HENLEY’S BOOK OF RECIPES (continued 33)

The top enamel (hard) consists of 500 parts shellac, 125 parts French oil of turpentine, and 3,500 parts spirit (90 per cent). Boiling in the water bath until the solution appears clear can only be of advantage. According to the thickness desired, one may still dilute in the cold with high-strength spirit. Tinting may be done, as desired, with earth colors, viz., coffee brown with umber, red with English red, yellow with ocher, silver gray with earthy cerussite, and some lampblack. Before painting, dry out the vats and putty up the joints with a strip of dough which is prepared from ground enamel and finely sifted charcoal or brown coal ashes, and apply the enamel after the putty is dry. The varnish dries quickly, is odorless and tasteless, and extraordinarily durable. If a little annealed soot black is added to this vat enamel, a fine iron varnish is obtained which adheres very firmly. Leather (spattering leather on carriages) can also be nicely varnished with it.

Finishing Enamel For White Furniture.—Various methods are practiced in finishing furniture in white enamel, and while numerous preparations intended for the purpose named are generally purchasable of local dealers in paint supplies, it is often really difficult, and frequently impossible, to obtain a first-class ready-made enamel. To prepare such an article take ¹/₂ pint of white lead and add to it ¹/₄ pint of pure turpentine, ¹/₄ gill of pale coach Japan, and ¹/₂ gill of white dammar varnish. Mix all the ingredients together thoroughly. Apply with a camel’s-hair brush, and for large surfaces use a 2-inch double thick brush. There should be at least three coats for good work, applied after an interval of 24 hours between coats; and for strictly high-class work four coats will be necessary. Each coat should be put on thin and entirely free from brush marks, sandpapering being carefully done upon each coat of pigment. Work that has been already painted or varnished needs to be cut down with, say, No. ¹/₂ sandpaper, and then smoothed fine with No. ¹/₂ paper. Then thin white lead to a free working consistency with turpentine, retaining only a weak binder of oil in the pigment, and apply two coats of it to the surface. Give each coat plenty of time to harden (36 hours should suffice), after which sandpapering with No. 1 ¹/₂ paper had best be done. Ordinarily, upon two coats of white lead, the enamel finish, as above detailed, may be successfully produced. For the fine, rich enamel finish adapted to rare specimens of furniture and developed in the mansions of the multimillionaires, a more elaborate and complex process becomes necessary.

Quick-drying Enamel Colors.—Enamel colors which dry quickly, but remain elastic so that applied on tin they will stand stamping without cracking off, can be produced as follows:

In a closed stirrer or rolling cask place 21.5 parts, by weight, of finely powdered pale French rosin, 24 ¹/₂ parts, by weight, of Manila copal, as well as 35 parts, by weight, of denaturized spirit (95 per cent), causing the cask or the stirrer to rotate until all the gum has completely dissolved, which, according to the temperature of the room in which the stirrer is and the hardness of the gums, requires 24 to 48 hours. When the gums are entirely dissolved add to the mixture a solution of 21 ¹/₂ parts, by weight, of Venice oil turpentine in 0.025 parts, by weight, of denaturized spirit of 95 per cent, allowing the stirrer to run another 2 to 3 hours. For the purpose of removing any impurities present or any undissolved rosin from the varnish, it is poured through a hair sieve or through a threefold layer of fine muslin (organdie) into suitable tin vessels or zinc-lined barrels for further clarification. After 10 to 14 days the varnish is ready for use. By grinding this varnish with the corresponding dry pigments the desired shades of color may be obtained; but it is well to remark that chemically pure zinc white cannot be used with advantage because it thickens and loses its covering power. The grinding is best carried out twice on an ordinary funnel mill. Following are some recipes:

I.—Enamel White.—Lithopone, 2 parts, by weight; white lead, purest, ¹/₂ part, by weight; varnish, 20 parts, by weight.

II.—Enamel Black.—Ivory black, 2 parts, by weight; Paris blue, 0.01 part, by weight; varnish, 23 parts, by weight.

III.—Pale Gray.—Graphite, 2 parts, by weight; ultramarine, 0.01 part, by weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 100 parts, by weight.

IV.—Dark Gray.—Graphite, 3 parts, by weight; ivory black, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 110 parts, by weight. {723}

V.—Chrome Yellow, Pale.—Chrome yellow, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight.

VI.—Chrome Yellow, Dark.—Chrome yellow, dark, 2 parts, by weight; chrome orange, ¹/₈ part, by weight; lithopone, 1 part, by weight; varnish, 35 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight.

VII.—Pink, Pale.—Carmine, ¹/₂ part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight.

VIII.—Pink, Dark.—Carmine, ¹/₂ part, by weight; Turkey red, 1 part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight.

IX.—Turkey Red.—Turkey red, pale, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 1 part, by weight; Turkey red, dark, 1 part, by weight; white lead, pure, ¹/₂ part, by weight; varnish, 18 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

X.—Flesh Tint.—Chrome yellow, pale, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight; graphite, ¹/₈ part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; Turkey red, pale, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 42 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XI.—Carmine Red.—Lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight; Turkey red, pale, 6 parts, by weight; carmine, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight; orange minium, 3 parts, by weight; vermilion, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 50 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight.

XII.—Sky Blue.—Ultramarine, 5 parts, by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight; ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight.

XIII.—Ultramarine.—Ultra blue, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 12 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XIV.—Violet.—Ultramarine, with red tinge, 10 parts, by weight; carmine, 0.5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight.

XV.—Azure.—Paris blue, 10 parts, by weight; lithopone, 100 parts, by weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight.

XVI.—Leaf Green.—Chrome green, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XVII.—Silk Green.—Silk green, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, pale, ¹/₂ part, by weight; lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XVIII.—Brown.—English red, 10 parts, by weight; ocher, light, 3 parts, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XIX.—Ocher.—French ocher, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, dark, ¹/₂ part, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XX.—Chocolate.—Umber, 10 parts, by weight; Florentine lake, ¹/₈ part, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; benzine, ¹/₂ part, by weight.

XXI.—Terra Cotta.—Chrome yellow, pale, 10 parts, by weight; Turkey red, dark, 3 parts, by weight; varnish, 35 parts, by weight.

XXII.—Olive, Greenish.—French ocher, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue, ¹/₂ part, by weight; graphite, ¹/₂ part, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight.

XXIII.—Olive, Brownish.—Chrome orange, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue, 2 parts, by weight; lead sulphate, 10 parts, by weight; English red, 1 part, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight.

XXIV.—Olive, Reddish.—Turkey red, dark, 75 parts, by weight; sap green, 75 parts, by weight; ocher, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 ¹/₂ parts, by weight.

Engravers’ Varnishes.

In copper-plate engraving the plate must be covered with a dark-colored coating which, though entirely unaffected by the etching fluid, must be soft enough to allow the finest lines to be drawn with the needle and must also be susceptible of complete and easy removal when the etching is finished. Varnishes which possess these properties are called “etching grounds.” They are made according to various formulas, but in all cases the principal ingredient is asphalt, of which only the best natural varieties are suitable for this purpose. Another common ingredient is beeswax, or tallow.

Etching grounds are usually made in small quantities, at a single operation, by melting and stirring the solid ingredients together and allowing the mass to cool in thin sheets, which are then dissolved in oil of turpentine. The plate is coated uniformly with this varnish through which the engraver’s tool readily penetrates, laying bare the metal beneath. After the lines thus drawn have been etched by immersing the plate in acid, the varnish is washed off with oil of turpentine.

The following formulas for etching grounds have been extensively used by engravers: {724}

I II III IV

Yellow wax 50 30 110 40 parts

Syrian asphalt 20 20 25 40 parts

Rosin — — — 20 parts

Amber — — 20 — parts

Mastic 25 25 25 — parts

Tallow — — — 2 parts

Bergundy pitch — — — 10 parts

Floor Varnishes.

I.— Manila copal, spirit-soluble 12 parts

Ruby shellac, powdered 62 parts

Venice, turpentine 12 parts

Spirit, 96 per cent 250 parts

The materials are dissolved cold in a covered vat with constant stirring, or better still, in a stirring machine, and filtered. For the pale shades take light ocher; for dark ones, Amberg earth, which are well ground with the varnish in a paint mill.

II.—Shellac, A C leaf, 1.2 parts; sandarac, 8 parts; Manila copal, 2 parts; rosin, 5 parts; castor or linoleic acid or wood oil acid, 1.50 parts; spirit (96 per cent), 65 parts.

French Varnish.—So-called French varnish is made by dissolving I part of bleached or orange shellac in 5 parts of alcohol, the solution being allowed to stand and the clear portion then being decanted. The varnish may be colored by materials which are soluble in alcohol.

For red, use 1 part of eosin to 49 parts of the bleached shellac solution. For blue, use 1 part of aniline blue to 24 parts of the bleached shellac solution, as the orange shellac solution would impart a greenish cast. For green, use 1 part of aniline green (brilliant green) to 49 parts of the orange shellac solution. For yellow, use either 2 parts of extract of turmeric or 1 part of gamboge to 24 parts of the solution, or 1 part of aniline yellow to 49 parts of the solution. For golden yellow, use 2 parts of gamboge and 1 part of dragon’s blood to 47 parts of the orange shellac solution. The gamboge and dragon’s blood should be dissolved first in a little alcohol.

Golden Varnishes.—

I.— Powdered benzoin 1 part

Alcohol enough to make 10 parts.

Pure saffron, roughly broken up, about 6 threads to the ounce.

Macerate 3 days and filter. Vary the quantity of saffron according to the shade desired. Mastic and juniper gum may be added to this varnish if a heavier body is desired.

II.—Benzoin, juniper gum, gum mastic, equal parts.

Dissolve the gums in 9 times their weight of alcohol (varied more or less according to the consistency wanted), and color to the desired shade with threads of pure saffron. This varnish is very brilliant and dries at once.

India-rubber Varnishes.—I.—Dissolve 10 pounds of India rubber in a mixture of 10 pounds of turpentine and 20 pounds of petroleum by treating same on a water bath. When the solution is completed add 45 pounds of drying oil and 5 pounds of lampblack and mix thoroughly.

II.—Dissolve 7 pounds of India rubber in 25 pounds of oil of turpentine. By continued heating dissolve 14 pounds of rosin in the mixture. Color while hot with 3 pounds of lampblack.

Inlay Varnish.—

Ozokerite 17 parts

Carnauba wax 3 parts

Turpentine oil 15 parts

Melt the ozokerite and Carnauba wax, then stir in the turpentine oil. This varnish is applied like a polish and imparts to the wood a dark natural color and a dull luster.

Japanning Tin.—The first thing to be done when a vessel is to be japanned, is to free it from all grease and oil, by rubbing it with turpentine. Should the oil, however, be linseed, it may be allowed to remain on the vessel, which must in that case be put in an oven and heated till the oil becomes quite hard.

After these preliminaries, a paint of the shade desired, ground in linseed oil, is applied. For brown, umber may be used.

When the paint has been satisfactorily applied it should be hardened by heating, and then smoothed down by rubbing with ground pumice stone applied gently by means of a piece of felt moistened with water. To be done well, this requires care and patience, and, it might be added, some experience.

The vessel is next coated with a varnish, made by the following formula:

Turpentine spirit 8 ounces

Oil of lavender 6 ounces

Camphor 1 drachm

Bruised copal 2 ounces

Perhaps some other good varnish would give equally satisfactory results.

After this the vessel is put in an oven and heated to as high a temperature as it will bear without causing the varnish to {725} blister or run. When the varnish has become hard, the vessel is taken out and another coat is put on, which is submitted to heat as before. This process may be repeated till the judgment of the operator tells him that it is no longer advisable.

Some operators mix the coloring matter directly with the varnish; when this is done, care should be taken that the pigment is first reduced to an impalpable powder, and then thoroughly mixed with the liquid.

Label Varnishes.

I.— Sandarac 3 ounces av.

Mastic ³/₄ ounce av.

Venice turpentine 150 grains

Alcohol 16 fluidounces

Macerate with repeated stirring until solution is effected, and then filter.

The paper labels are first sized with diluted mucilage, then dried, and then coated with this varnish. If the labels have been written with water-soluble inks or color, they are first coated with 2 coats of collodion, and then varnished.

II.—The varnished labels of stock vessels often suffer damage from the spilling of the contents and the dripping after much pouring.

Formalin gelatin is capable of withstanding the baneful influence of ether, benzine, water, spirit of wine, oil, and most substances. The following method of applying the preservative is recommended: Having thoroughly cleaned the surface of the vessel, paste the label on and allow it to dry well. Give it a coat of thin collodion to protect the letters from being dissolved out or caused to run, then after a few minutes paint over it a coat of gelatin warmed to fluidity—5 to 25—being careful to cover in all the edges. Just before it solidifies go over it with a tuft of cotton dipped into a 40 per cent formalin solution. It soon dries and becomes as glossy as varnish, and may be coated again and again without danger of impairing the clear white of the label or decreasing its transparency.

Leather Varnishes.—I.—An excellent varnish for leather can be made from the following recipe: Heat 400 pounds of boiled oil to 212° F., and add little by little 2 pounds of bichromate of potash, keeping the same temperature. The addition of the bichromate should take about 15 minutes. Raise to 310° F., and add gradually during 1 hour at that temperature, 40 pounds Prussian blue. Heat for 3 hours more, gradually raising to 482° to 572° F., with constant stirring. In the meantime, heat together at 392° F., for ¹/₂ an hour, 25 pounds linseed oil, 35 pounds copal, 75 pounds turpentine, and 7 pounds ceresine. Mix the two varnishes, and dilute, if necessary, when cold with turpentine. The varnish should require to be warmed for easy application with the brush.

II.—Caoutchouc, 1 part; petroleum, 1 part; carbon bisulphide, 1 part; shellac, 4 parts; bone black, 2 parts; alcohol, 20 parts. First the caoutchouc is brought together with carbon bisulphide in a well-closed bottle and stood aside for a few days. As soon as the caoutchouc is soaked add the petroleum and the alcohol, then the finely powdered shellac, and heat to about 125° F. When the liquid appears pretty clear, which indicates the solution of all substances, the bone black is added by shaking thoroughly and the varnish is at once filled in bottles which are well closed. This pouch composition excels in drying quickly and produces upon the leather a smooth, deep black coating, which possesses a certain elasticity.

Metal Varnishes.

The purpose of these varnishes is to protect the metals from oxidation and to render them glossy.

Aluminum Varnish.—The following is a process giving a special varnish for aluminum, but it may also be employed for other metals, giving a coating unalterable and indestructible by water or atmospheric influences: Dissolve, preferably in an enameled vessel, 10 parts, by weight, of gum lac in 30 parts of liquid ammonia. Heat on the water bath for about 1 hour and cool. The aluminum to be covered with this varnish is carefully cleaned in potash, and, having applied the varnish, the article is placed in a stove, where it is heated, during a certain time, at a suitable temperature (about 1062° F.).

Brass Varnishes Imitating Gold.—I.—An excellent gold varnish for brass objects, surgical or optical instruments, etc., is prepared as follows: Gum lac, in grains, pulverized, 30 parts; dragon’s blood, 1 part; red sanders wood, 1 part; pounded glass, 10 parts; strong alcohol, 600 parts; after sufficient maceration, filter. The powdered glass simply serves for accelerating the dissolving, by interposing between the particles of gum lac and opal.

II.—Reduce to powder, 160 parts, by weight, of turmeric of best quality, and pour over it 2 parts, by weight, of saffron, {726} and 1.700 parts, by weight, of spirit; digest in a warm place 24 hours, and filter. Next dissolve 80 parts, by weight, of dragon’s blood; 80 parts, by weight, of sandarac; 80 parts, by weight, of elemi gum; 50 parts, by weight, of gamboge; 70 parts, by weight, of seedlac. Mix these substances with 250 parts, by weight, of crushed glass, place them in a flask, and pour over this mixture the alcohol colored as above described. Assist the solution by means of a sand or water bath, and filter at the close of the operation. This is a fine varnish for brass scientific instruments.

Bronze Varnishes.—I.—The following process yields a top varnish for bronze goods and other metallic ware in the most varying shades, the varnish excelling, besides, in high gloss and durability. Fill in a bottle, pale shellac, best quality, 40 parts, by weight; powdered Florentine lake, 12 parts, by weight; gamboge, 30 parts, by weight; dragon’s blood, also powdered, 6 parts, by weight; and add 400 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine. This mixture is allowed to dissolve, the best way being to heat the bottle on the water bath until the boiling point of water is almost reached, shaking from time to time until all is dissolved. Upon cooling, decant the liquid, which constitutes a varnish of dark-red color, from any sediment that may be present. In a second bottle dissolve in the same manner 24 parts, by weight, of gamboge in 400 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine, from which will result a varnish of golden-yellow tint. According to the hue desired, mix the red varnish with the yellow variety, producing in this way any shade from the deepest red to the color of gold. If required, dilute with spirit of wine. The application of the varnish should be conducted as usual, that is, the article should be slightly warm, it being necessary to adhere strictly to a certain temperature, which can be easily determined by trials and maintained by experience. In order to give this varnish a pale-yellow to greenish-yellow tone, mix 10 drops of picric acid with about 3 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine, and add to a small quantity of the varnish some of this mixture until the desired shade has been reached. Picric acid is poisonous, and the keeping of varnish mixed with this acid in a closed bottle is not advisable, because there is danger of an explosion. Therefore, it is best to prepare only so much varnish at one time as is necessary for the immediate purpose.

Brown Varnish.—An excellent and quickly drying brown varnish for metals is made by dissolving 20 ounces of gum kino and 5 ounces of gum benjamin in 60 ounces of the best cold alcohol; 20 ounces of common shellac and 2 ounces of thick turpentine in 36 ounces of alcohol also give a very good varnish. If the brown is to have a reddish tint, dissolve 50 ounces of ruby shellac, 5 ounces balsam of copaiba, and 2 to 5 ounces of aniline brown, with or without ¹/₂ to 1 ounce of aniline violet, in 150 ounces of alcohol.

Copper Varnishes.—These two are for polished objects:

I.—One hundred and ten parts of sandarac and 30 parts of rosin, dissolved in sufficient quantity of alcohol; 5 parts of glycerine are to be added.

II.— Sandarac 10 parts

Rosin 3 parts

Glycerine ¹/₂ part

Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the two rosins in sufficient alcohol and add the glycerine.

Decorative Metal Varnishes.—

I Per Cent II Per Cent III Per Cent IV Per Cent

Seed lac 11.5 — — —

Amber 7.6 — — 13.5

Gamboge 7.6 — — —

Dragon’s blood 0.18 — — —

Saffron 0.16 — — —

Sandarac — 11.2 15.9 16.6

Mastic — 6.5 14.0 3.4

Elemi — 3.3 — —

Venice turpentine — — 1.0 3.4

Camphor — 1.5 — —

Aloe — — 7.0 —

Alcohol 72.96 77.5 66.1 63.2

As will be seen, only natural colors are used. The so-called “gold lacquer” is composed as follows: Sandarac, 6.25 parts; mastic, 3 parts; shellac, 12.5 parts; Venice turpentine, 2.5 parts; aloe, 0.75 parts; gamboge, 3 parts; alcohol, 72 parts. The solution is filtered. Applied in a thin coating this varnish shows a handsome golden shade. Other metal varnishes have the following composition:

V Per Cent VI Per Cent VII Per Cent

Shellac 17.5 — 18.0

Yellow acaroid gum 13.1 25.0 —

Manila — 8.0 9.0

Alcohol 69.4 67.0 63.0

{727}

Gold Varnish.—I.—A good gold varnish for coating moldings which produces great brilliancy is prepared as follows: Dissolve 3 pounds of shellac in 30 quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds of mastic in 5 quarts of alcohol, 3 pounds of sandarac in 5 quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds of gamboge in 5 quarts of alcohol, 1 pound of dragon’s blood in 1 quart of alcohol, 3 pounds of saunders in 5 quarts of alcohol, 3 pounds of turpentine in 3 quarts of alcohol. After all the ingredients have been dissolved separately in the given quantity of absolute alcohol and filtered, the solutions are mixed at a moderate heat.

II.—A varnish which will give a splendid luster, and any gold color from deep red to golden yellow, is prepared by taking 50 ounces pale shellac, 15 pounds Florentine lake (precipitated from cochineal or redwood decoction by alum onto strach, kaolin, or gypsum), 25 ounces of sandalwood, and 8 ounces of dragon’s blood. These in fine powder are dissolved on the water bath, in 500 ounces rectified spirit. The spirit must boil and remain, with occasional shaking, for 2 to 3 hours on the bath. Then cool and decant. In the meantime heat in another flask on the bath 30 ounces of gamboge in 500 ounces of the same spirit. The two liquids are mixed until the right color needed for the particular purpose in hand is obtained. Dilute with spirit if too thick. The addition of a little picric acid gives a greenish-yellow bronze but makes the varnish very liable to explode. These varnishes are applied to gently warmed surfaces with a soft bristle brush.

Gold Varnish For Tin.—This is obtained in the following manner: Spread out 5 parts, by weight, of finely powdered crystallized copper acetate in a warm spot, allowing it to lie for some time; then grind the powder, which will have acquired a light-brown shade, with oil of turpentine and add, with stirring, 15 parts, by weight, of fat copal varnish heated to 140° F. When the copper acetate has dissolved (in about ¹/₄ hour), the mass is filled in a bottle and allowed to stand warm, for several days, shaking frequently. The gold varnish is then ready for use. Coat the articles uniformly with it, and heat in a drying chamber, whereupon, according to the degree of temperature, varying colorations are obtained, changing from green to yellow, then golden yellow, and finally orange to brown. When good copal varnish is employed, the varnish will adhere very firmly, so that the article can be pressed without damage.

Iron Varnishes.—I.—A varnish obtained by dissolving wax in turpentine is useful. It gives a fairly hard coat, but has the drawback of filling up fine grooves, and so injuring the appearance of many metal ornaments.

II.—Shellac, 15 pounds; Siam benjamin, 13 pounds; alcohol, 80 pounds; formylchloride, 20 pounds.

III.—Sierra Leone copal, 6 pounds; dammar, 18 pounds; oleic acid, 3 pounds; alcohol, 40 pounds; oil of turpentine, 20 pounds; formylchloride, 15 pounds. The formylchloride not only effects the rapid drying necessary to prevent the varnish gravitating into hollows, but enables the alcohol to make a perfect solution of the rosin. The varnishes are excessively volatile, and must be stored accordingly.

Stove Varnishes.—

Shellac 12 parts

Manila copal 14 parts

Rosin 12 parts

Gallipot 2 parts

Benzoin 1 part

Lampblack 5 parts

Nigrosin, spirit-soluble 1 ¹/₂ parts

Alcohol 250 parts

Tin Varnishes.—I.—For Tin Boxes.—

In 75 parts of alcohol dissolve 15 parts of shellac, 2 parts of Venice turpentine, and 8 parts of sandarac.

II.—For Trays and Other Tinware.—The ground is prepared by adding to the white lead the tinting colors ground in good rubbing varnish and half oil of turpentine. For drier an admixture of “terebine” is recommended. With this lean and dull paint, coat the tins 2 or 3 times and blend. Next, grain with water or vinegar glaze, and varnish with pure Zanzibar copal varnish, or finest amber table-top varnish. There are other tried methods for varnishing tin, which are applicable for new goods, manufactured in large quantities, while they are less advantageous for the restoration of old, repeatedly used articles.

Varnish Substitutes.

A substitute for varnish is produced by adding to 100 parts of casein 10 to 25 parts of a 1 to 10 per cent soap solution and then 20 to 25 parts of slaked lime. The mixture is carefully kneaded until a perfectly homogeneous mass results. Then gradually add 25 to 40 parts of turpentine oil and sufficient {728} water for the mass to assume the consistency of varnish. If it is desired to preserve it for some time a little ammonia is added so that the casein lime does not separate. The surrogate is considerably cheaper than varnish and dries so quickly that paint ground with it may be applied twice in quick succession.

Zapon Varnishes.—In the case of many articles which have been colored mechanically or by the battery, particularly with large pieces, an opaque varnish is used as a protection against atmospheric influences. The so-called brassoline, of a brown color, negroline, black, and zapon which is colorless, are employed, according to the color of the article. The last-named varnish is most commonly used, and gives a fine and durable coating, insoluble in almost all liquids which would come into consideration here, except that it will wash off in soap and water. Zapon varnish is a solution of collodion cotton and camphor in amyl acetate and amyl alcohol, and was formerly used to preserve old manuscripts and legal documents. In the process of zaponizing, the article is slightly warmed and immersed in the varnish, or the latter is applied with a brush. The solution is very durable, and has the advantage that after drying it will not show edges, rings, or spots. Zapon varnish which has become too thick must be diluted, and the brushes must be kept from becoming dry. If it is desired to give an especially warm tone, the article is treated with brushes which have been drawn over beeswax or mineral wax.

For the production of zapon or celluloid varnish, pour 20 parts of acetone over 2 parts of colorless celluloid waste, allowing it to stand for several days in a closed vessel, stirring frequently until the whole has dissolved into a clear, thick mass. Admix 78 parts of amyl acetate and clarify the zapon varnish by allowing it to settle for weeks.

VARNISH, HOW TO POUR OUT: See Castor Oil.

VARNISHES, INSULATING: See Insulation.

VARNISHES, PHOTOGRAPHIC RETOUCHING: See Photography.

VARNISH REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

VASELINE STAINS, TO REMOVE FROM CLOTHING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

VASOLIMENTUM.

This unguent is of two kinds, liquid and semi-solid. The former is prepared by mixing 500 parts of olein, 250 parts of alcoholic ammonia, and 1,000 parts of liquid paraffine, the whole being warmed until completely dissolved, and any loss in weight made up by addition of spirit. The semi-solid preparation is made of the same ingredients, except the paraffine salve is substituted for the liquid. The product is used as a basis for ointments in place of vasogene, and can be incorporated with a number of med­i­ca­ments, such as 10 per cent of naphthol, 20 per cent of guaiacol, 25 per cent of juniper tar, 5 per cent of thiol, 6 per cent of iodine, 5 per cent of creosote, 10 per cent of ichthyol, 5 per cent of creolin, 2 per cent of menthol, etc.

VAT ENAMELS AND VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

VEGETABLES, TESTS FOR CANNED: See Foods.

VEGETABLE PARCHMENT: See Parchment.

VICHY: See Waters.

VICHY SALT: See Salts (Effervescent).

VETERINARY FORMULAS

For Birds:

Asthma In Canaries.—

Tincture capsicum 5 drachms

Spirits chloroform 90 minims

Iron citrate, soluble 45 grains

Fennel water 3 ¹/₂ ounces

Give a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage once daily.

Colas.—

Tincture ferri perchloride 1 drachm

Acid hydrochloric, dil. ¹/₂ drachm

Glycerine 1 ¹/₂ drachms

Aqua camphor, q. s. 1 ounce

Use 3 to 6 drops in drinking water.

Ointment For Healing.—

Peru balsam 60 grains

Cola cream 1 ounce

Apply. {729}

Constipation In Birds.—

F. E. senna 2 drachms

Syrup manna 1 ounce

Fennel water, q. s. 4 ounces

Give a few drops on sugar in cage once daily.

Diarrhœa.—

Tincture iron chloride 2 drachms

Paregoric 2 drachms

Caraway water 3 ¹/₂ ounces

Give few drops on lump of sugar once daily.

Mocking-bird Food.—

Crackers 8 ounces

Corn 9 ounces

Rice 2 ounces

Hemp seed 1 ounce

Capsicum 10 grains

Mix and reduce to a coarse powder.

Foods For Red Birds.—

Sunflower seed 8 ounces

Hemp seed 16 ounces

Canary seed 10 ounces

Cracked wheat 8 ounces

Unshelled rice 6 ounces

Mix and grind to a coarse powder.

Canary-bird Food.—

Yolk of egg (dry) 2 ounces

Poppy heads (powdered) 1 ounce

Cuttlefish bone (powdered) 1 ounce

Sugar 2 ounces

Powdered crackers 8 ounces

Bird Tonic.—

Powdered capsicum 20 grains

Powdered gentian 1 drachm

Ferri peroxide ¹/₂ ounce

Powdered sugar ¹/₂ ounce

Syrup, q. s.

Put a piece size of pea in cage daily.

Tonic.—

I.— Tincture cinchona ¹/₂ drachm

Tincture iron 2 drops

Glycerine 1 drachm

Caraway water 1 ounce

Put a few drops on lump of sugar in cage daily.

II.— Compound tincture cinchona 2 drachms

Compound tincture gentian 2 drachms

Syrup orange 1 ounce

Simple elixir 2 ¹/₂ ounces

Put a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage daily.

Antiseptic Wash For Cage Birds.—

Chinosol, F. 2 drachms

Sugar (burnt) 20 minims

Aqua cinnamon 4 ounces

Aqua 20 ounces

Add 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls to the bath water and allow the birds to use it, when it will quickly destroy all parasites or germs in the feathers. To wash out the cages, use a mixture of 1 ta­ble­spoon­ful in a pint of hot water.

Mixed Bird Seed.—

Sicily canary 10 ounces

German rape 2 ounces

Russian hemp 1 ounce

German millet 3 ounces

For Horses And Cattle:

Blistering.—Tincture cantharides, 1 ounce; camphorated oil, ¹/₂ ounce. Apply a portion with friction 3 times a day until a blister shows. As it subsides apply again.

Horse-colic Remedy.—I.—In making a horse-colic remedy containing tincture of opium, ether and chloroform, to be given in ta­ble­spoon­ful doses, apportion the ingredients about equally, and mix the dose with a pint of water.

Other formulas are:

II.— Chloroform anodyne 1 ounce

Spirit of nitrous ether 2 ounces

Linseed oil 13 ounces

Give in one dose and repeat in an hour if necessary.

Condition Powders.—I.—Sulphur, 2 pounds; Glauber salts, 1 pound; black antimony, ¹/₂ pound; powdered bloodroot, 4 ounces; copperas, ¹/₂ pound; rosin, ¹/₂ pound; asafetida, 2 ounces; saltpeter ¹/₂ pound. Powder and mix well.

II.—Gentian, 4 ounces; potassium nitrate, 1 ounce; sulphur, 4 ounces; ginger (African), 4 ounces; antimony, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces; Fœnugreek, 2 ounces; capsicum, 2 ounces; serpentaria, 2 ounces; sodium sulphate, 9 ounces; flaxseed meal, 16 ounces. All ingredients in fine powder. Dose: 1 ta­ble­spoon­ful in feed twice a day.

Veterinary Dose Table.—For a colt 1 month old give ¹/₂₄ of the full dose; 3 months old, ¹/₁₂; 6 months old,¹/₆; 1 year old, ¹/₃; 2 years old, ¹/₂; 3 years old, ³/₄. Fluids for cattle usually the same dose as for the horse. Solids for cattle usually 1 ¹/₂ times the dose for the horse. {730}

Drug. Horses. Cattle.

Aloes 1 to 8 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 oz.

Alum 1 to 3 dr. 1 to 3 dr.

Aqua ammonia 3 to 5 dr. 3 to 5 dr.

Ammonia bromide ¹/₄ to 2 oz. ¹/₄ to 2 oz.

Ammonia carbonate 1 to 3 dr. 2 to 5 dr.

Ammonia iodide ¹/₂ to 3 dr. 1 to 5 dr.

Antimony black 15 to 50 gr. ——

Areca nut 3 to 5 dr. ——

Arsenic 5 to 12 gr. 5 to 12 gr.

Asafetida 1 to 4 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 oz.

Belladonna leaves ¹/₂ to 2 oz. ¹/₂ to 2 oz.

Buchu leaves ¹/₂ to 3 oz. ¹/₂ to 4 oz.

Calaber bean 4 to 12 gr. 4 to 12 gr.

Camphor ¹/₂ to 2 dr. 2 to 3 dr.

Cantharides 5 to 25 gr. 12 to 30 gr.

Capsicum 1 to 2 dr. 1 to 3 dr.

Catechu 1 to 2 dr. 2 to 4 dr.

Chalk preparation 2 to 3 oz. 2 to 4 oz.

Chloral hydrate ¹/₂ to 1 ¹/₂ oz. ¹/₂ to 1 ¹/₂ oz.

Chloroform ¹/₂ to 1 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 dr.

Cinchona 1 to 3 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 oz.

Copper sulphate ¹/₂ to 2 dr. ¹/₂ to 3 dr.

Creolin 1 to 5 dr. 2 to 5 dr.

Creosote 15 to 30 min. 1 to 2 dr.

Digitalis leaves 10 to 20 gr. 20 to 50 gr.

Dover powder ¹/₂ to 2 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 dr.

Ergot ¹/₄ to 1 oz. ¹/₄ to 1 oz.

Ether ¹/₂ to 2 ¹/₂ oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Ex. belladonna fluid ¹/₂ to 2 dr. 2 to 4 dr.

Extract buchu fluid 1 to 5 dr. ——

Extract cannabis indica ¹/₄ to ¹/₂ dr. ¹/₄ to 1 dr.

Fœnugreek ¹/₂ to 3 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Gallnuts 2 to 4 dr. ¹/₂ to 1 oz.

Gentian 2 to 6 dr. ¹/₂ to 1 oz.

Ginger 3 to 5 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 oz.

Ipecac ¹/₂ to 2 dr. ¹/₂ to 3 dr.

Iron carbonate 1 to 2 dr. ——

Iron sulphate ¹/₂ to 2 dr. 1 to 3 dr.

Juniper berries 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Limewater 3 to 6 oz. 3 to 6 oz.

Magnesia sulphate ¹/₂ to 3 lb. ¹/₂ to 3 lb.

Mustard 2 to 4 dr. 2 to 6 dr.

Nux vomica ¹/₂ to 1 dr. 2 to 3 dr.

Oil castor ¹/₂ to 1 pt. ¹/₂ to 1 pt.

Oil Croton 10 to 20 min. 1 to 2 dr.

Oil juniper ¹/₂ to 2 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 dr.

Oil linseed ¹/₂ to 1 pt. ¹/₂ to 2 pt.

Oil olive ¹/₂ to 2 pt. 1 to 2 pt.

Oil savin 1 to 3 dr. 1 to 3 dr.

Oil turpentine ¹/₂ to 2 oz. ¹/₂ to 2 oz.

Opium ¹/₂ to 2 dr. ¹/₂ to 2 dr.

Potassium iodide 2 to 4 dr. 2 to 6 dr.

Potassium nitrate 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Potassium sulphide 1 to 2 dr. 1 to 2 dr.

Quinine 10 to 30 gr. 20 to 40 gr.

Rhubarb ¹/₂ to 1 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Santonine 15 to 40 gr. ¹/₂ to 1 dr.

Sodium hyposulphite ¹/₂ to 1 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Sodium sulphate ¹/₂ to 2 lb. 1 to 2 lb.

Sodium sulphite ¹/₂ to 1 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Spirits ammonia, aromatic ¹/₂ to 2 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Spirits chloroform ¹/₂ to 1 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Spirits nitrous ether 1 to 3 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Spirits peppermint 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Strychnine sulphite ¹/₂ to 1 gr. 1 to 3 gr.

Sulphur 2 to 4 oz. 2 to 4 oz.

Tincture aconite 5 to 30 min. 5 to 20 min.

Tincture asafetida 1 to 4 dr. ——

Tincture belladonna 1 to 3 dr. 2 to 4 dr.

Tincture cantharides 1 to 2 oz. ¹/₂ to 1 oz.

Tincture columbo ¹/₂ to 2 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Tincture digitalis 1 to 3 dr. 2 to 4 dr.

Tincture iron 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Tincture ginger ¹/₂ to 2 oz. 1 to 2 oz.

Tincture nux vomica 2 to 4 dr. ¹/₂ to 1 oz.

Tincture opium ¹/₂ to 3 oz. 1 to 3 oz.

Tobacco ¹/₂ to 1 dr. ¹/₂ to 1 dr.

Vinegar 1 to 3 oz. 2 to 6 oz.

Whisky 2 to 10 oz. ——

White vitriol 5 to 15 gr. 5 to 15 gr.

Astringent.—

I.— Opium 12 grains

Camphor ¹/₂ drachm

Catechu 1 drachm

One dose.

II.— Opium 12 grains

Camphor 1 drachm

Ginger 2 drachms

Castile soap 2 drachms

Anise 3 drachms

Licorice 2 drachms

Contracted Hoof Or Sore Feet.—

I.— Lard 1 part

Yellow wax 1 part

Linseed oil 1 part

Venice turpentine 1 part

Tar 1 part

Apply to the edge of the hair once a day.

II.— Rosin 4 ounces

Lard 8 ounces

Melt and add Powdered vertigris 1 ounce

Stir well; when partly cool add Turpentine 2 ounces

Apply to hoof about 1 inch down from the hair.

Cough.—

I.— Sodii bromide 180 grains

Creosote water 2 ounces

Fennel water 4 ounces

Half ta­ble­spoon­ful 4 times daily.

II.— Ammonia bromide 180 grains

Fennel water 4 ounces

Syrup licorice 4 ounces

Teaspoonful 4 times daily.

Cow Powder.—

Powdered catechu 60 grains

Powdered ginger 240 grains

Powdered gentian 240 grains

Powdered opium 30 grains

Cuts, Wounds, Sores.

I.—Tincture opium, 2 ounces; tannin, ¹/₄ ounce.

II.—Tincture aloes, 1 ounce; tincture of myrrh, ¹/₂ ounce; tincture of opium, ¹/₂ ounce; water, 4 ounces. Apply night and morning.

III.—Lard, 4 ounces; beeswax, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces; carbolic acid, ¹/₄ ounce.

Diarrhœa.—

I.— Opium 15 grains

Peppermint ¹/₄ ounce

Linseed meal 1 ounce

Give half in morning and remainder in evening in a pint of warm water. {731}

II.— Prepared chalk 6 ounces

Catechu 3 ounces

Opium 1 ¹/₂ ounces

Ginger 3 ounces

Gentian 3 ounces

One powder 3 times a day in half a pint of warm water. One-sixth of dose for calves.

Diuretic Ball.—

I.— Oil juniper ¹/₂ drachm

Rosin 2 drachms

Saltpeter 2 drachms

Camphor ¹/₂ drachm

Castile soap 1 ounce

Flaxseed meal 1 ounce

Make 1 pill.

II.— Rosin 90 grains

Potassium nitrate 90 grains

Po buchu leaves 45 grains

Dose: 1 twice a day.

Drying Drink.—

Powdered alum 6 ounces

Armenian bole 2 ounces

Powdered juniper berries ¹/₂ ounce

Once daily in 1 quart of warm gruel.

Epizooty Or Pinkeye.—

Sublimed sulphur ¹/₂ ounce

Epsom salt 1 ounce

Charcoal ¹/₂ ounce

Extract licorice 1 ounce

Fever.—

I.— Salicylic acid ³/₄ ounce

Sodium bicarbonate ¹/₂ ounce

Magnesium sulphate 10 ounces

Give half in quart of warm bran water at night.

II.— Spirits niter 3 ounces

Tincture aconite 2 drachms

Fluid extract belladonna ¹/₂ ounce

Nitrate potash 2 ounces

Muriate ammonia 2 ounces

Water, q.s 1 quart

Dose: Teaspoonful every 2 or 3 hours till better.

Heaves.—I.—Balsam copaiba, 1 ounce; spirits of turpentine, 2 ounces; balsam fir, 1 ounce; cider vinegar, 16 ounces.

Tablespoonful once a day.

II.—Saltpeter, 1 ounce; indigo, ¹/₂ ounce; rain or distilled water, 4 pints.

Dose: 1 pint twice a day.

Hide Bound.—

Elecampane 2 ounces

Licorice root 2 ounces

Fœnugreek 2 ounces

Rosin 2 ounces

Copperas ¹/₂ ounce

Ginger 2 drachms

Gentian 1 drachm

Saltpeter 1 drachm

Valerian 1 drachm

Linseed meal 3 ounces

Sublimed sulphur 1 ounce

Black antimony 4 drachms

Tablespoonful twice a day.

Horse Embrocations And Liniments.

I.— Camphor 1 ounce

Acetic acid 15 ounces

Alcohol 18 ounces

Oil turpentine 51 ounces

Eggs 6

Distilled witch hazel 45 ounces

II.— Iodine 50 grains

Pot iodide 125 grains

Soap liniment 6 ounces

Influenza.

I.— Ammonia muriate 1 ¹/₂ ounces

Gum camphor ¹/₂ ounce

Pot chloride 1 ounce

Extract licorice, powdered 2 ounces

Molasses, q.s.

Make a mass. Dose: Tablespoonful in form of pill night and morning.

II.— Ammonium chloride 30 parts

Potassium nitrate 30 parts

Potassium sulphate in little crystals 100 parts

Licorice powder 65 parts

Mix. Dose: A ta­ble­spoon­ful, in a warm mash, 3 times daily.

Inflammation Of The Udder.

I.— Salicylic acid 40 grains

Mercurial ointment 1 ounce

Liniment of camphor 3 ¹/₄ ounces

Apply and rub the udder carefully twice a day.

II.— Belladonna root 1 drachm

Oil turpentine 1 ounce

Camphor 1 drachm

Solution green soap, q.s. 6 ounces

Mix and make a liniment. Bathe the udder several times with hot water. Dry and apply above liniment.

Mange.

Sulphur is a specific for mange; the trouble consists in its application. The {732} old-fashioned lotion of train oil and black sulphur serves well enough, but for stabled animals something is wanted which will effectually destroy the parasites in harness and saddlery without injury to those expensive materials. The creosote emulsions and coal-tar derivatives generally are fatal to the sarcopts if brought into actual contact, but a harness pad with ridges of accumulated grease is a sufficient retreat for a few pregnant females during a perfunctory disinfection, and but a few days will be needed to reproduce a new and vigorous stock. A cheap and efficient application can be made by boiling together flowers of sulphur and calcis hydras in the proportion of 4 parts of the former to 1 of the latter, and 100 of water, for half an hour. It should be applied warm, or immediately after washing with soft soap.

Milk Powder For Cows.

—For increasing the flow of milk, in cows, Hager recommends the following mixture:

Potassium nitrate 1 part

Alum 1 part

Sublimed sulphur 1 part

Prepared chalk 1 part

White bole 2 parts

Red clover 5 parts

Anise 10 parts

Fennel 10 parts

Salt 10 parts

All should be in tolerably fine powder and should be well mixed. The directions are to give 1 or 2 handfuls with the morning feed.

Laxatives.

I.— Aloes 1 drachm

Soap 12 drachms

Caraway 4 drachms

Ginger 4 drachms

Treacle, q.s.

Make 4 balls. Dose: 1 daily.

II.— Rochelle salts 2 ounces

Aloes, powdered 150 grains

Linseed meal 150 grains

One dose, given in warm water.

Lice.—

Crude oil 1 ounce

Oil tar 1 ounce

Oil cedar 1 drachm

Cottonseed oil 5 ounces

Apply to parts.

Domestic Pets.

The sarcoptic itch of the dog, as well as that of the cat, is transmissible to man.

The Tinea tonsurans, the so-called barbers’ itch, due to a trychophyton, and affecting both the dog and cat, is highly contagious to man. Favus, Tinea favos, caused by achorion schoenleini, of both animals, is readily transmissible to human beings. The dog carries in his intestines many kinds of tœnia (tapeworm), among them Tœnia echinococcus, the eggs of which cause hydatic cysts. Hydatic cysts occur in persons who are always surrounded with dogs, or in constant contact with them.

Aviar diphtheria (i.e., the diphtheria of birds), caused by at least two microbes (bacillus of Klebs-Loeffler and bacillus coli), may easily be transmitted to man and cause in him symptoms analogous to those of true diphtheritic angina.

Parrots are subject to an infectious enteritis which may be communicated to human beings, giving rise to the so-called psittacosis (from the Greek, psitta, a parrot), of which there have been a number of epidemics in France. It is determined by the bacillus of Nocard.

Human tuberculosis is certainly transmitted to dogs, cats, and birds. Cadiot, Gibert, Roger, Benjamin, Petit, and Basset, as well as other observers, cite cases where dogs, cats, and parrots, presenting all the lesions of tuberculosis, were shown to have contracted it from contact with human beings; while there are no recorded cases, there can scarcely be a natural doubt that man may, in a similar manner, become attainted through them, and that their tuberculosis constitutes an actual danger to man.

Need we recall here the extraordinary facility with which hydrophobia is communicated to man through the dog, cat, etc.?

We may, therefore, conclude that we should not permit these animals to take up so much space in our apartments, nor should they be petted and caressed either by adults or children in the reckless manner common in many households. The disgusting habit of teaching animals to take bits of food, lumps of sugar, etc., from between the lips of members of the family is also to be shunned.

Finally, any or all of them should be banished from the house the moment that they display certain morbid symptoms. Besides, in certain cases, there should be a rigid prophylaxis against certain diseases—as echinococcus, for instance.

Worms.—In cats and dogs, round worms, of which ascaris mystax is the {733} most common in cats, are found chiefly in young animals. This worm has hirsute appendages somewhat resembling a mustache. To treat an animal infected with such “guests,” the patient should be made to fast for 24 hours. For a small kitten ¹/₂ grain of santonin, up to a grain or two for large cats, followed in an hour by a dose of castor oil, is recommended. To avoid spilling the oil on the animal’s coat the “doctor” should have it heated and whipped with warm milk. Another way to get cats to take it is to smear it on the bottoms of their front feet, when they will lick it off.

Areca nut, freshly ground by the druggist himself and administered in liberal doses, say 30 to 60 grains, will usually drive out any worms in the alimentary canal.

It is important that animals successfully treated for worms once should undergo the treatment a second or third time, as all the parasites may not have been killed or removed the first time, or their progeny may have developed in the field vacated by the parents.

The following is an effective formula:

German wormseed, powdered 1 drachm

Fluid extract of spigelia 3 drachms

Fluid extract of senna 1 drachm

Fluid extract of valerian 1 drachm

Syrup of buckthorn 2 ounces

Dose: From ¹/₂ to 1 teaspoonful night and morning.

Foot Itch.

—The itch that affects the feet of poultry is contagious in a most insidious way. The various birds of a poultry yard in which the disease is prevalent, rarely contract it until after a comparatively long period of exposure, but sooner or later every bird will contract it. One infected bird is enough to infect a whole yard full, and once infected, it is exceedingly difficult to get rid of. The disease, however, affects birds only.

The treatment is simple. Having softened the feet by keeping them for some minutes in tepid water, the scabs that cover them are carefully detached, avoiding, as far as possible, causing them to bleed, and taking the precaution of throwing every scab into the fire. The feet are then carefully dried, with a bit of soft cotton material, which should afterwards be burned; then the entire surface is covered with ointment (Unguentum sulphuris kalinum). An alcoholic solution of Canada balsam is preferred by some. Protect the ointment by a proper appliance, and allow it to remain in contact 2 or 3 days. At the end of this time remove the applications and wash off with tepid suds. The bird will generally be found cured, but if not, repeat the treatment—removing the remaining scabs, which will be found soft enough without resorting to soaking in tepid water, and apply the ointment directly.

There is another method of treatment that has been found successful, which not only cures the infected birds but prevents the infection of others. It is simply providing a sand bath for the birds, under a little shed, where they can indulge themselves in rolling and scratching, the bath being composed of equal parts fine sand, charcoal in fine powder, ashes, and flowers of sulphur, sifted together. The bath should be renewed every week. In the course of a few weeks the cure is complete.

Foods.—

I.— Powdered egg shell or phosphate of lime 4 ounces

Iron sulphate 4 ounces

Powdered capsicum 4 ounces

Powdered Fœnugreek 2 ounces

Powdered black pepper 1 ounce

Silver sand 2 ounces

Powdered lentils 6 ounces

A ta­ble­spoon­ful to be mixed with sufficient feed for 20 hens.

II.— Oyster shell, ground 5 ounces

Magnesia 1 ounce

Calcium carbonate 3 ounces

Bone, ground 1 ¹/₂ ounces

Mustard bran 1 ¹/₂ ounces

Capsicum 1 ounce

Powders.—

I.— Cayenne pepper 2 parts

Allspice 4 parts

Ginger 6 parts

Powder and mix well together. A teaspoonful to be mixed with every pound of food, and fed 2 or 3 times a week. Also feed fresh meat, finely chopped.

II.— Powdered egg shells 4 parts

Powdered capsicum 4 parts

Sulphate of iron 4 parts

Powdered Fœnugreek 2 parts

Powdered black pepper 1 part

Sand 2 parts

Powdered dog biscuit 6 parts

A ta­ble­spoon­ful to be mixed with sufficient meal or porridge to feed 20 hens. {734}

Lice Powders.—

I.— Sulphur 4 ounces

Tobacco dust 6 ounces

Cedar oil ¹/₄ ounce

White hellebore 4 ounces

Crude naphthol 1 ounce

Powdered chalk, q.s. 2 pounds

II.— Sulphur 1 ounce

Carbolic acid ¹/₄ ounce

Crude naphthol 1 ounce

Powdered chalk 1 pound

Roup Or Gapes.

—Roup in poultry is caused by the presence of parasites or entozoa in the windpipe. Young birds are most commonly affected. The best method of treatment is to expose the affected bird to the fumes of heated carbolic acid until on the point of suffocation. The bird may be placed in a box with a hot brick, and carbolic acid placed thereon. The fowls soon recover from the incipient suffocation, and are almost always freed from the disease. Care must be taken to burn the parasites coughed out, and the bodies of any birds which may die of the disease. The following powders for the treatment of “roup” in poultry have been recommended:

I.— Potassium chlorate 1 ounce

Powdered cubebs 1 ounce

Powdered anise ¹/₂ ounce

Powdered licorice 1 ¹/₂ ounces

Mix a teaspoonful with the food for 20 hens.

II.— Ammonium chloride 1 ounce

Black antimony ¹/₄ ounce

Powdered anise ¹/₂ ounce

Powdered squill ¹/₄ ounce

Powdered licorice 2 ounces

Mix and use in the foregoing.

For Sheep:

Dips.—For the prevention of “scab” in sheep, which results from the burrowing of an acarus or the destruction of the parasite when present, various preparations of a somewhat similar character are used. The following formulas for sheep dips are recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture:

I.— Soap 1 pound

Crude carbolic acid 1 pint

Water 50 gallons

Dissolve the soap in a gallon or more of boiling water, add the acid, and stir thoroughly.

II.— Fresh skimmed milk 1 gallon

Kerosene 2 gallons

Churn together until emulsified, or mix and put into the mixture a force pump and direct the stream from the pump back into the mixture. The emulsification will take place more rapidly if the milk be added while boiling hot.

Use 1 gallon of this emulsion to each 10 gallons of water required.

Constipation.—

I.— Green soap 150 grains

Linseed oil 1 ¹/₂ ounces

Water 15 ounces

Give ¹/₅ every ¹/₂ hour till action takes place.

II.— Calomel 1 ¹/₂ grains

Sugar 15 grains

One dose.

Loss Of Appetite.—

Sodium sulphate, dried 90 grains

Sodium bicarbonate 30 grains

Rhubarb 30 grains

Calamus 90 grains

Form the mass into 6 pills. Give one twice daily.

Inflammation Of The Eyes.—

Zinc sulphate 20 grains

Mucilage quince seed 4 ounces

Distilled water 4 ounces

Bathe eyes twice daily.

VINEGAR

I.—Into a hogshead with a large bunghole put 1,500 parts, by weight, of honey, 125 parts of carob-pods, cut into pieces, 50 parts of powdered red or white potassium bitartrate, 125 parts of powdered tartaric acid, 2,000 parts of raisin stems, 400 parts of the best brewers’ yeast, or 500 of leaven rubbed up in water; add 16,000 parts of triple vinegar and 34,000 parts of 40 per cent spirit, containing no fusel oil. Stir all vigorously together; fill up the hogshead with hot water (100° F.), close the bunghole with gauze to keep out insects, and let the contents of the cask stand for from 4 to 6 weeks or until they have turned to vinegar. The temperature of the room should be from 77° to 88° F.

Draw off half the vinegar, and fill the hogshead up again with 15 parts of soft water and 1 part of spirit (40 per cent). Do this 4 times, then draw off all the vinegar and begin the first process over again. This method of making vinegar is suitable for households and small dealers, but would not suffice for {735} wholesale manufacturers, since it would take too long to produce any large amount.

II.—Put into an upright wine cask open at the top, 14,000 parts, by weight, of lukewarm water, 2,333 parts of 60 per cent alcohol, 500 parts of brown sugar, 125 parts of powdered red or white potassium bitartrate, 250 parts of good brewers’ yeast, or 125 parts of leaven, 1,125 parts of triple vinegar, and stir until the substances are dissolved. Lay a cloth and a perforated cover over the cask and let it stand in a temperature of 72° to 77° F. from 4 to 6 weeks; then draw off the vinegar. The thick deposit at the bottom, the “mother of vinegar,” so called, can be used in making more vinegar. Pour over it the same quantities of water and alcohol used at first; but after the vinegar has been drawn off twice, half the first quantity of sugar and potassium bitartrate, and the whole quantity of yeast, must be added. This makes excellent vinegar.

III.—A good strong vinegar for household use may be made from apple or pear peelings. Put the peelings in a stone jar (not glazed with lead) or in a cask, and pour over them water and a little vinegar, fermented beer, soured wine, or beet juice. Stir well, cover with a linen cloth and leave in a warm room. The vinegar will be ready in 2 or 3 weeks.

IV.—Two wooden casks of any desired size, with light covers, are provided. They may be called A and B. A is filled with vinegar, a tenth part of this is poured off into B, and an equal amount of fermented beer, wine, or any other sweet or vinous liquid, or a mixture of 1,125 parts, by weight, of alcohol, 11,500 to 14,000 parts of water, and 1,125 parts of beet juice, put into A.

When vinegar is needed, it is drawn out of B, an equal quantity is poured from A into B and the same quantity of vinegar-making liquids put into A. In this way vinegar is constantly being made and the process may go on for years, provided that the casks are large enough so that not more than a tenth of the contents of A is used in a week. If too much is used, so that the vinegar in the first cask becomes weak, the course of the vinegar making is disturbed for a long time, and this fact, whose importance has not been understood, prevents this method—in its essential principles the best—from being employed on a large scale. The surplus in A acts as a fermentative.

Aromatic Vinegar.

—I.—Sixteen ounces glacial acetic acid, 40 drops oil of cloves, 40 drops oil of rosemary, 40 drops oil of bergamot, 16 drops oil of neroli, 30 drops oil of lavender, 1 drachm benzoic acid,

1

/

2

ounce camphor, 30 to 40 drops compound tincture of lavender, 3 ounces spirit of wine. Dissolve the oils, the benzoic acid, and the camphor in the spirit of wine, mix with acetic acid and shake until bright, lastly adding the tincture of lavender to color.

II.—Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, mint, and lavender flowers, each ¹/₂ ounce; bruised nutmegs, cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each ¹/₄ of an ounce; rectified alcohol, 4 ounces; concentrated acetic acid, 16 ounces. Macerate the materials for a day in the alcohol; then add the acid and digest for 1 week longer at a temperature of 490° F. Finally press out the now aromatised acid and filter it.

Cider Vinegar.

—By “artificial vinegar” is meant vinegar made by the quick method with beechwood shavings. This cannot be carried out with any economy on a small scale, and requires a plant. A modification of the regular plan is as follows: Remove the head from a good tight whisky barrel, and put in a wooden faucet near the bottom. Fill the barrel with corn cobs and lay an empty coffee sack over them. Moisten the cobs by sprinkling them with some good, strong, natural vinegar, and let them soak for a few hours. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours draw off the vinegar and again moisten the cobs, repeating this until they are rendered sour throughout, adding each time 1 quart of high wines to the vinegar before throwing it back on the cobs. This prevents the vinegar from becoming flat, by the absorption of its acetic acid by the cobs. Mix a gallon of molasses with a gallon of high wine and 14 gallons of water and pour it on the cobs. Soak for 8 hours, then draw off and pour on the cobs again. Repeat this twice daily, until the vinegar becomes sour enough to suit. By having a battery of barrels, say 4 barrels prepared as above, the manufacture may be made remunerative, especially if the residue of sugar casks in place of molasses, and the remnants of ale, etc., from the bar-rooms around town are used. All sugar-containing fruit may be utilized for vinegar making.

VINEGAR, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

VINEGAR, TOILET: See Cosmetics. {736}

VIOLET AMMONIA: See Cosmetics.

VIOLET WATER: See Perfumes.

VIOLIN ROSIN: See Rosin.

VIOLIN VARNISH: See Varnishes.

VISCOSE: See Celluloid.

VOICE LOZENGES: See Confectionery.

VULCANIZATION OF RUBBER: See Rubber.

WAGON GREASE: See Lubricants.

WALLS, DAMP: See Household Formulas.

WALL AND WALL-PAPER CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, also Household Formulas.

WALL-PAPER DYES: See Dyes.

WALL-PAPER PASTE: See Adhesives.

WALL PAPER, REMOVAL OF: See Household Formulas.

WALL WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing and Household Formulas.

WALL PRIMING: See Paints.

WALNUT: See Wood.

WARMING BOTTLE: See Bottles.

WARPING, PREVENTION OF: See Wood.

WARTS

Wart Cure.—The following is especially useful in cases where the warts are very numerous:

I.— Chloral hydrate 1 part

Acetic acid 1 part

Salicylic acid 4 parts

Sulphuric ether 4 parts

Collodion 5 parts

Mix. Directions: Every morning apply the foregoing to the warts, painting one coat on another. Should the mass fall off without taking the warts with it, repeat the operation. Take, internally 10 grains of burnt magnesia daily.

II.— Sulphur 10 parts

Acetic acid 5 parts

Glycerine 25 parts

Keep the warts covered with this mixture.

WASHING FLUIDS AND POWDERS: See Laundry Preparations.

WASTE, PHOTOGRAPHIC, ITS DISPOSITION: See Photography.

WATCH—DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers’ Cements.

WATCH GILDING: See Plating.

WATCHMAKERS’ FORMULAS

Watch Manufacturers’ Alloys.

Some very tenacious and hard alloys, for making the parts of watches which are not sensitive to magnetism, are as follows:

I II III IV V VI VII

Platinum 62.75 62.75 62.75 54.32 0.5 0.5 —

Copper 18 16.20 16.20 16 18.5 18.5 25

Nickel 18 18 16.50 24.70 — 2 1

Cadmium 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 — — —

Cobalt — — 1.50 1.96 — — —

Tungsten — 1.80 1.80 1.77 — — —

Palladium — — — — 72 72 70

Silver — — — — 6.5 7 4

Rhodium — — — — 1 — —

Gold — — — — 1.5 — —

A non-magnetic alloy for watch-springs, wheels, etc.: Gold, 30 to 40 parts; palladium, 30 to 40 parts; copper, 10 to 20 parts; silver, 0.1 to 5 per cent; cobalt, 0.1 to 2.5 per cent; tungsten, 0.1 to 5 per cent; rhodium, 0.1 to 5 per cent; platinum, 0.1 to 5 per cent.

An Alloy For Watch Pinion Sockets.—Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 parts; copper, 39 parts; palladium, 1 part.

Replacing Rubies Whose Settings Have Deteriorated.

—Enlarge, with the squarer (steel brooch for enlarging holes), the hole of the old setting, and adjust it, with hard rubbing, to the extremity of a stem of pierced brass wire. Take the stem in an American nippers, and set the ruby at the extremity (the setting may be driven back by using a flat burnishing tool, very gently). Then take off with a cleaving file the part of the stem where the ruby is set, and diminish it to the thickness desired, by filing on the finger, or on cork. These operations finished,

{737}

a set stopper is obtained which now needs only to be solidly fixed at the suitable height, in the hole prepared.

To Straighten Bent Teeth.

—Bent teeth are straightened by means of the screwdriver used as a lever against the root of the adjacent teeth, and bent pivots may be held in the jaws of the pliers and the pinion bent with the fingers in the direction and to the extent required. For such a purpose, pliers having the jaws lined with brass are used so that the pivot is not bruised, and the bending has to be done with great care.

To Renew A Broken Barrel Tooth.

—Frequently, in consequence of the breaking of a spring, a tooth of a barrel is broken. Sometimes it may only be bent, in which case the blade of a penknife may be used with care. If 2 or 3 successive teeth are lacking, the best way is to change the barrel, but a single tooth may be easily renewed in this way: Drill a hole through the thickness of the tooth, taking care not to penetrate the drum; then fit in a piece of metal tightly and give it, as well as possible, the correct form of the tooth. To assure solidity, solder it; then clean and round the edges. Properly executed the repair will scarcely be noticed.

Heated Sawdust.

—Sawdust is known to have been employed from time immemorial by watchmakers and goldsmiths for the purpose of drying rinsed articles. The process of drying can be accelerated four-fold if the sawdust is heated before use. This must, however, be done with great caution and constant stirring.

To Repair A Dial, Etc., With Enamel Applied Cold.

—There are two kinds of false enamel for application, when cold, to damaged dials. The first, a mixture of white rosin and white lead, melts like sealing wax, which it closely resembles. It is advisable when about to apply it to gently heat the dial and the blade of a knife, and with the knife cut the piece of enamel of the requisite size and lay it on the dial. The new enamel must project somewhat above the old. When cold the surface is leveled by scraping, and a shining surface is at once produced by holding at a little distance from the flame of a spirit lamp. It is necessary to be very careful in conducting this operation, as the least excess of heat will burn the enamel and turn it yellow. It is, however, preferable to the following although more difficult to apply, as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon. The second false enamel contains white lead mixed with melted white wax. It is applied like cement, neatly filling up the space and afterwards rubbing with tissue paper to produce a shining surface. If rubbed with a knife blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored.

Lettering A Clock Dial.

—Painting Roman characters on a clock dial is not such a difficult task as might at first be imagined. If one has a set of drawing instruments and properly proportions the letters, it is really simple. The letters should be proportioned as follows: The breadth of an “I” and a space should equal

1

/

2

the breadth of an “X,” that is, if the “X” is

1

/

2

inch broad, the “I” will be

3

/

16

inch broad and the space between letters inch, thus making the “I” plus one space equal to

1

/

4

inch or half the breadth of an “X.” The “V’s” should be the same breadth as the “X’s.” After the letters have been laid off in pencil, outline them with a ruling pen and fill in with a small camel’s-hair brush, using gloss black paint thinned to the proper consistency to work well in the ruling pen. Using the ruling pen to outline the letters gives sharp straight edges, which it would be impossible to obtain with a brush in the hands of an inexperienced person.

Verification Of The Depthings.

—In the verge watches, the English watches, and those of analogous caliber, it is often difficult to verify the depthings, except by the touch. For this reason we often find the upper plate pierced over each depth. In the jeweled places, instead of perforating the upper plate, it suffices to deposit a drop of very limpid oil on the ruby, taking care that it does not scatter. In this manner a lens is formed and one may readily distinguish the depthing.

To Make Or Enlarge A Dial Hole.

—By wetting the graver or the file with spirit of turpentine, cracks may be avoided and the work will be accomplished much quicker.

To Repair A Repeating Clock-bell.

—When the bell is broken, whether short off or at a distance, file it away and pierce it, and after having sharpened a little the stem of the spring which remains, push by force, in the hole just made, a thin piece of solder (pewter). The sound will not have changed in any appreciable manner.

A seconds pendulum of a regulator, which has no compensation for temperature will cause the clock to lose about {738} 1 second per day for each 3 degrees of increase in heat. A watch without a compensation balance will lose 6.11 seconds in 24 hours for each increase of 1° F. in heat.

To Remedy Worn Pinions.

—Turn the leaves or rollers so that the worn places upon them will be toward the arbor or shaft and fasten them in that position. If they are “rolling pinions,” and they cannot be secured otherwise, a little soft solder should be used.

Watchmakers’ Oil.

—I.—Put some lead shavings into neat’s foot oil, and allow to stand for some time, the longer the better. The lead neutralizes the acid, and the result is an oil that never corrodes or thickens.

II.—Stir up for some time best olive oil with water kept at the boiling point; then after the two fluids have separated, decant the oil and shake up with a little freshly burned lime. Let the mixture stand for some weeks in a bottle exposed to the sunlight and air, but protected from wet and dirt. When filtered, the oil will be nearly colorless, perfectly limpid, and will never thicken or become rancid.

To Weaken A Balance Spring.

—A balance spring may need weakening; this is effected by grinding the spring thinner. Remove the spring from the collet and place it upon a piece of pegwood cut to fit the center cod. A piece of soft iron wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the coils and charged with a little powdered oilstone, will serve as a grinder, and with it the strength of the spring may soon be reduced. Operations will be confined to the center coil, for no other part of the spring will rest sufficiently against the wood to enable it to be ground, but this will generally suffice. The effect will be rather rapid; therefore care should be taken or the spring may be made too weak.

To Make A Clock Strike Correctly.

—Pry the plates apart on the striking side, slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having disconnected them from the train, turn them partly around and put them back. If still incorrect, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most will get them to work properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused by a wire acting on a small bellows which is connected with two small pipes like organ pipes.

To Reblack Clock Hands.

—One coat of asphaltum varnish will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and will dry in a few minutes.

To Tighten A Ruby Pin.

—Set the ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. It will become hard in a few minutes and be much firmer and better than the gum shellac, generally used.

To Loosen A Rusty Screw In A Watch Movement.

—Put a little oil around the screw; heat the head lightly by means of a red-hot iron rod, applying the same for 2 or 3 minutes. The rusty screw may then be removed as easily as though it had just been put in.

Gilding Watch Movements.

(See also Gilding.)—In gilding watch movements, the greatest care must be observed with regard to cleanliness. The work is first to be placed into a weak solution of caustic potash for a few minutes, and then rinsed in cold water. The movements are now to be dipped into pickling acid (nitrous acid) for an instant, and then plunged immediately into cold water. After being finally rinsed in hot water, they may be placed in the gilding bath and allowed to remain therein until they have received the required coating. A few seconds will generally be sufficient, as this class of work does not require to be very strongly gilt. When gilt, the movements are to be rinsed in warm water, and scratch-brushed; they may then be returned to the bath, for an instant, to give them a good color. Lastly, rinse in hot water and place the movements in clean box sawdust. An economical mode of gilding watch movements is to employ a copper anode—working from the solution, add 10 parts of cream of tartar and a corresponding quantity of elutriated chalk to obtain a pulp that can be put on with the brush. The gilding or silvering obtained in this manner is pretty, but of slight durability. At the present time this method is only seldom employed, since the electroplating affords a means of producing gilding and silvering in a handsome and comparatively cheap manner, the metallic coating having to be but very thin. Gold and silver for this kind of work are used in the form of potassium cyanide of gold or potassium cyanide of silver solutions, it being a custom to copper the zinc articles previously by the aid of a battery, since the appearance will then be much handsomer than on zinc alone. Gilding or silvering with leaf metal is done by polishing the surface of the zinc bright and coating it with a very tough linseed-oil varnish diluted with 10 times the quantity of benzol. The metallic leaf is then laid on and polished with an agate.

{739}

WATCHMAKERS’ CLEANING PREPARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

WATCH MOVEMENTS, PALLADIUM PLATING OF: See Plating.

WATER, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL

In making an artificial mineral water it must be remembered that it is seldom possible to reproduce the water by merely combining its chemical components. In other words, the analysis of the water cannot serve as a basis from which to prepare it, because even though all of the components were put together, many would be found insoluble, and others would form new chemical combinations, so that the result would differ widely from the mineral water imitated.

For example, carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime, which are important ingredients in most mineral waters, will not make a clear solution unless freshly precipitated. Hence, when these are to be reproduced in a mineral water it is customary to employ other substances, which will dissolve at once, and which will, upon combining, produce these salts. The order in which the salts are added is also a very important matter, for by dissolving the salts separately and then carefully combining them, solutions may be effected which would be impossible were all the salts added together to the water in the portable fountain.

In this connection the following table will be found useful:

Group I Ammonium carbonate. Ammonium chloride. Sodium borate (borax). Potassium carbonate. Potassium chloride. Potassium nitrate. Potassium sulphate. Sodium bromide. Sodium carbonate. Sodium chloride. Sodium fluoride. Sodium iodide. Sodium nitrate. Sodium phosphate. Sodium pyrophosphate. Sodium silicate. Sodium sulphate.

Group 2 Lithium carbonate.

Group 3 Aluminum chloride. Barium chloride. Calcium bromide. Calcium chloride. Calcium nitrate. Magnesium nitrate. Strontium chloride. Lithium chloride.

Group 4 Magnesium sulphate. Alum (potassa or soda alum).

Group 5 Lime carbonate. Magnesium carbonate hydrate. Lime sulphate precipitate.

Group 6 Lithium carbonate. Acid hydrochloric. Acid sulphuric. Iron chloride. Iron pyrophosphate. Iron sulphate. Manganese chloride. Manganese sulphate.

Group 7 Sodium arseniate, or sodium sulphide, or acid hydrosulphuric.

Explanation of Groups.—The explanation of the use of these groups is simple. When about to prepare an artificial mineral water, first ascertain from the formula which of the ingredients belong to group 1. These should be dissolved in water, and then be filtered and added to distilled water, and thoroughly agitated. Next the substance or substances belonging to group 2 should be dissolved in water, then filtered and added to the water, which should again be agitated. And so the operation should proceed; whatever ingredients are required from each group should be taken in turn, a solution made, and this solution, after being filtered, should be separately added to the fountain, and the latter be well agitated before the following solution is added.

For groups 1, 3, and 4, the salts should be dissolved in 5 times their weight of boiling, or 10 times their weight of cold, water. For group 2 (lithium carbonate) the proportions should be 1 part of lithium carbonate to about 130 parts of cold or boiling water. The substances mentioned in group 5 are added to the portable fountain in their solid state, and dissolve best when freshly precipitated. As carbonic acid gas aids their solution, it is best to charge the fountain after they are added, and agitate thoroughly, blowing off the charge afterwards if necessary.

In group 5 the lithium carbonate is dissolved in the acids (see also group 2), the iron and manganese salts are dissolved in 5 parts of boiling, or 10 parts of cold, water, the solution quickly filtered, the acids added to it, and the whole mixture added to the fountain already charged with gas, the cap being quickly taken off, and the solution poured in. The iron and manganese salts easily oxidize and produce turbidity, therefore the atmospheric air should be carefully {740} blown off under high pressure several times while charging fountains. The substances mentioned in group 7 are never put into the fountain, except the arseniate of sodium in the case of Vichy water, which contains but a trifling amount of this compound.

Most of the solutions may be prepared beforehand and be used when required, thus saving considerable time.

Formulas for various waters will be given at the end of this article.

A question which arises in preparing mineral waters is: What is the best charging pressure? As a general rule, they are charged to a lower pressure than plain soda; good authorities even recommend charging certain mineral waters as low as 30 pounds pressure to the square inch, but this seems much too low a pressure for the dispensing counter. From 50 to 120 pounds pressure would be a good limit, while plain soda may be served out as high as 180 pounds. There must be enough pressure completely to empty the fountain, while enabling sufficient gas to be retained by the water to give it a thorough pungency. Moreover, a high pressure to the mineral water enables a druggist at a pinch, when he runs out of plain soda, to use his Vichy water, instead, with the syruped drinks. The taste of the Vichy is not very perceptible when covered by the syrup, and most customers will not notice it.

Apollinaris Water.—

Sodium carbonate 2,835 grains

Sodium sulphate 335 grains

Sodium silicate 10 grains

Magnesium chloride 198 grains

Calcium chloride 40 grains

Potassa alum 57 grains

Magnesium carbonate hydrate 158 grains

Iron sulphate 21 grains

Hunyadi Water.—

Magnesium sulphate 400 parts

Sodium sulphate 400 parts

Potassium sulphate 2 parts

Sodium chloride 31 parts

Sodium bicarbonate 12 parts

Water 1 quart

Lithia Water.—

Lithium carbonate 120 grains

Sodium bicarbonate 1,100 grains

Carbonated water 10 gallons

For “still” lithia water, substitute lithium citrate for the carbonate in the above formula.

Seltzer Water.

—Hydrochloric acid (chemically pure), 2,520 grains; pure water, 40 ounces. Mix and add marble dust, 240 grains; carbonate of magnesium, 420 grains. Dissolve, and after 1 hour add bicarbonate of sodium, 2,540 grains. Dissolve, then add sufficient pure water to make 10 gallons. Filter and charge to 100 pounds pressure.

Vichy Water.

—The following formula, based on the analysis of Bauer-Struve, yields an imitation of

Vichy (Grande Grille).

Sodium iodide 0.016 parts

Sodium bromide 0.08 parts

Sodium phosphate 2 parts

Sodium silicate 80 parts

Potassium sulphate 125 parts

Sodium chloride 139 parts

Sodium carbonate 6,792 parts

Aluminum chloride 1 part

Strontium chloride 1 part

Ammonium chloride 3 parts

Magnesium chloride 24 parts

Calcium chloride 170 parts

Manganese sulphate 0.46 parts

Iron sulphate 1 part

Sulphuric acid 40 parts

Water to make 10 gallons

Mix the first 7 ingredients with about 10 times their weight of water and filter. In the same manner, mix the next 5 ingredients with water and filter; and then the last 3 ingredients. Pour these solutions into sufficient water contained in a fountain to make 10 gallons, and charge at once with carbon dioxide gas.

Waters like the above are more correctly named “imitation” than “artificial,” as the acidic and basic radicals may bear different relations to one another in the natural and the other.

PURIFYING WATER.

See also Filters.

If an emulsion of clay is poured into a soap solution, the clay gradually separates out without clarifying the liquid. When a few drops of hydrochloric acid, however, are added to a soap solution and a small quantity—about 1.5 per cent—of a clay emulsion poured in, the liquid clarifies at once, with formation of a plentiful sediment. Exactly the same process takes place when the waste waters from the combing process in spinning are treated with clay. The waters which remain turbid for several days contain 500 to 800 grams of fatty substances per cubic meter. If to 1 liter of this liquid 1 gram of clay is added, with 15 to 20 per cent of water, the liquid clarifies with separation of a sediment and assumes a golden-brown {741} color. Besides the fatty substances, this deposit also contains a certain quantity of nitrogenous bodies. Dried at (100° C.) 212° F., it weighs about 1.6 grams and contains 30 per cent of fat. The grease obtained from it is clear, of good quality, and deliquesces at 95° F. After removal of this fat, the mass still contains 1.19 per cent of nitrogen.

Sterilization of Water with Lime Chloride.

—In order to disinfect and sterilize 1,000 parts of drinking water, 0.15 parts of dry chloride of lime are sufficient. The lime is stirred with a little water into a thin paste and introduced, with stirring, into the water to be disinfected and a few drops of officinal hydrochloric acid are added. After

1

/

2

hour the clarification and disinfection is accomplished, whereupon 0.3 parts of calcium sulphite are added, in order to kill the unpleasant smell and taste of the chlorine.

Clarifying Muddy Water.

—The water supply from rivers is so muddy at times that it will not go through the filter. When this happens agitate each barrel of water with 2 pounds of phosphate of lime and allow it to settle. This will take but a few minutes, and it will be found that most of the impurities have been carried down to the bottom. The water can then be drawn off carefully and filtered.

Removal Of Iron From Drinking Water.

—The simplest method for removing the taste of iron in spring water is to pass the water through a filter containing a layer of tricalcic phosphate either in connection with other filtering materials or alone. The phosphate is first recovered in a gelatinous form, then dried and powdered.

For Hardness.

—A solution perfectly adapted to this purpose, and one which may be kept a long time, is prepared as follows:

Thirty-five parts of almond oil are mixed with 50 parts of glycerine of 1.26 specific gravity and 8.5 parts of 50 per cent soda lye, and boiled to saponification. To this mixture, when it has cooled to from 85° to 90° C. (185° to 194° F.), are added 100 to 125 parts of boiling water. After cooling again, 500 parts of water are added, and the solution is poured into a quart flask, with 94 per cent alcohol to make up a quart. After standing 2 months it is filtered. Twenty hydrolimeter degrees of this solution make, with 40 parts of a solution of 0.55 grams of barium chloride in 1 quart of water, a dense lather 1 centimeter high.

WATER (COPPER): See Copper.

WATER ICES: See Ice Creams.

WATER, TO FREEZE: See Refrigeration.

WATER JACKETS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTIONS FOR: See Freezing Preventives.

WATER SPOTS, PRIMING FOR: See Paint.

WATER STAINS: See Wood.

WATER-LILY ROOTS: See Pyrotechnics.

WATER, STIRRED YELLOW, SCARLET AND COLORLESS: See Pyrotechnics.

WATERS (TOILET): See Cosmetics.

WATER-GLASS CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

WATER GLASS IN STEREOCHROMATIC PAINTING: See Stereochromy.

WATERPROOFING

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Preservatives, Varnishes.)

Waterproofing Brick Arches.

—Waterproofing of brick arches is done in the following manner: The masonry is first smoothed over with cement mortar. This is then covered with a special compound on which a layer of Hydrex felt is laid so as to lap at least 12 inches on the transverse seams. Five layers of compound and 5 of felt are used, and special attention is paid to securing tightness around the drain pipes and at the spandrel walls. In fact the belt is carried up the back of the latter and turned into the joint under the coping about 2 inches, where it is held with cement mortar. The waterproofing on the arches is protected with 1 inch of cement mortar and that on the walls with a single course of brickwork.

Waterproofing Blue Prints.

—Use refined paraffine, and apply by immersing the print in the melted wax, or more conveniently as follows: Immerse in melted paraffine until saturated, a number of pieces of an absorbent cloth a foot or more square. When withdrawn and cooled they are ready for use at any time.

{742}

To apply to a blue print, spread one of the saturated cloths on a smooth surface, place the dry print on it with a second waxed cloth on top, and iron with a moderately hot flatiron. The paper immediately absorbs paraffine until saturated, and becomes translucent and highly waterproofed. The lines of the print are intensified by the process, and there is no shrinking or distortion. As the wax is withdrawn from the cloths, more can be added by melting small pieces directly under the iron.

By immersing the print in a bath of melted paraffine the process is hastened, but the ironing is necessary to remove the surplus wax from the surface, unless the paper is to be directly exposed to the weather and not to be handled. The irons can be heated in most offices by gas or over a lamp, and a supply of saturated cloths obviates the necessity of the bath. This process, which was originally applied to blue prints to be carried by the engineer corps in wet mines, is equally applicable to any kind of paper, and is convenient for waterproofing typewritten or other notices to be posted up and exposed to the weather.

Waterproof Coatings.

—I.—Rosin oil, 50 parts; rosin, 30 parts; white soap, 9 parts. Apply hot on the surfaces to be protected.

II.—It has been observed that when gluten dried at an ordinary temperature, hence capable of absorbing water, is mixed with glycerine and heated, it becomes water-repelling and suitable for a waterproof paint. One part of gluten is mixed with parts of glycerine, whereby a slimy mass is obtained which is applied on fabrics subsequently subjected to a heat of 248° F. The heating should not last until all glycerine has evaporated, otherwise the coating becomes brittle and peels off.

Waterproofing Canvas.

—I.—The canvas is coated with a mixture of the three solutions named below:

1. Gelatin, 50 parts; by weight, boiled in 3,000 parts of water free from lime. 2. Alum, 100 parts, dissolved in 3,000 parts of water. 3. Soda soap dissolved in 2,000 parts of water.

II.—Prepare a zinc soap by entirely dissolving 56 parts of soft soap in 125 to 150 parts of water. To the boiling liquid add, with constant stirring, 28 to 33 parts of zinc vitriol (white vitriol). The zinc soap floats on top and forms, after cooling, a hard white mass, which is taken out. In order to clean it of admixed carbonic alkali, it must be remelted in boiling fresh water. Next place 232.5 parts of raw linseed oil (free from mucus) in a kettle with 2.5 parts of best potash, and 5 parts of water. This mass is boiled until it has become white and opaque and forms a liquid, soap-like compound. Now, add sugar of lead, 1.25 parts; litharge, 1 part; red lead, 2 parts; and brown rosin, 10.5 parts. The whole is boiled together about 1 hour, the temperature not being allowed to exceed 212° F., and stirring well from time to time. After this add 15 parts of zinc soap and stir the whole until the metal soap has combined with the oil, the temperature not exceeding 212° F. When the mixture is complete, add a solution of caoutchouc, 1.2 parts, and oil of turpentine, 8.56 parts, which must be well incorporated by stirring. The material is first coated on one side by means of a brush with this composition, which must have a temperature of 158° F. Thereupon hang it up to dry, then apply a second layer of composition possessing the same temperature, which is likewise allowed to dry. The fiber is now filled out, so that the canvas is waterproof.

Waterproofing Corks.

—For the purpose of making corks as impervious as possible, while at the same time keeping them elastic, saturate them with caoutchouc solution. Dissolve caoutchouc in benzine in the ratio of 1 part of caoutchouc to 19 parts of benzine. Into this liquid lay the corks to be impregnated and subject them to a pressure of 150 to 180 pounds by means of a force pump, so that the liquid can thoroughly enter. The corks thus treated must next be exposed to a strong draught of air until all trace of benzine has entirely evaporated and no more smell is noticeable.

Waterproofing Fabrics.

It will be convenient to divide waterproof fabrics into two classes, viz., those which are impervious to water, and those which are water-repellent. It is important to make this distinction, for, although all waterproof material is made for the purpose of resisting water, there is a vast difference between the two classes. The physical difference between them can be briefly summed up as follows: Fabrics which are completely impervious to water comprise oil-skins, mackintoshes, and all materials having a water-resisting film on one or both sides, or in the interior of the fabric. Those coming under the second heading of water-repellent materials do not possess {743} this film, but have their fibers so treated as to offer less attraction to the water than the water molecules have for themselves.

The principal members of the first group are the rubber-proofed goods; in these the agent employed is rubber in greater or less quantity, together with other bodies of varying properties. Before enlarging on this class, it will be necessary to give a short description of the chemical and physical properties of rubber.

Rubber, or caoutchouc, is a natural gum exuding from a large number of plants, those of the Euphorbiaceæ being the chief source for the commercial variety. The raw material appears on the market in the shape of blocks, cakes, or bottle-shaped masses, according to the manner in which it has been collected. It possesses a dark-brown—sometimes nearly black-exterior; the interior of the mass is of a lighter shade, and varies from a dingy brown to a dirty white, the color depending on the different brands and sources. In the raw state its properties are very different from what they are after going through the various manufacturing processes, and it has only a few of the characteristics which are generally associated with India rubber. Chemically it is a complex hydrocarbon with the formula C₄₅H₃₆, and appears to consist of a highly porous network of cells having several different rosins in their interstices. It is perfectly soluble in no single solvent, but will yield some of its constituents to many different solvents. At a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) raw caoutchouc is a solid body and possesses very little elasticity. At 36° C. (97° F.) it is soft and elastic to a high degree, and is capable of being stretched 16 times its length. Further increase of temperature lessens its elastic properties, and at 120° C. (248° F.) it melts. While in the raw condition it has several peculiar properties, one of which is: After stretching, and cooling suddenly while stretched, it retains its new form, and only regains its former shape on being warmed. Another striking feature is its strong adhesive capacity; this property is so powerful that the rubber cannot be cut with a knife unless the blade is wet; and freshly cut portions, if pressed together, will adhere and form a homogeneous mass. From these facts it will be seen how it differs from rubber in the shape of a cycle tire or other manufactured form.

The most valuable property possessed by raw caoutchouc is that of entering into chemical combination with sulphur, after which its elasticity is much increased; it will then bear far greater gradations of heat and cold. This chemical treatment of caoutchouc with sulphur is known as “vulcanizing,” and, if properly carried out, will yield either soft vulcanized rubber or the hard variety known as vulcanite. On the other hand, caoutchouc, after vulcanizing, has lost its plastic nature, and can no longer be molded into various shapes, so that in the production of stamped or molded objects, the customary method is to form them in unvulcanized rubber and then to vulcanize them.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Raw caoutchouc contains a number of natural impurities, such as sand, twigs, soil, etc.; these require removing before the manufacturing processes can be carried out. The first operation, after rough washing, is to shred the raw material into small strips, so as to enable the impurities to be washed out. This process is carried out by pressing the rubber against the surface of a revolving drum (A, Fig. 1), carrying a number of diagonally arranged knives, B, on its surface. A lever, C, presses the rubber against the knives; D is the fulcrum on which C works, E being a weight which throws back the lever on the pressure being removed. During {744} this operation a jet of water is kept playing onto the knives to cool and enable them to cut.

Following this comes the passage between a pair of corrugated steel rollers (as shown in Fig. 2). These rollers have each a different speed, so that the rubber gets stretched and squeezed at the same time. Immediately over the rollers a water pipe is fixed, so that a steady stream of water washes out all the sand and other extraneous matter. In Fig. 2, AA are the steel rollers, while B is a screw working springs which regulate the pressure between the rollers. The power is transmitted from below from the pulley, C, and thence to the gearing.

Fig. 3

The next operation, after well drying, is to thoroughly masticate the shredded rubber between hot steel rollers, which resemble those already described, but usually have a screw-thread cut on their surfaces. Fig. 3 shows the front view of this masticating machine, A being the rollers, while the steam pipe for heating is shown at B. Fig. 3a gives a top view of the same machine, showing the two rollers.

Fig. 3A

After passing several times through these, the rubber will be in the form of homogeneous strips, and is then ready either for molding or dissolving. As we are dealing solely with waterproofed textiles, the next process which concerns us is the dissolving of the rubber in a suitable solvent. Benzol, carbon bisulphide, oil of turpentine, ether, and absolute alcohol, will each dissolve a certain amount of rubber, but no one of them used alone gives a thorough solution. The agent commonly employed is carbon bisulphide, together with 10 per cent of absolute alcohol. Whatever solvent is used, after being steeped in it for some hours the caoutchouc swells out enormously, and then requires the addition of some other solvent to effect a complete solution. A general method is to place the finely shredded rubber in a closed vessel, to cover it with carbon bisulphide, and allow to stand for some hours. Toward the end of the time the vessel is warmed by means of a steam coil or jacket, and 10 parts absolute alcohol are added for every 100 parts of carbon bisulphide. The whole is then kept gently stirred for a few hours. Fig. 4 shows a common type of the vessel used for dissolving rubber. In this diagram A is the interior of the vessel, and B a revolving mixer in the same. The whole vessel is surrounded by a steam jacket, C, with a steam inlet at D and a tap for condensed water at E. F is the cock by which the solution is drawn off.