BOOK IV. AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS.

The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia2083, and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs. Upon it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again, upon the other sea2084, the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little the longer upon it.

Epirus2085, generally so called, begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from whom Chaonia2086 receives its name, then the Thesproti2087, and then the Antigonenses2088. We then come to the place where Aornos2089 stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered race, the Cestrini2090, the Perrhæbi2091, in whose country Mount Pindus is situate, the Cassiopæi2092, the Dryopes2093, the Sellæ2094, the Hellopes2095, the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount Tomarus2096, so highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred springs gushing from its foot.

(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previously2097 mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race. On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and the nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the Denselatæ join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus.

On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimæra2098, situate upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as the Royal Waters2099; then the towns of Mæandria, and Cestria2100, the Thyamis2101, a river of Thesprotia, the colony of Buthrotum2102, and the Ambracian Gulf2103, so famed in history; which, with an inlet only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from the sea, being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia, flows into it2104 after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon this Gulf is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the Arachthus2105, rivers of the Molossi; the city of Anactoria2106, and the place where Pandosia2107 stood.

CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA.

The towns of Acarnania2108, the ancient name of which was Curetis, are Heraclia2109, Echinus2110, and, on the coast, Actium, a colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and the free city of Nicopolis2111. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the Promontory of Leucate2112, and then the Gulf and the peninsula of Leucadia2113, which last was formerly called Neritis2114. By the exertions of the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland, but was again joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos2115, and is three stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas, formerly called Neritus2116. We next come to Alyzia2117, Stratos2118, and Argos2119, surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians: the river Acheloüs2120 flows from the heights of Pindus, and, after separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of Artemita2121 to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth which it brings down its stream.

CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA.

The peoples of Ætolia are the Athamanes2122, the Tymphæi2123, the Ephyri2124, the Ænienses, the Perrhæbi2125, the Dolopes2126, the Maraces, and the Atraces2127, in whose territory rises the river Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon2128 is a city of Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near the banks of the river Evenus2129. We then come to Macynia2130, and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis2131 and Taphiassus. On the coast again, there is the promontory of Antirrhium2132, off which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being less2133 than one mile in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side is called Rhion2134. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf are Naupactus2135 and Pylene2136; and, more inland, Pleuron and Halicyrna2137. The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the district of Dodona, Crania2138 in Ambracia, Aracynthus2139 in Acarnania, and Acanthon2140, Panætolium2141, and Macynium2142, in Ætolia.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS.

Next to Ætolia are the Locri2143, surnamed Ozolæ; a people exempt from tribute. Here is the town of Œanthe2144, the port2145 of Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of Crissa2146. In the interior are the towns of Argyna, Eupalia2147, Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond are the Cirrhæan plains of Phocis, the town of Cirrha2148, and the port of Chalæon2149, seven miles from which, in the interior, is situate the free town of Delphi2150, at the foot of Mount Parnassus2151, and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole world. There is the Fountain too of Castalia2152, and the river Cephisus2153 which flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of Lilæa2154. Besides these, there is the town of Crissa2155 and that of Anticyra2156, with the Bulenses2157; as also Naulochum2158, Pyrrha, Amphissa2159, exempt from all tribute, Tithrone, Tritea2160, Ambrysus2161, and Drymæa2162, which district has also the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one corner of Bœotia, with its towns of Siphæ2163 and Thebes2164, surnamed the Corsian, in the vicinity of Helicon2165. The third town of Bœotia on this sea is that of Pagæ2166, from which point the Isthmus of the Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS.

The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia2167 and Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of the earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægean and the Ionian, it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the angular indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences is known by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the north and the east, invade the land from opposite sides2168, and swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that through these inroads in opposite directions of such vast bodies of water, the sides of the land are eaten away to such an extent, that Hellas2169 only holds on to the Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes. The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on that, are known as the Corinthian2170 and the Saronic Gulfs. The ports of Lecheæ2171, on the one side, and of Cenchreæ on the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage, which thus compels to a tedious and perilous circumnavigation such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King Demetrius2172, Cæsar the Dictator, the prince Caius2173, and Domitius Nero2174, have at different times made the attempt to cut through this neck by forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as may be clearly seen by the result2175 in every one of these instances.

Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the name of Ephyre2176, situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the “Heights of Corinth,” and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ upon the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The colony of Patræ2177 is founded upon the most extensive promontory of the Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previously2178 stated, less than a mile in width at the entrance there, though extending in length as far as the isthmus, a distance of eighty-five miles.

CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA.

The province called Achaia2179 begins at the Isthmus; from the circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its coast, it formerly had the name of Ægialos2180. The first place there is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to which is Olyros2181, a fortress of the people of Pellene2182; then the former towns of Helice and Bura2183, and the places in which their inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by the sea, Sicyon2184 namely, Ægira2185, Ægium, and Erineos2186. In the interior are Cleonæ and Hysiæ2187; then come the port of Panormus2188, and Rhium already mentioned; from which promontory, Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles; and then the place where Pheræ2189 stood. Of the nine mountains of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the Fountain of Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of Olenum2190, the colony of Dyme2191, the places where Buprasium2192 and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of Araxus2193, the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates, at five miles’ distance from Cyllene2194. There is also the fortress of Phlius2195; the district around which was called by Homer Aræthyrea2196, and, after his time, Asopis.

The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly called Epei, with the city of Elis2197 in the interior, and, at a distance of twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its games, gives to Greece its mode of reckoning2198. Here too once stood the town of Pisa2199, the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is the Promontory of Ichthys2200. The river Alpheus is navigable six miles, nearly as far as the towns of Aulon2201 and Leprion. We next come to the Promontory of Platanodes2202. All these localities lie to the west.

CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA.

Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of Cyparissa2203 on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles in length. Then, the towns of Pylos2204 and Methone2205, the place where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas2206, the Asinæan Gulf, which takes its name from the town of Asine2207, and the Coronean, so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the Promontory of Tænarum2208. These are all in the country of Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and the river Pamisus2209 also. In the interior are Messene2210, Ithome, Œchalia, Arene2211, Pteleon, Thryon, Dorion2212, and Zancle2213, all of them known to fame at different periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance across being thirty.

CHAP. 8.—LACONIA.

At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The towns are, Tænarum2214, Amyclæ2215, Pheræ2216, and Leuctra2217; and, in the interior, Sparta2218, Theramne2219, and the spots where Cardamyle2220, Pitane2221, and Anthea formerly stood; the former site of Thyrea2222, and Gerania2223. Here is also Mount Taygetus2224, the river Eurotas, the Gulf of Ægilodes2225, the town of Psamathus, the Gulf of Gytheum2226, so called from the town of that name, from which place the passage is the safest across to the island of Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of Malea2227.

CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS.

The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllæum2228, is called the Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The towns upon it are, Bœa2229, Epidaurus2230, surnamed Limera, Zarax2231, and the port of Cyphanta2232. The rivers are the Inachus2233 and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed Hippium2234, situate beyond the place called Lerna2235, and at a distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is Mycenæ2236, and the place where, it is said, Tiryns2237 stood; the site, too, of Mantinea2238. The mountains are, Artemius, Apesantus2239, Asterion2240, Parparus, and some others, eleven in number. The fountains are those of Niobe2241, Amymone, and Psamathe.

From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177 miles. We find here the towns of Hermione2242, Trœzen2243, Coryphasium2244, and Argos, sometimes called “Inachian,” sometimes “Dipsian”2245 Argos. Then comes the port of Schœnites2246, and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly encircled with a grove of oaks2247, from which it derives its present name, oaks in ancient Greece having been so called. Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for its temple of Æsculapius2248, the Promontory of Spiræum2249, the port of Anthedus2250, Bucephalus2251, and then Cenchreæ, previously mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of Neptune2252, famous for the games celebrated there every five years. So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus, so many the seas which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.; which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the coast of Attica.

CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA.

Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which, remote from the sea on every side, was originally called Drymodes2253, and at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia are, Psophis2254, Mantinea2255, Stymphalus2256, Tegea2257, Antigonea2258, Orchomenus2259, Pheneum2260, Palantium2261 (from which the Palatium2262 at Rome derives its name), Megalopolis2263, Gortyna2264, Bucolium, Carnion, Parrhasia2265, Thelpusa2266, Melænæ2267, Heræa2268, Pylæ2269, Pallene, Agræ, Epium, Cynæthæ2270, Lepreon of Arcadia2271, Parthenium2272, Alea, Methydrium2273, Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, Clitorium2274, and Cleonæ2275; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea, commonly known as Bembinadia2276.

The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoë2277, with a town of the same name, Cyllene2278, Lycæus2279, upon which is the temple of Lycæan Jupiter; Mænalus2280, Artemisius2281, Parthenius2282, Lampeus2283, and Nonacris2284, besides eight others of no note. The rivers are the Ladon2285, which rises in the marshes of Pheneus2286, and the Erymanthus2287, which springs from a mountain of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus.

The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the Aliphiræi2288, the Abeatæ2289, the Pyrgenses2290, the Paroreatæ2291, the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the Typanei2292, the Thriasii2293, and the Tritienses2294. Domitius Nero [the emperor] granted liberty to the whole of Achaia2295. The Peloponnesus, from the Promontory of Malea to the town of Ægium2296 on the Corinthian Gulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to Epidaurus; the distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already mentioned2297. Throughout the whole of this region, as though nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea, seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads.

CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA.

At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people known as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica, anciently called Acte2298. It touches the Isthmus in that part of it which is called Megaris, from the colony of Megara2299, lying on the opposite side to Pagæ2300.

These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side, upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well as the people of Ægosthena2301, belong to the jurisdiction of Megara. On the coast there is the port of Schœnos2302, the towns of Sidus2303 and Cremmyon2304, the Scironian Rocks2305, six miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and Eleusis2306. Œnoë2307 and Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and Phalerum2308 are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wall2309 five miles in length. Athens is a free city, and needs2310 not a word more from us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough. In Attica there are the Fountains of Cephisia2311, Larine, Callirrhoë Enneacrunos2312, and the mountains of Brilessus2313, Ægialeus, Icarius, Hymettus2314, Lycabettus2315, and the place where Ilissus2316 stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from the Piræus is the Promontory of Sunium2317. There is also the Promontory of Thoricos2318; Potamos2319, Steria2320, and Brauron2321, once towns, the borough of Rhamnus2322, the place where Marathon2323 stood, the Thriasian2324 plain, the town of Melite2325, and Oropus2326 upon the confines of Bœotia.

CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA.

In this country are Anthedon2327, Onchestus2328, the free town of Thespiæ2329, Lebadea2330, and then Thebes2331, surnamed Bœotian2332, which does not yield the palm to Athens even in celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also belong the forest of Cithæron2333, and the river Ismenus. Besides these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe, Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, Hippocrene2334, Aganippe, and Gargaphie; and, besides the mountains already mentioned, Mycalesos, Hadylius, and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and Thebes are Eleutheræ2335, Haliartus2336, Platææ2337, Pheræ, Aspledon2338, Hyle2339, Thisbe2340, Erythræ2341, Glissas2342, and Copæ2343; near the river Cephisus, Larymna and Anchoa2344; as also Medeon, Phlygone, Acræphia2345, Coronea2346, and Chæronea2347. Again, on the coast and below Thebes, are Ocalea2348, Heleon, Scolos, Schœnos2349, Peteon2350, Hyriæ2351, Mycalesos2352, Iresion, Pteleon, Olyros, and Tanagra2353, the people of which are free; and, situate upon the very mouth of the Euripus2354, a strait formed by the opposite island of Eubœa, Aulis2355, so famous for its capacious harbour. The Bœotians formerly had the name of Hyantes.

After them come the Locrians, surnamed Epicnemidii2356, formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are Opus2357; from which the Opuntian Gulf2358 takes its name, and Cynos. Daphnus2359 is the only town of Phocis situate on the coast. In the interior of Locris is Elatea2360, and on the banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously stated2361, Lilæa, and, facing Delphi, Cnemisæ2362 and Hyampolisæ2363. Again, upon the coast of the Locrians, are Larymna2364, and Thronium2365, near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of Narycion, Alope2366, and Scarphia2367; and then the gulf which receives the name of the Maliac2368 from the people who dwell there, and upon which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara2369.

CHAP. 13.—DORIS.

Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios2370, Erineon2371, Boion2372, Pindus, and Cytinum2373. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta.

CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS.

Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name, having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly, and Dryopis, always taking its surname from its kings. In this country was born the king whose name was Græcus; and from whom Græcia was so called; and here too was born Hellen2374, from whom the Hellenes derive their name. The same people Homer has called by three different names, Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.

That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent to Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are Echinus2375, at the mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow pass of Thermopylæ2376, Heraclea, which from it takes its surname of Trachin2377. Here too is Mount Callidromus2378, and the celebrated towns of Hellas2379, Halos2380, Lamia2381, Phthia2382, and Arne2383.

CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER.

In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan2384, and the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax2385, and Pelinna; the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of Pheræ2386, at the back of which is Pieria2387, extending to Macedonia, Larisa2388, Gomphi2389, Thebes2390 of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the Gulf of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa2391, which was afterwards called Demetrias2392, the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar name2393, Crannon2394, and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis are Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, Bermius2395, Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas, and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the most famous are Cercetii, Olympus2396, Pierus, and Ossa, opposite to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the Lapithæ. These mountains look towards the west, Pelion2397 towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphitheatre, in the interior of which, lying before them, are no less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the Apidanus2398, the Phœnix2399, the Enipeus2400, the Onochonus2401, and the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and the lake Bœbeis2402. The river Peneus2403 too, superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through which this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe; being a jugerum2404 and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right and left, the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of verdant herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its waters, which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer says2405; and then, after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to mingle with his silvery streams.

CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA.

To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of Libethra2406. Its towns are Iolcos2407, Hormenium, Pyrrha2408, Methone2409, and Olizon2410. The Promontory of Sepias2411 is here situate. We then come to the towns of Casthanea2412 and Spalathra2413, the Promontory of Æantium2414, the towns of Melibœa2415, Rhizus, and Erymnæ2416; the mouth of the Peneus, the towns of Homolium2417, Orthe, Thespiæ, Phalanna2418, Thaumacie2419, Gyrton2420, Crannon2421, Acharne2422, Dotion2423, Melitæa, Phylace2424, and Potniæ2425. The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the breadth to 287.

CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA.

Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for its two kings2426 and its former empire over the world; it was formerly known by the name of Emathia2427. Stretching away towards the nations of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself exposed to the attacks of the Dardani2428. Pæonia and Pelagonia protect its northern parts from the Triballi2429. Its towns are Ægiæ2430, at which place its kings were usually buried, Beræa2431, and, in the country called Pieria from the grove of that name, Æginium2432. Upon the coast are Heraclea2433, the river Apilas2434, the towns of Pydna2435 and Aloros2436, and the river Haliacmon2437. In the interior are the Aloritæ2438, the Vallæi2439, the Phylacæi, the Cyrrhestæ2440, the Tyrissæi, the colony of Pella2441, and Stobi2442, a town with the rights of Roman citizens. Next comes Antigonea2443, Europus2444 upon the river Axius, and another place of the same name by which the Rhœdias flows, Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then, upon the coast, Ichnæ2445, and the river Axius; along this frontier the Dardani, the Treres2446, and the Pieres, border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the nations of Pæonia2447, the Paroræi2448, the Eordenses2449, the Almopii2450, the Pelagones, and the Mygdones2451.

Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus; and, lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains, the Arethusii2452, the Antiochienses2453, the Idomenenses2454, the Doberi2455, the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the Morylli, the Garesci2456, the Lyncestæ2457, the Othryonei2458, and the Amantini2459 and Orestæ2460, both of them free peoples; the colonies of Bullis2461 and Dium2462, the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi, a free people, Heraclea Sintica2463, the Tymphæi2464, and the Toronæi.

Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of Chalastra2465, and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica2466, a free city; (from this place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles2467,) and then Thermæ2468. Upon the Gulf2469 of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, Pydna2470, Derra, Scione2471, the Promontory of Canastræum2472, and the towns of Pallene2473 and Phlegra. In this region also are the mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns of Nyssos2474, Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly Potidæa2475 on the isthmus of Pallene, but now the Colony of Cassandria; Anthemus2476, Olophyxus2477, and the Gulf of Mecyberna2478; the towns of Miscella, Ampelos2479, Torone2480, Singos2481, and the canal, a mile and a half in length, by means of which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount Athos2482 from the main land. This mountain projects from the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea, a distance of seventy-five2483 miles; its circumference at its base being 150 miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit the town of Acroathon2484: the present towns are Uranopolis2485, Palæorium, Thyssus, Cleonæ2486, and Apollonia, the inhabitants of which have the surname of Macrobii2487. The town also of Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after which come Acanthus2488, Stagira2489, Sithone2490, Heraclea2491, and the country of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some distance from the sea, Apollonia2492 and Arethusa. Again, upon the coast we have Posidium2493, and the bay with the town of Cermorus, Amphipolis2494, a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We then come to the river Strymon2495 which takes its rise in Mount Hæmus2496 and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of remark that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it proceeds onward in its course.

Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world, which once extended2497 her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which reduced the whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved the conqueror of India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father Liber2498 and of Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-two2499 cities in one day. So great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions of two2500 individuals!

CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA.

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies2501, and to be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltæ above2502 mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of tribes of the Bessi2503, with various names, as far as the river Mestus2504, which winds around the foot of Mount Pangæum2505, passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi2506, the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The territory of the Odrysæ2507 gives birth to the Hebrus2508, its banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the Edoni2509. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first called Poneropolis2510, afterwards Philippopolis2511 from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation, Trimontium2512. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel six2513 miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi2514, the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi Sarmatæ2515, also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet Orpheus2516, dwell.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and the Propontis2517 on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn to Apollonia2518, Œsyma2519, Neapolis2520 and Datos. In the interior is the colony of Philippi2521, distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also Scotussa2522, the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river Mestus2523, Mount Pangæus, Heraclea2524, Olynthos2525, Abdera2526, a free city, the people of the Bistones2527 and their Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables of the horses2528 of Diomedes. At the present day we find here Dicæa2529, Ismaron2530, the place where Parthenion stood, Phalesina, and Maronea2531, formerly called Orthagorea. We then come to Mount Serrium2532 and Zone2533, and then the place called Doriscus2534, capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the Hebrus2535, the Port of Stentor, and the free town of Ænos2536, with the tomb there of Polydorus2537, the region formerly of the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron Tichos2538, or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas2539 receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela2540, Bisanthe2541, and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the Chersonesus2542, which projects beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast2543 of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, Histropolis2544, namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi2545, and Callatis2546, formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has Dionysopolis2547, formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Gerania2548, where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus2549, a city of the Milesians, the river Panysus2550, and the town of Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of Aristæum2551. At the present day there are upon the coast Mesembria2552, and Anchialum2553, where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia2554 occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias2555, Halmydessos2556, Develton2557, with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the Bosporus2558. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes2559, and two harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the other the Women’s Haven. Next comes the promontory of Chrysoceras2560, upon which is the town of Byzantium2561, a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras2562, or Athyras, and the towns of Selymbria2563 and Perinthus2564, which join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya2565, a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime of Tereus2566; the district called Cænica2567, and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is the river Erginus2568; here formerly stood the town of Ganos2569; and Lysimachia2570 in the Chersonesus is being now gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmus2571, similar in name to the other2572, and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia2573 on that of the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape2574 which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with Lysimachia2575, which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa2576, on the banks of the river Ægos2577; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two2578 miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we have already2579 stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, Callipolis2580 and Sestos2581 in Europe, and Lampsacus2582 and Abydos2583 in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of Mastusia2584, lying opposite to Sigeum2585; upon one side of it stands the Cynossema2586 (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval station2587 of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrine2588 of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos2589, Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been already2590 mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of Æx2591 from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of Myrtoan2592, being so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from Carystus2593 in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of Corcyra2594, with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are free; also a town called Cassiope2595, and a temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as Thoronos2596, lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of Paxos2597 in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from Corcyra. Not far2598 from these, and in front of Corcyra, are Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum2599, a promontory of Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.

Before Leucimna2600 we find the islands of Sybota, and between Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those called Teleboïdes2601, as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and Prinoessa2602; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the Echinades2603, consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia2604 and Zacynthus2605, both of them free, Ithaca2606, Dulichium2607, Same2608, and Crocyle2609. Cephallenia, formerly known as Melæna2610, lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three others2611. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain of Elatus2612. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus2613; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is Araxus2614, a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are Asteris2615 and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two Strophades2616, by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies Letoia2617, before Pylos the three Sphagiæ2618, and before Messene the Œnussæ2619, as many in number.

In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides2620, and in that of Laconia Theganusa2621, Cothon, and Cythera2622, with the town of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of Malea2623, thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are Pityusa2624, Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of Hermione2625, Tiparenus, Aperopia2626, Colonis2627, and Aristera; and, opposite that of Trœzen, Calauria2628, at a distance of half a mile, Plateis2629, Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos2630, and Pityonesos2631, six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last, Ægina2632, a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of Spiræum2633, lie Eleusa2634, Adendros2635, the two islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides. Ægila2636 lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete.

CHAP. 20.—CRETE.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south, the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of Hesperides2637; Anaximander, from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been of opinion that it had the name of Macaron2638 from the serenity of its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of Sammonium2639, facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out that of Criumetopon2640, in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa2641, Cisamon2642, Pergamum, Cydonia2643, Minoium2644, Apteron2645, Pantomatrium, Amphimalla2646, Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia, Matium2647, Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna2648, Lebena2649, and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna2650, Phæstum, Cnossus2651, Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium2652, Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthernæ2653, Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus2654, Ida, Dictynnæus, and Corycus2655. This island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from Phycus2656, the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of Carpathos2657, at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it and Rhodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called Mylæ2658. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce2659, and the two islands known as Budroæ2660. Opposite to Matium lies Dia2661; opposite to the promontory of Itanum2662, Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos2663. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the Lichades2664, consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-famed Salamis2665; before it, Psyttalia2666; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the island of Helene2667. At the same distance from this last is Ceos2668, which some of our countrymen have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and Carthæa2669; Coresus2670 and Pœëessa2671 have perished. Varro informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very fine texture, used for women’s dresses.

CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA.

Eubœa2672 itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so narrow as to admit of the opposite shores being united by a bridge2673. At the south, this island is remarkable for its two promontories, that of Geræstus2674, which looks towards Attica, and that of Caphareus2675, which faces the Hellespont; on the north it has that of Cenæum2676. In no part does this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles, while it never contracts to less than two. In length it runs along the whole coast of Bœotia, extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150 miles2677. In circumference it measures 365, and is distant from the Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos, Cerinthos2678, Oreum, Dium, Ædepsos2679, Ocha, and Œchalia; at present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis2680 (opposite which, on the mainland, is Aulis), Geræstus2681, Eretria2682, Carystus2683, Oritanum, and Artemisium2684. Here are also the Fountain of Arethusa2685, the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of Carystus. This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and Macris2686, as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to Aristides, Macra; also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first discovered here. Menæchmus says that it was called Abantias2687, and the poets generally give it the name of Asopis.

CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES.

Beyond Eubœa, and out in the Myrtoan2688 Sea, are numerous other islands; but those more especially famous are, Glauconnesos and the Ægila2689. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos, from which circumstance2690 they derive their name. The first of them is the one called Andros2691 with a city of the same name, distant from Geræstus ten miles, and from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first called Cauros, and after that Antandros; Callimachus calls it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It is ninety-three miles in circumference. At a distance of one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is Tenos2692, with a city of the same name; this island is fifteen miles in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hydrussa, from the abundance of water found here, while some writers call it Ophiussa2693. The other islands are, Myconos2694, with the mountain of Dimastus2695, distant from Delos fifteen2696 miles; Siphnus2697, formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight miles in circumference; Seriphus2698, twelve miles in circuit; Prepesinthus2699; Cythnos2700; and then, by far the most famous among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them, Delos2701 itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its extensive commerce. This island long floated on the waves, and, as tradition says, was the only one that had never experienced an earthquake, down to the time of M. Varro2702; Mucianus however has informed us, that it has been twice so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its appearance2703 on emerging from the sea; Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of Ortygia2704, Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the circumstance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its circumference is five miles only; Mount Cynthus2705 here raises his head.

Next to this island is Rhene2706, which Anticlides calls by the name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; Scyros2707, which the old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but Mucianus 160; Oliaros2708; and Paros2709, with a city of the same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its marble2710; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At a distance of seven miles from this last island is Naxos2711, with a town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos. This island was formerly called Strongyle2712, then Dia, and then Dionysias2713, in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards; others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis2714. It is seventy-five2715 miles in circumference—half as large again as Paros.

CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES.

The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades; the rest that follow are the Sporades2716. These are, Helene2717, Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros2718, which has given its name to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles in length2719, with two cities, and a third now no longer in existence: this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris, and Ichthyoëssa2720. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of Delos, and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros to Geræstus is a distance of 112¹⁄₂ miles.

After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the island of Scyros2721, and that of Ios2722, eighteen miles distant from Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of Homer; it is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known by the name of Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and Gyara2723, with a city of the same name, the island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynæthus, Telos2724, noted for its unguents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa2725, Patmos2726, thirty miles in circumference, the Corassiæ2727, Lebinthus2728, Leros2729, Cinara2730; Sicinus2731, formerly called Œnoë2732; Hieracia, also called Onus; Casos2733, likewise called Astrabe; Cimolus2734, or Echinussa; and Melos2735, with a city of that name, which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last is the most circular2736 in form of all these islands. After this comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others have it, Platage, but now called Amorgos2737, Polyægos2738, Phyle, and Thera2739, known as Calliste when it first sprang from the waves. From this, at a later period, the island of Therasia2740 was torn away, and between the two afterwards arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in our own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands. Ios is distant from Thera twenty-five miles.

Next to these follow Lea, Ascania2741, Anaphe2742, Hippuris, and Astypalæa2743, a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight from this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragæa, Pharmacussa, Techedia, Chalcia2744, Calymna2745, in which is the town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which is Carpathum2746, which has given its name to the Carpathian Sea. The distance thence to Rhodes2747, in the direction of the south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of Crete, thirty2748. In the Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth of it, are the four islands called Petaliæ2749; and, at its outlet, Atalante2750. The Cyclades and the Sporades are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the north by the Ægean, and on the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.

The Gulf of Pagasa2751 has in front of it Euthia2752, Cicynethus2753, Scyros, previously mentioned2754, and the very furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and Scandila2755; the Gulf of Thermæ2756, Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia, and Nea, which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands; Peparethus2757, formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that name, at a distance from Athos of nine miles; Sciathus2758, at a distance of fifteen, and Imbros2759, with a city of the same name, at a distance of eighty-eight miles. This last island is distant from Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-two2760 miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a distance of twenty-two miles from it is Lemnos2761, being distant from Mount Athos eighty-seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and has the cities of Hephæstia and Myrina2762; into the market-place of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice. The island of Thasos2763, constituting a free state, is six miles distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or Æthria. Abdera2764, on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-two miles, Athos sixty-two2765. The island of Samothrace2766, a free state, facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos, being also thirty-two2767 miles from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and thirty-eight2768 from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-two miles in circumference, and in it rises Mount Saoce2769, ten miles in height. This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania.

Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about fifteen miles from them both, is the island of Halonnesos2770, and beyond it Gethone, Lamponia, and Alopeconnesus2771, not far from Cœlos, a port2772 of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no importance. The following names may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa, Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris, Mesate, Æantion, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus, and Polendos2773.

CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS.

The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and ends at the entrance of the Mæotis2774. But in order that the several portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we must briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast sea, lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The entrance of these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the king of the Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army. A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six miles, as far as Priapus2775, a city of Asia, at which Alexander the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and after some distance again takes the form of a narrow strait. The wider part is known as the Propontis2776, the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus2777, being only half-a-mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles.

We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly Axenus2778. As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep stretches far away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian bow2779. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of Lake Mæotis, which is called the Cimmerian2780 Bosporus, and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We learn from Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles; but to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar manner some writers have fixed the length of the European shores of this sea at 1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187 miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the Ister 125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to Chersonesus2781, a town of the Heracleotæ, 325; to Panticapæum2782, by some called Bosporus, at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole of which added together, makes 13372783 miles. Agrippa makes the distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from thence to Panticapæum, 635.

Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from the Riphæan Mountains2784, and forms the extreme boundary between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in circumference; which however some writers state at only 1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance of 375 miles.

The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe, as far as Istropolis, have been already2785 mentioned in our account of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the Ister. This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount Abnoba2786, opposite to Rauricum2787, a town of Gaul, and flows for a course of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations innumerable, under the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by six2788 vast channels. The first of these is the mouth of Peuce2789, close to which is the island of Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring channel takes its name; this mouth is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length. From the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lake2790 takes its rise, sixty-three miles in circuit; its name is Halmyris. The second mouth is called Naracu-Stoma2791; the third, which is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-Stoma2792; the fourth is known as Pseudo-Stomon2793, with its island called Conopon-Diabasis2794; after which come the Boreon-Stoma2795 and the Psilon-Stoma2796. These mouths are each of them so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the water found to be fresh.

CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA.

On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are Scythian in general, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot the Getæ2797, by the Romans called Daci; at another the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and the Hamaxobii2798 or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-born Scythians and descendants of slaves, or else the Troglodytæ2799; and then, after them, the Alani2800 and the Rhoxalani. The higher2801 parts again, between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest2802, as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum2803, and the borders of the Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges2804, who inhabit the level country and the plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river Pathissus2805, inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On leaving the river Marus2806, whether it is that or the Duria2807, that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of Vannius2808, the Basternæ, and, after them, other tribes of the Germans occupy the opposite sides2809. Agrippa considers the whole of this region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth to the river Vistula in the deserts2810 of Sarmatia. The name “Scythian” has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatæ and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now only given to those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to nearly all the rest of the world.

CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA.

Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos2811, Æpolium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river Tyra2812, which gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large island2813 situate in this river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister, so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who take their name from the river Axiaces2814, and beyond them, the Crobyzi, the river Rhodes2815, the Sagarian Gulf2816, and the port of Ordesos2817. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river Borysthenes2818, with a lake and a people of similar name, as also a town2819 in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis. Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of Achilles2820, famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in the shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from having been his place of exercise, Dromos Achilleos2821: the length of this, according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian Scythians and the Siraci2822 occupy all this tract of country.

At this spot begins a well-wooded district2823, which has given to the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its inhabitants are called Enœchadlæ2824. Beyond them is the river Panticapes2825, which separates the Nomades2826 and the Georgi, and after it the Acesinus2827. Some authors say that the Panticapes flows into the Borysthenes below Olbia2828. Others, who are more correct, say that it is the Hypanis2829: so great is the mistake made by those who have placed it2830 in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf2831, until there is only an intervening space2832 of five miles between it and the Lake Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land, and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here we find the river Pacyris2833, the towns of Navarum and Carcine2834, and behind it Lake Buges2835, which discharges itself by a channel into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of rocks2836 from Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the rivers Buges2837, Gerrus2838, and Hypacaris2839, which approach it from regions that lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidæ from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the Nomades and the Hylæi, by an artificial channel into Lake Buges, and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the name of Scythia Sindice.

At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica2840 begins, which was once covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended on every side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great elevation. The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-three dwell in the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the Characeni2841, the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitæ, and the Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains: on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on the east by the Scythian Satarchæ2842. On the shore, after we leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; Taphræ2843, situate on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and then Heraclea Chersonesus2844, to which its freedom has been granted2845 by the Romans. This place was formerly called Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these regions, in consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs. A wall, five miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of Parthenium2846, the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the Symboli2847, and the Promontory of Criumetopon2848, opposite to Carambis2849, a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170 miles, which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the form of a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a great number of harbours and lakes of the Tauri2850. The town of Theodosia2851 is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165. Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ, Nymphæum, and Dia. Panticapæum2852, a city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of them all, is still in existence; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus, and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half, and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other side of the Strait, as we have previously2853 stated, two miles and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which separates Asia from Europe, and which too, from being generally quite frozen over, allows of a passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus2854 is twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of Hermisium2855, Myrmecium, and, in the interior2856 of it, the island of Alopece. From the spot called Taphræ2857, at the extremity of the isthmus, to the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a distance of 260 miles.

Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior the Auchetæ2858, in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source, the Geloni2859, the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the Agathyrsi2860 with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are the Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the Sauromatæ and the Essedones2861. Along the coast, as far as the river Tanais2862, are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its name, and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then come to the Riphæan2863 mountains, and the region known by the name of Pterophoros2864, because of the perpetual fall of snow there, the flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world which has been condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed in thick darkness; suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of the chilling blasts of the northern winds.

Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known as the Hyperborei2865, a race that lives to an extreme old age, and which has been the subject of many marvellous stories2866. At this spot are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves, and the extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find light for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who does not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal himself from the vernal equinox2867 to autumn. On the contrary, to these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year, and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from every noxious blast. The abodes of the natives are the woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sickness are things utterly unknown. Death comes upon them only when satiated with life; after a career of feasting, in an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have placed these people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia, because we find there a people called the Attacori2868, who greatly resemble them and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again have placed them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes. Those writers who place them nowhere2869 but under a day which lasts for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day they reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many authors2870 are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom in especial they worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many years were held in high veneration, and received the rites of hospitality from the nations that lay on the route; until at last, in consequence of repeated violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people who adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the other, till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this custom, even, in time fell into disuse.

The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of the region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion, however, that in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly doubtful.

CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN.

But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As for its seas, we have already made mention of them.

(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile and a half from the European shore, and of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait, the two Cyanæan2871 islands, by some called the Symplegades2872, and stated in fabulous story to have run the one against the other; the reason being the circumstance that they are separated by so short an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite to them they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed in a somewhat oblique direction they have the appearance of becoming gradually united into one. On this side of the Ister there is the single island2873 of the Apolloniates, eighty miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was from this place that M. Lucullus brought the Capitoline2874 Apollo. Those islands which are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we have already mentioned2875. Before the Borysthenes is Achillea2876 previously referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and Macaron2877. Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many writers that all the interior2878 seas take their rise in this one as the principal source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they give for this supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the tide is always running out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb.

We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portions2879 of Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive at Gades. In this direction a great number of islands2880 are said to exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies opposite to Scythia, mentioned under the name of Raunonia2881, and said to be at a distance of the day’s sail from the mainland; and upon which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the spring season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are only known from reports of doubtful authority. With reference to the Septentrional2882 or Northern Ocean; Hecatæus calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river Parapanisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian sea, the word ‘Amalchian’ signifying in the language of these races, frozen. Philemon again says that it is called Morimarusa or the “Dead Sea” by the Cimbri, as far as the Promontory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the Cronian2883 Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days’ sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size called Baltia2884, which by Pytheas is called Basilia2885. Some islands2886 called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of which live on the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which human beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as to cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked.

Leaving these however, we come to the nation of the Ingævones2887, the first in Germany; at which we begin to have some information upon which more implicit reliance can be placed. In their country is an immense mountain called Sevo2888, not less than those of the Riphæan range, and which forms an immense gulf along the shore as far as the Promontory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name of the ‘Codanian,’ is filled with islands; the most famous among which is Scandinavia2889, of a magnitude as yet unascertained: the only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation of the Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a second world: it is generally supposed that the island of Eningia2890 is of not less magnitude. Some writers state that these regions, as far as the river Vistula, are inhabited by the Sarmati, the Venedi2891, the Sciri, and the Hirri2892, and that there is a gulf there known by the name of Cylipenus2893, at the mouth of which is the island of Latris, after which comes another gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the Cimbri. The Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of Cartris2894. Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which have been made known by the Roman arms2895: the most famous of which is Burcana2896, called by our people Fabaria, from the resemblance borne2897 by a fruit which grows there spontaneously. There are those also called Glæsaria2898 by our soldiers, from their amber; but by the barbarians they are known as Austeravia and Actania.

CHAP. 28.—GERMANY.

The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the Scaldis2899, a river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions of whose respective territories it is quite impossible to state, so immensely do the authors differ who have touched upon this subject. The Greek writers and some of our own countrymen have stated the coast of Germany to be 2500 miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Rhætia and Noricum in his estimate, makes the length to be 6862900 miles, and the breadth 1482901. (14.) The breadth of Rhætia alone however very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed we ought to state that it was only subjugated at about the period of the death of that general; while as for Germany, the whole of it was not thoroughly known to us for many years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a conjecture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a straight line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by Agrippa.

There are five German races; the Vandili2902, parts of whom are the Burgundiones2903, the Varini2904, the Carini2905, and the Gutones2906: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of whom are the Cimbri2907, the Teutoni2908, and the tribes of the Chauci2909. The Istævones2910, who join up to the Rhine, and to whom the Cimbri2911 belong, are the third race; while the Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi2912, the Hermunduri2913, the Chatti2914, and the Cherusci2915: the fifth race is that of the Peucini2916, who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Daci previously mentioned. The more famous rivers that flow into the ocean are the Guttalus2917, the Vistillus or Vistula, the Albis2918, the Visurgis2919, the Amisius2920, the Rhine, and the Mosa2921. In the interior is the long extent of the Hercynian2922 range, which in grandeur is inferior to none.

CHAP. 29. (15.)—NINETY-SIX ISLANDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN.

In the Rhine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the most famous island2923 of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as also other islands of the Frisii2924, the Chauci, the Frisiabones2925, the Sturii2926, and the Marsacii, which lie between Helium2927 and Flevum2928. These are the names of the mouths into which the Rhine divides itself, discharging its waters on the north into the lakes there, and on the west into the river Mosa. At the middle mouth which lies between these two, the river, having but a very small channel, preserves its own name.

CHAP. 30. (16.)—BRITANNIA.

Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so celebrated in the records of Greece2929 and of our own country. It is situate to the north-west, and, with a large tract of intervening sea, lies opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain, by far the greater part of Europe. Its former name was Albion2930; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of “Britanniæ.” This island is distant from Gesoriacum, on the coast of the nation of the Morini2931, at the spot where the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas and Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is barely thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was gained by the successes of the Roman arms, and even as yet they have not penetrated beyond the vicinity of the Caledonian2932 forest. Agrippa believes its length to be 800 miles, and its breadth 300; he also thinks that the breadth of Hibernia is the same, but that its length is less by 200 miles. This last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage across being the shortest from the territory of the Silures2933, a distance of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said to have a greater circumference than 125 miles. Among these there are the Orcades2934, forty in number, and situate within a short distance of each other, the seven islands called Acmodæ2935, the Hæbudes, thirty in number, and, between Hibernia and Britannia, the islands of Mona2936, Monapia2937, Ricina2938, Vectis2939, Limnus2940, and Andros2941. Below it are the islands called Samnis and Axantos2942, and opposite, scattered in the German Sea, are those known as the Glæsariæ2943, but which the Greeks have more recently called the Electrides, from the circumstance of their producing electrum or amber. The most remote of all that we find mentioned is Thule2944, in which, as we have previously stated2945, there is no night at the summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice there is no day. Some writers are of opinion that this state of things lasts for six whole months together. Timæus the historian says that an island called Mictis2946 is within six days’ sail of Britannia, in which white lead2947 is found; and that the Britons sail over to it in boats of osier2948, covered with sewed hides. There are writers also who make mention of some other islands, Scandia2949 namely, Dumna, Bergos, and, greater than all, Nerigos, from which persons embark for Thule. At one day’s sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by some is called the Cronian Sea.

CHAP. 31. (17.)—GALLIA BELGICA.

The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one general name of Comata2950, is divided into three races of people, which are more especially kept distinct from each other by the following rivers. From the Scaldis to the Sequana2951 it is Belgic Gaul; from the Sequana to the Garumna2952 it is Celtic Gaul or Lugdunensis2953; and from the Garumna to the promontory of the Pyrenæan range it is Aquitanian Gaul, formerly called Aremorica2954. Agrippa makes the entire length of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, measured from the Rhine to the Pyrenees: and its length, from the ocean to the mountains of Gebenna and Jura, excluding therefrom Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at 420 miles, the breadth being 318.

Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyond2955 are inhabited by the Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with many names; after whom come the Menapii2956, the Morini2957, the Oromarsaci2958, who are adjacent to the burgh which is known as Gesoriacum2959, the Britanni2960, the Ambiani2961, the Bellovaci2962, the Hassi2963, and, more in the interior, the Catoslugi2964, the Atrebates2965, the Nervii2966, a free people, the Veromandui2967, the Suæuconi2968, the Suessiones2969, a free people, the Ulmanetes2970, a free people, the Tungri2971, the Sunuci2972, the Frisiabones2973, the Betasi2974, the Leuci2975, a free people, the Treveri2976, who were formerly free, and the Lingones2977, a federal state, the federal Remi2978, the Mediomatrici2979, the Sequani2980, the Raurici2981, and the Helvetii2982. The Roman colonies are Equestris2983 and Rauriaca2984. The nations of Germany which dwell in this province, near the sources of the Rhine, are the Nemetes2985, the Triboci2986, and the Vangiones2987; nearer again2988, the Ubii2989, the Colony2990 of Agrippina, the Cugerni2991, the Batavi2992, and the peoples whom we have already mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine.

CHAP. 32. (18.)—GALLIA LUGDUNENSIS.

That part of Gaul which is known as Lugdunensis2993 contains the Lexovii2994, the Vellocasses2995, the Galeti2996, the Veneti2997, the Abrincatui2998, the Ossismi2999, and the celebrated river Ligeris3000, as also a most remarkable peninsula, which extends into the ocean at the extremity3001 of the territory of the Ossismi, the circumference of which is 6253002 miles, and its breadth at the neck 1253003. Beyond this are the Nannetes3004, and in the interior are the Ædui3005, a federal people, the Carnuti3006, a federal people, the Boii3007, the Senones3008, the Aulerci, both those surnamed Eburovices3009 and those called Cenomanni3010, the Meldi3011, a free people, the Parisii3012, the Tricasses3013, the Andecavi3014, the Viducasses3015, the Bodiocasses3016, the Venelli3017, the Cariosvelites3018, the Diablinti3019, the Rhedones3020, the Turones3021, the Atesui3022, and the Secusiani3023, a free people, in whose territory is the colony of Lugdunum3024.

CHAP. 33. (19.)—GALLIA AQUITANICA.

In Aquitanica are the Ambilatri3025, the Anagnutes3026, the Pictones3027, the Santoni3028, a free people, the Bituriges3029, surnamed Vivisci, the Aquitani3030, from whom the province derives its name, the Sediboviates3031, the Convenæ3032, who together form one town, the Begerri3033, the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani3034, the Cocosates Sexsignani3035, the Venami3036, the Onobrisates3037, the Belendi3038, and then the Pyrenæan range. Below these are the Monesi3039, the Oscidates3040 a mountain race, the Sibyllates3041, the Camponi3042, the Bercorcates3043, the Pindedunni3044, the Lassunni3045, the Vellates3046, the Tornates3047, the Consoranni3048, the Ausci3049, the Elusates3050, the Sottiates3051, the Oscidates Campestres3052, the Succasses3053, the Tarusates3054, the Basabocates3055, the Vassei3056, the Sennates, and the Cambolectri Agessinates3057. Joining up to the Pictones are the Bituriges3058, a free people, who are also known as the Cubi, and then the Lemovices3059, the Arverni3060, a free people, and the Gabales3061.

Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are the Ruteni3062, the Cadurci3063, the Nitiobriges3064, and the Petrocori3065, separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas around the coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to the mouth of the Rhine, the Britannic Ocean between the Rhine and the Sequana, and, between it and the Pyrenees, the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging to the Veneti, which bear the name of “Veneticæ3066,” as also in the Aquitanic Gulf, that of Uliarus3067.

CHAP. 34. (20.)—NEARER SPAIN, ITS COAST ALONG THE GALLIC OCEAN.

At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itself3068 in its other parts, as we have previously mentioned3069, seeing to what an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-west3070, divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis. On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with the forest ranges of the Vascones3071, Olarso3072, the towns of the Varduli3073, the Morosgi3074, Menosca3075, Vesperies3076, and the Port of Amanus3077, where now stands the colony of Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the Cantabri3078, the river Sauga3079, and the Port of Victoria of the Juliobrigenses3080, from which place the sources of the Iberus3081 are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of Blendium3082, the Orgenomesci3083, a people of the Cantabri, Vereasueca3084 their port, the country of the Astures3085, the town of Noega3086, and on a peninsula3087, the Pæsici. Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of Lucus3088, after passing the river Navilubio3089, the Cibarci3090, the Egovarri, surnamed Namarini, the Iadoni, the Arrotrebæ3091, the Celtic Promontory, the rivers Florius3092 and Nelo, the Celtici3093, surnamed Neri, and above them the Tamarici3094, in whose peninsula3095 are the three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicated3096 to Augustus; the Capori3097, the town of Noela3098, the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci, and the Cileni3099: of the islands, those worthy of mention are Corticata3100 and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the Bracari3101, we have the Heleni3102, the Gravii3103, and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called Cicæ3104, the famous city of Abobrica3105, the river Minius3106, four miles wide at its mouth, the Leuni, the Seurbi3107, and Augusta3108, a town of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river Limia3109, and the river Durius3110, one of the largest in Spain, and which rises in the district of the Pelendones3111, passes near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and white3112.

CHAP. 35. (21.)—LUSITANIA.

After passing the Durius, Lusitania3113 begins. We here have the ancient Turduli3114, the Pæsuri, the river Vaga3115, the town of Talabrica, the town and river3116 of Æminium, the towns of Conimbrica3117, Collippo3118, and Eburobritium3119. A promontory3120 then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn; by some it has been called Artabrum3121, by others the Great Promontory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the city3122 near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side3123 of Spain; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation that never3124 was here. For, making a slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ, whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro, the river Æminius3125 is distant 200 miles, which others3126 suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it was called the “River of Oblivion,” and it has been made the subject of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius is the Tagus, the Munda3127 lying between them. The Tagus is famous for its golden sands3128. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the Sacred Promontory3129, projecting from nearly the very middle of the front3130 of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we have mentioned3131 Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Gades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the Vettones3132. From the river Anas to the Sacred Promontory3133 are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of Olisipo3134, famous for its mares, which conceive3135 from the west wind; Salacia3136, which is surnamed the Imperial City; Merobrica3137; and then the Sacred Promontory, with the other known by the name of Cuneus3138, and the towns of Ossonoba3139, Balsa3140, and Myrtili3141.

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita3142, situate on the river Anas, Metallinum3143, Pax3144, and Norba3145, surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of Castra Servilia3146 and Castra Cæcilia3147 resort. The fifth jurisdiction is that of Scalabis3148, which also has the name of Præsidium Julium3149. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia3150, is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are Ebora3151, which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia3152, and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those already3153 alluded to among the names of those in Bætica, are the Augustobrigenses3154, the Ammienses3155, the Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cæsarobricenses, the Caperenses3156, the Caurenses3157, the Colarni, the Cibilitani, the Concordienses3158, the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lancienses3159, the Mirobrigenses, surnamed3160 Celtici, the Medubrigenses3161, surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses3162 or Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the two extreme3163 promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some writers make them to be but 2600.

CHAP. 36.—THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called Cassiterides3164, in consequence of their abounding in tin: and, facing the Promontory3165 of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate Islands3166. At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its nearest part, it is less than 700 feet3167 distant from the mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city which enjoys the rights of Roman citizens3168, and whose people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and Silenus Aphrodisias3169, and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus says, that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa3170, from its olives; the Romans call it Tartessos3171; the Carthaginians Gadir3172, that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original ancestors of the Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræan, or Red Sea. In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there formerly called by that name3173.

CHAP. 37. (23.)—THE GENERAL MEASUREMENT OF EUROPE.

Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as we have previously3174 stated, as for as the Alps, is 1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the Morini3175, the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the Camp of the Legions3176 in Germany, in a north-westerly direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia.

Summary.—Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

Roman Authors quoted.—Cato the Censor3177, M. Varro3178, M. Agrippa3179, the late Emperor Augustus3180, Varro Atacinus3181, Cornelius Nepos3182, Hyginus3183, L. Vetus3184, Mela Pomponius3185, Licinius Mucianus3186, Fabricius Tuscus3187, Ateius Capito3188, Ateius the Philologist3189.

Foreign Authors quoted.—Polybius3190, Hecatæus3191, Hellanicus3192, Damastes3193, Eudoxus3194, Dicæarchus3195, Timosthenes3196, Eratosthenes3197, Ephorus3198, Crates the Grammarian3199, Serapion3200 of Antioch, Callimachus3201, Artemidorus3202, Apollodorus3203, Agathocles3204, Eumachus3205, Timæus the Sicilian3206, Myrsilus3207, Alexander Polyhistor3208, Thucydides3209, Dosiades3210, Anaximander3211, Philistides Mallotes3212, Dionysius3213, Aristides3214, Callidemus3215, Menæchmus3216, Aglaosthenes3217, Anticlides3218, Heraclides3219, Philemon3220, Xenophon3221, Pytheas3222, Isidorus3223, Philonides3224, Xenagoras3225, Astynomus3226, Staphylus3227, Aristocritus3228, Metrodorus3229, Cleobulus3230, Posidonius3231.