodium with 60 pounds lime. Then, when the stock comes from the limes, the hair is dissolved and immediately washes off, and saves the labor of unhairing and caring for the hair, which in some cases does not pay.

Miscellaneous Recipes:

Russian Leather.—This leather owes its name to the country of its origin. The skins used for its production are goat, large sheep, calfskin, and cow or steer hide. The preliminary operations of soaking, unhairing, and fleshing are done in the usual manner, and then the hides are permitted to swell in a mixture of rye flour, oat flour, yeast, and salt. This compound is made into a paste with water, and is then thinned with sufficient water to steep a hundred hides in the mixture. The proportions of ingredients used for this mixture are 22 pounds rye flour, 10 pounds oat flour, a little salt, and sufficient yeast to set up fermentation.

The hides are steeped in this compound for 2 days, until swelled up, and then put into a solution of willow and poplar barks, in which they are allowed to remain 8 days, being frequently turned about. The tanning process is then completed by putting them into a tanning liquor composed of pine and willow barks, equal parts. They are steeped 8 days in this liquor, and then a {455} fresh liquor of the same ingredients and proportions is made up. The hides are hardened and split, and then steeped in the freshly made liquor for another 8 days, when they are sufficiently tanned.

The hides are then cut down the middle (from head to tail) into sides, and scoured, rinsed, and dried by dripping, and then passed on to the currier, who slightly dampens the dry sides and puts them in a heap or folds them together for a couple of days to temper, and then impregnates them with a compound consisting of ²/₃ parts birch oil and ¹/₃ parts seal oil. This is applied on the flesh side for light leather, and on the grain side also for heavy leather. The leather is then “set out,” “whitened,” and well boarded and dried before dyeing.

A decoction of sandalwood, alone or mixed with cochineal, is used for producing the Russian red color, and this dye liquor is applied several times, allowing each application to dry before applying the following one. A brush is used, and the dye liquor is spread on the grain side. A solution of tin chloride is used in Russia as a mordant for the leather before laying on the dye. The dye liquor is prepared by boiling 18 ounces of sandalwood in 13 pints of water for 1 hour, and then filtering the liquid and dissolving in the filtering fluid 1 ounce of prepared tartar and soda, which is then given an hour’s boiling and set aside for a few days before use.

After dyeing, the leather is again impregnated with the mixture of birch and seal oils (applied to the grain side on a piece of flannel) and when the dyed leather has dried, a thin smear of gum-dragon mucilage is given to the dyed side to protect the color from fading, while the flesh side is smeared with bark-tan juice and the dyed leather then grained for market.

Toughening Leather.—Leather is toughened and also rendered impervious by impregnating with a solution of 1 part of caoutchouc or gutta-percha in 16 parts of benzene or other solvent, to which is added 10 parts of linseed oil. Wax and rosin may be added to thicken the solution.

Painting On Leather.—When the leather is finished in the tanneries it is at the same time provided with the necessary greasy particles to give it the required pliancy and prevent it from cracking. It is claimed that some tanners strive to obtain a greater weight thereby, thus increasing their profit, since a pound of fat is only one-eighth as dear as a pound of leather.

If such leather, so called kips, which are much used for carriage covers and knee caps, is to be prepared for painting purposes, it is above all necessary to close up the pores of the leather, so that the said fat particles cannot strike through. They would combine with the applied paint and prevent the latter from drying, as the grease consists mainly of fish oil. For this reason an elastic spirit leather varnish is employed, which protects the succeeding paint coat sufficiently from the fat.

For further treatment take a good coach varnish to which ¹/₄ of stand oil (linseed oil which has thickened by standing) has been added and allow the mixture to stand for a few days. With this varnish grind the desired colors, thinning them only with turpentine oil. Put on 2 coats. In this manner the most delicate colors may be applied to the leather, only it is needful to put on pale and delicate shades several times. In some countries the legs or tops of boots are painted yellow, red, green, or blue in this manner. Inferior leather, such as sheepskin and goat leather, which is treated with alum by the tanner, may likewise be provided with color in the manner stated. Subsequently it can be painted, gilded, or bronzed.

Stains For Oak Leather.—I.—Apply an intimate mixture of 4 ounces of umber (burnt or raw); ¹/₂ ounce of lampblack, and 17 fluidounces ox gall.

II.—The moistened leather is primed with a solution of 1 part, by weight, of copper acetate in 50 parts of water, slicked out and then painted with solution of yellow prussiate potash in feebly acid water.

LEATHER AS AN INSULATOR: See Insulation.

LEATHER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements.

LEATHER-CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LEATHER, GLUES FOR: See Adhesives.

LEATHER LAC: See Lacquers.

LEATHER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. {456}

LEATHER VARNISH: See Varnish.

LEATHER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

LEMONS:

See also Essences, Extracts, and Fruits.

Preservation Of Fresh Lemon Juice.

—The fresh juice is cleared by gently heating it with a little egg albumen, without stirring the mixture. This causes all solid matter to sink with the coagulated white, or to make its way to the surface. The juice is then filtered through a woolen cloth and put into bottles, filled as full as possible, and closed with a cork stopper, in such a way that the cork may be directly in contact with the liquid. Seal at once and keep in a cool place. The bottles should be asepticized with boiling water just before using.

LEMON EXTRACT (ADULTERATED), TESTS FOR: See Foods.

LEMON SHERBET POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

LEMONADES, LEMONADE POWDERS, AND LEMONADE DROPS: See Beverages.

LEMONADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

LENSES AND THEIR CARE:

Unclean Lenses

(see also Cleaning Preparations and Methods).—If in either objective or eyepiece the lenses are not clean, the definition may be seriously impaired or destroyed. Uncleanliness may be due to finger marks upon the front lens of the objective, or upon the eyepiece lenses; dust which in time may settle upon the rear lens of the objective or on the eye lens; a film which forms upon one or the other lens, due occasionally to the fact that glass is hygroscopic, but generally to the exhalation from the interior finish of the mountings, and, in immersion objectives, because the front lens is not properly cleaned; or oil that has leaked on to its rear surface, or air bubbles that have formed in the oil between the cover glass and front lens.

Remedy.—Keep all lenses scrupulously clean. For cleaning, use well-washed linen (an old handkerchief) or Japanese lens paper.

Eyepieces.—To find impurities, revolve the eyepieces during the observation; breathe upon the lenses, and wipe gently with a circular motion and blow off any particles which may adhere.

Dry Objectives.—Clean the front lens as described. To examine the rear and interior lenses use a 2-inch magnifier, looking through the rear. Remove the dust from the rear lens with a camel’s-hair brush.

Oil Immersion Objectives.—Invariably clean the front lens after use with moistened linen or paper, and wipe dry.

In applying oil examine the front of the objective with a magnifier, and if there are any air bubbles, remove them with a pointed quill, or remove the oil entirely and apply a fresh quantity.

LETTERS, TO REMOVE FROM CHINA: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.

LETTER-HEAD SENSITIZERS: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.

LETTERING

CEMENTS FOR ATTACHING LETTERS ON GLASS: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Cements.

Gold Lettering.

—This is usually done by first drawing the lettering, then covering with an adhesive mixture, such as size, and finally applying gold bronze powder or real gold leaf. A good method for amateurs to follow in marking letters on glass is to apply first a coat of whiting, mixed simply with water, and then to mark out the letters on this surface, using a pointed stick or the like. After this has been done the letters may easily be painted or gilded on the reverse side of the glass. When done, wash off the whiting from the other side, and the work is complete.

Bronze Lettering.

—The following is the best method for card work: Write with asphaltum thinned with turpentine until it flows easily, and, when nearly dry, dust bronze powder over the letters. When the letters are perfectly dry tap the card to take off the extra bronze, and it will leave the letters clean and sharp. The letters should be made with a camel’s-hair brush and not with the automatic pen, as oil paints do not work satisfactorily with these pens.

For bronzed letters made with the pen, use black letterine or any water color. {457} If a water color is used add considerable gum arabic. Each letter should be bronzed as it is made, as the water color dries much more quickly than the asphaltum.

Another method is to mix the bronze powder with bronze sizing to about the consistency of the asphaltum. Make the letter with a camel’s-hair brush, using the bronze paint as one would any oil paint.

This method requires much skill, as the gold paint spreads quickly and is apt to flood over the edge of the letter. For use on oilcloth this is the most practical method.

Bronzes may be purchased at any hardware store. They are made in copper, red, green, silver, gold, and copper shades.