Volume 3 — CHAPTER III. COLUMBIAN LANGUAGES.

The Haidah, its Construction and Conjugation—The Nass Language and its Dialects—Bellacoola and Chimsyan Comparisons—The Nootka Languages of Vancouver Island—Nanaimo Ten Commandments and Lord's Prayer—Aztec Analogies—Fraser and Thompson River Languages—The Neetlakapamuck Grammar and Lord's Prayer—Sound Languages—The Salish Family—Flathead Grammar and Lord's Prayer—The Kootenai—The Sahaptin Family—Nez Percé Grammar—Yakima Lord's Prayer—Sahaptin State and Slave Languages—The Chinook Family—Grammar of the Chinook Language—Aztec Affinities—The Chinook Jargon.

Returned from the south, whither we were led by the Apache branch of the Tinneh family, let us examine the languages of our Columbian group. Next along the seaboard, south of the Thlinkeets, are the Haidahs and Kaiganies, whose language is spoken on the southern part of the Prince of Wales Archipelago, and on Queen Charlotte Island. This language is sometimes called Haidah, and sometimes Kaiganie,[III'-1] and although many tribes belong to these nations, I find among them no dialectic difference, except that between the Haidahs of Queen Charlotte Island and the Kaiganies of the Prince of Wales Archipelago.

Marchand claims that this language is understood by the Thlinkeets and other eastern tribes;[III'-2] Capt. Dixon thinks it is a distinct and separate tongue;[III'-3] Scouler makes one large northern family, which he says spreads "from the Arctic Circle to the northern extremity of Quadra and Vancouver's Island;"[III'-4] Radloff's comparative researches incline him to the opinion that, although there may be a few similarities in words between this and other idioms, as, for example, the Thlinkeet, they are yet insufficient to prove identity.[III'-5]

THE HAIDAH AND KAIGANIE.

Some of those who have heard the Haidahs speak, say that their language is uncouth and difficult to articulate, abounding in consonants, and with a labial and dental pronunciation;[III'-6] others affirm that it does not possess the hard aspirated consonants so frequently found in the Thlinkeet language, that it is richer in vowels and softer, though, like the Thlinkeet, it is wanting in labials, in the dental r, and in the guttural l, while the Haidah has the clear l.[III'-7] The Haidah language lacks the letters b, p, f, and the dental r; neither its substantives nor adjectives have any gender, and to express the feminine the word dshetta, woman, is added. Itlk dshetta, wife of the chief; ha, dog; ha dshetta, slut. Neither is there any particular expression for the plural. Kjéganei, my house; kjeganei tljönxl lágun, my three houses are good; tön dsha, thy wife; tön dsha s'töng hána, thy two wives are both pretty. Two exceptions have been mentioned;—gjeà, mast; gjeàng hlöhnhl, three masts; hätä, man (homo); hátei, men. Substantives are not declined, but remain unchanged in all cases. Hantl, water; hall hantl, bring water; tlu, boat; tlu tön gistasa, I give thee a boat; katt, deer; katt hutsu ziggin, I have a small deer; slei, hand; hall tön slei, give thy hand. Pronouns are either distinct words, or are prefixes to substantives and verbs. Prefixes also denote the possessive case. To the former class belong htlä, I; and tonga, thou. To the latter belong te, ti, de, di, zi, kje, teea, tl, t, mine, all of which are used in the first person singular. Second person singular, töng, tön, ten, thine; second person plural, töllöng, yours.

Of the conjugation of the verb, the following may serve as example: Present indicative—I am hungry, tekutke; thou art hungry, töng khúttus; he is hungry, law khúttung; we are hungry, itl khúttung; you are hungry, töllöng khúttus; they are hungry, únnas khúttung. Root words are not of great length. The larger part are words of one or two syllables; some are of three or four, but these are rare; nevertheless, words may be agglutinated to any length.[III'-8]

The Nass language is spoken with very slight differences by the Nass, Hailtzas, and Sebassas, who dwell around Observatory Inlet, Millbank Sound, and the islands of Pitt Archipelago, respectively. Harsh sounds and gutturals predominate.[III'-9] The personal pronouns are—nookwa, I; cusho, thou; nesho, mine; cusho, thine; nookwintok, we; kycusko, ye; caigh qua, he; elee caigh qua, they.[III'-10]

Dunn gives a few sentences, which I insert as specimens: whealey lowels kussú, where are you going? howmithlem pooquialla iltsouk, do you understand our language? lowels, cah cúnter cah míllah, go shoot deer.[III'-11]

BELLACOOLA AND CHIMSYAN.

In the immediate vicinity of the Nass are two other languages, the Bellacoola and Chimsyan, of which hardly anything is known. Tolmie supposes the Chimsyan to be related to the Tacully language, but Buschmann, on comparing the vocabularies, could not find the affinity. The Rev. Mr Good informs me that the Chimsyan tongue extends inland as far as Fraser and Stuart Lake.[III'-12] Compare the following words:

BELLACOOLA. CHIMSYAN.

I untsh newyo

Thou eno noone

Mine untshil nawhawae

We unshto neuhami

Ye enooh neumi

He teechtil taigh qua

They teech til tin no mo taight queet

Man tlimsdah tzib

Knife teech tah ilth-a-peesh

Water kull ah use

Stone quils tolomick loap

Sun skin nuch kium uk

Moon tlooki kium ugum aat uk

Good teeah aam

Bad ushee atuchk

The Hailtzas and the Bellacoolas have the following words in common;—watz, dog; poe, halibut; tlah, black bear; nun, grizzly bear.[III'-13]

LANGUAGES OF VANCOUVER ISLAND.

On Vancouver Island a multitude of dialects are spoken, and various and contradictory classifications have been made, none of which, in my opinion, are correct. From the evidence, dialetic diversity prevails to such an extent that almost every petty tribe has its idiom; so that, even if affinities do exist, sufficient to justify a classification into languages and dialects, so meagre is our knowledge that it is impossible in many instances to say which are languages and which dialects. Hence in my classification I cannot do better than to make of the Nootka one language, and give a list of the dialects on the island, with all the information concerning them at my command. Four languages of the island—the Quackoll in the north, the Cowichin on the east, the Clallam at the south, and the Makah on the west, are said to be "totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation, and modes of expression." The one last mentioned is said to bear some affinity to the language spoken at the mouth of the Columbia River,[III'-14] and is called by Sproat the Aht language, for which he claims in like manner that it "can be traced through all the tribes on the ocean coast, as far south as the mouth of the Columbia." The Comux, which people he locates on the east coast between the Cowichins and Quackolls, migrated thither, he says, from the main land, and the tribes "do not readily understand one another's language;" from all of which we may infer that in reality there is only one language, of which these four are the chief dialects.[III'-15] Yet this is partially contradicted by Grant, who affirms that the Cowichins and Clallams can communicate with each other, though not very easily, but that the Makahs and Quackolls cannot converse with each other or with any of the other nations.[III'-16] Another authority, who certainly ought to be entitled to an opinion, having been a captive among these nations for some years, also intimates that in reality there was only one language dominant on the island. After enumerating the different tribes he concludes; "all of whom speak the same language. But the Newchemass who come from a great way Northward, and from some distance inland, speak quite a different language, although it is well understood by those of Nootka."[III'-17]

National differences appear to consist more in pronunciation than in grammatical construction. Thus the articulation of the Klaizzahts is hoarser and more guttural than that of the people of Nootka Sound.[III'-18] Dialectic differences sometimes go so far that the several bands of the same tribe find difficulty in making themselves understood; as for instance the Nitinaht tribes when conversing with one another, have frequently to repeat their sentences differently accented to make them intelligible. The chief peculiarity of the Nitinaht dialect is the transmutation of the letters m and n, which are in universal use throughout the island, for which it substitutes b and d. Thus for mamook, to work, the Nitinahts say baboik; nismah, country, they pronounce dissibach, and so on.[III'-19]

As compared with that of the Thlinkeets, the Nootka language is neither harsh nor disagreeable. Its most curious feature is the predominance of labials and dentals over gutturals. The Nootkas possess fine oratorical powers, lending assistance to their words by shaking their head, gesticulating forcibly, and even jumping at each other. A singular sound, and one which it is hardly possible to express by any combination of letters, happens in many of their words. Spreading the corners of the mouth to their widest extent, and raising the point of the tongue against the palate, they expel the air from the sides of the mouth, at the same time bringing the tongue down strongly, which obviously produces a sound altogether foreign to the English vocabulary. Captain Cook says of this sound, "it is formed, in a particular manner, by clashing the tongue partly against the roof of the mouth, with considerable force; and may be compared to a very coarse or harsh method of lisping," and he attempts to give the sound by the letters lszthl. Many words end with this sound, and also with a tl, z, or ss;—as opulszthl, sun; onulszthl, moon; kahsheetl, dead; teeshcheetl, to throw a stone; kooomitz, a human skull; quahmiss, fish-roe. Captain Cook further remarks upon their language that it "can only be inferred, from their method of speaking, which is very slow and distinct, that it has few prepositions or conjunctions; and, as far as we could discover, is destitute of even a single interjection, to express admiration or surprize."[III'-20]

Furthermore, I may add, there is no case, nor gender, nor tense, and number is expressed only in the personal pronoun and in the inflection of verbs. In the first persons singular and plural, verbs end in a or mah; in the second persons, huk or ayts; and in the third persons, in mah, win, or utlma. Sometimes these endings go over to the adverb which accompanies the verb, and they are subject to phonetic rules, according to which syllables are sometimes changed or left out altogether. We have wik, not; and kumotop, to understand; wikahkumotop or wimmutomah, I do not understand; the latter mode being a change for the sake of euphony. Plurals, and particularly frequentative plurals, are expressed by duplication: as mahte or mahs, house; mahtmahs, all the houses. Different classes of words appear to have different terminals: for example, instruments end with ik—hukkaik, a knife; hissik, a saw. Colors end in uk or ook—eyyohquk, green; kistokkuk, blue; klayhook, purple; kleesook, white; toopkook, black. Hissit, red, forms an exception. Trees and plants end in pt—kowwhipt, seewhipt, ootsmupt, klakkupt, etc. Verbs end in shitl, shetl, and chitl, although some exceptions occur. Another distinctive ending is up—châtayup, to cut off with a knife; kââsup, to hurt or wound; hyyusatyup, to diminish; ashsup, to break a string or cord; quoyup, to break a stick, etc.[III'-21] As a specimen of the language, I give the first three of the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer, in the dialect of the Nanaimos.[III'-22]

NANAIMO COMMANDMENTS.

NUTSA.

Owa tonowa quinet ta eesaila tseetsel seeam, ohi tanca tseetsel seeam.

EESAILA.

Owa tanowa seeise ta seeathl sta ta stem nay quo tseetsel, sta ta stem aitna tomuck, e sta ta stem nay ta ka, kokoo taswa tseetsel seeam owa tanowa cappausom e stayweeil ta sta, ohi tanca tseetsel seeam. Towhat oyas kullstuck, tanca ouseete tanca quaquat e towhat ighstuck tanca e oyas shatlm tanswan squell oseete tanca igh lalamat.

TLEEUGH.

Owa tanowa heewaulim ta squish quo tseetsel seeam oseete tseetsel seeam quaquasaum towhat oyas sta.

TA KALHEM TA JESUKIT.

Saulth man nay quo tseetsel igh telneemelth oyas stlay stuck ta statsn squish. Tel-neemelth ohi stlay tanowa sthee seeam nay toumuck tomuck. Igh taswa mestiu shatlm ta squell aitna tomuck sta ta tseetsel mestiu. Tana quial e muck squial mistook ta saulth saulthan. Igh tanowa nahi tataeuk whawa telneemelth e ta saulth kull squiaxits sta telneemelth nahi tataeuk whunem toumuck mestiu kull squiaxits whawa telneemelth. Igh telneemelth owanam ethlkalth ta kull, igh tanowa awistuck etha igh. Ohi tanowa oonans sthee seeam, tanowa ohi sthee quamqum telneemelth ohi cappausom high quo tanowa oyas oyas. Amen.

From certain interpretations placed upon the ancient Aztec manuscripts, it was by some inferred that the origin of that people must be sought in the north; hence speculative philologists have, from time to time, discovered many fancied resemblances between the language of the aboriginal Mexicans and those of various northern nations. Thus, in the speech of the Nootkas, a distinct phonetic resemblance, and the frequent occurrence of the ending tl were sufficient evidence to Vater and others that a relationship exists between the Aztecs and the Nootkas. Prescott, following his predecessors, fell into the same error. Humboldt, although struck with the similarities mentioned, yet pronounced them different tongues,[III'-23] while Buschmann, who has examined the subject more than all others combined, denies all such relationship.[III'-24]

Coming over to the main land we find, for the most part, in each of the many inlets and canals a separate language. Between these languages, from perpetual intertribal intercourse, it is impossible to determine, in some instances, what relationship, if any, exists. Several of the languages of the island we find also on the main land adjacent. The Clallams are found on both sides of Juan de Fuca Straits; and nearly related to the Cowichins, who are found as well on the main land near the mouth of Fraser River as on the island, are the Noosdalums of Hood Canal, one language being but a dialect of the other.

LANGUAGES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Respecting the languages spoken in the interior of British Columbia, the Rev. Mr Good, who has spent fifteen years among the inland nations, and who is fully conversant with their languages, gives me the following information: From Yale to Lillooet, on the Fraser River, thence from Bonaparte to Nicola River, the Neetlakapamuch, or Thompson River, language is spoken. From Douglas, along the Harrison River and lake, to its confluence with the Fraser, as far as Chilicothe, and again from Lillooet northward to Clinton, the Stlatelemuck, or Lillooet, language prevails. Next, from Bonaparte River northward to William Lake, to Shushwap Lake, around Lake Kamloops, and for some distance on the Thompson River, the Suwapamuck, or Shushwap, tongue prevails; and finally, from Nicola Lake to Kamloops, and southward as far as Columbia River, the Chitwout, or Similkameen, language is used. Mr Good further asserts that, although there are four distinct languages, they are nevertheless in some degree affiliated. From the same gentleman, I also obtained the following grammatical notes and specimens of the Neetlakapamuch tongue. Personal pronouns are—I, ens; thou, awee; he, cheneelt; we, nemeemult; you, aweepeeaps; they, chinkoast.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO GIVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I give, ens nahktinna We give, nemeemult nahktam

Thou givest, awee nahktatta You give, aweepeeaps nahktattose

He gives, cheneelt nahktass They give, chinkvast nahkteeiks

IMPERFECT.

I gave, huinahktlam

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall give, huinahkchin

IMPERATIVE.

Give me, nahkchams Give us, nahkteea

Mamans inserted in a word, signifies a desire to do a thing; thus, winaskin means to go; and winasmamankin, I am wishing to go. The syllable weltin, affixed to a word, expresses that a thing has been done effectively;—tlokhtinnaweltin, I have fastened it well, or thoroughly. Tata is a negative preposition.

THE LORD'S PRAYER.

Takamote ( ) nemeemult (Our) skatzazact (Father) whohakn (who art) nil (in) kakhtomew. (heaven.) Axseeas (Good) chutam (to be done) clas (the) squest (name) awee. (thine.) Eyah (Good) huntohs (make haste) stakums (all) asait cunamah (men) axclahaks (come) swonakum (truly) eah (good) tuksmite ( children of) Jesu (Jesus) Cree (Christ) huntoseamal. (make haste.) Awee (Thy) kaseah (will) eah ah ( good) chuwo (done) naanatomew, (on earth,) clah (as) seeatahah L'angels (the angels) archkhwamo (do) incheah (there) nilkahtomew. (heaven.) Takamose (All) nuk (and) stakum a (every) tseetlekut (day) nahkteea (give) nemeemult (us) stakums (all) as (our) skhlayans. (food.) Altla (And) quonquonstyea (forgive) nemeenult (us) takamote (all) nemeemult (our) outkest, (evil,) tseeah (as) nemeemult (we) quonquonstama (forgive) takamote (all) tooal (of) saitcunama (men) aks (who) weetsikteese (accomplish) tekest (any evil) whoa (to) nemeemult. (us.) Atahmose (Never) tah (let) hoshaman (the evil one) as masteel (lead) nemeemult (us) axkhokestumtum (to wish) a (to) quonteese (lay hold of) akest. (any evil.) Kamult (But) akklokpistyip (deliver) nemeemult (us) takamote (all) too (that) a (is) kest (evil) wilkakow. (far from us.) Shutenmeenwawee (Thine) takamose (all) atomew. (the world.) Shutenmeenwawee (Thine) takamose (all) azozoht. (strength.) Shutenmeenwawee (Thine) takamose (all) asyameet. (worship.) Taeah (Good) asklakameemus (evermore) astinansouse, (to come,) asklakameemus (evermore) astinansouse. (to come.) Axseahs. (Amen.)

PUGET SOUND DIALECTS.

Proceeding southward to Puget Sound, we have the Shimiahmoo, Nooksak, Lummi, Samish, Snohomish, and others; and around Cape Flattery, the Classet. The Makah, Classet, or Klaizzaht, I have spoken of already, in connection with the language of Vancouver Island, and it also appears that the Clallam, S'klalum, or as they call themselves, Nusklaiyum, is also connected with the Vancouver Island language.[III'-25] It is probably the same which Dr Scouler has called the Noosdalum. The Lummi, or Nukhlumi, and the Shimiahmoo have also some affinity with the Sanetch dialect of Vancouver Island, and the languages of the Skagits and Samish approach that of the Nisquallies. Yet while the Clallam and Lummi show certain affinities to the Nootka dialect, they nevertheless clearly belong to the Salish, or Flathead family.[III'-26]

SALISH DIALECTS.

We now come to the great interior Salish family, although I shall have occasion again to refer to the coast language in this vicinity. The northernmost Salish language is the Shushwap, or Atnah, which approaches near to its neighbor the Salish proper;[III'-27] then there are the Kullespelm, or Pend d'Oreille, the Spokane, the Soaiatlpi, and the Okanagan, which with others spoken on the Columbia show close affinities.

The Salish proper, or Flathead, is harsh and guttural. The letters b, d, f, r, v, do not exist in this language. The plural of substantives is formed in different ways: first, by duplicating the root—skoi, mother; skoikoi, mothers: second by duplicating and dropping a vowel from the root—skaltmigu, man; sklkaltmigu, men; esmòck, mountain; esmòkmck, mountains: third, by duplicating a consonant in the middle of the word—skòlchemùs, eyelid; skòlchammùs, eyelids: fourth, by prefixing the syllable ul—nackoèmen, thief; ulnakoèmen, thieves: and lastly there are divers formations, as es´schíte, tree; szlzlíl, trees, forest; s´m´èm, woman (mulier); pèlplgui, women. Diminutives are expressed by placing l before the root, as, s´m´èm, woman; slm´èm, small woman; lùk, wood; llùl´lk, a small piece of wood. Augmentatives are formed by prefixing the syllable kutn, or kuti, when the word commences with an s or l, thus, skagae, horse; kuti-skagae, a great horse; sm´ot, smoke; kuti-sm´ot, a great smoke. There are pronouns, personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. According to Mengarini the personal pronoun has two forms, absolute and copulative, the exact meaning attached to these terms not being explained.

ABSOLUTE. COPULATIVE.

I koie ko

Thou anúi ku

He zuilz

We kaémpile kae

You mpilèpstemp p, or mp

They zni´ilz

As examples of the others there are possessives—mine, in; thine, an; his, s; ours, kao; yours, mp; theirs, s: demonstratives—this, iè; that, zi: interrogative—who, suèt: and indefinite—some one, chnáksi.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE ANGRY.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I am angry, tnes aimt-i We are angry, kaes aimt-i

Thou art angry, kues aimt-i You are angry, pes aimt-i

He is angry, es aimt-i They are angry, es afimt-i

PERFECT.

I have been angry, tn-aimt or tnes aimt

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall be angry, nem tn aimt

IMPERATIVE.

Be angry, aimt sch

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I be angry, tiks aimt-i If we be angry, kaeks aímt-i

If thou be angry, kuks aimt-i If you be angry, pks aimt-i

If he be angry, ks aimt-i If they be angry, ks aíimt-i

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I were angry, k neu tn aimt

OPTATIVE.

If I might be angry, komi tn aimt

Following is a Lord's Prayer, the nationality not given:

Kae l'eu ( Our father ) u ( in heaven ) l's'chichmáskat ( who ) ku l'zii, ( liveth, ) asku ( thy ) èst ( name ) kuks ( of thee ) gamènchltm; ( be loved; ) ku ( thou ) kl ( be ) chèltich ( Lord ) s esià ( of all ) sp'us; ( hearts; ) aszntèls ks ( thy will ) kólli ( be done ) iè ( this ) l ( on ) stóligu, ( earth, ) ezgail ( as ) l's'chichmáskat. ( in heaven. ) Kae ( Us ) guizlilt ( give to-day ) iè tlgoa lu ( what ) kaesiapzínm. ( we need. ) Kaelkolgoèllilt ( Us forgive ) lu kae ( our ) gulguílt ( debts, ) ezgail ( as ) lu tkaempilè ( we ) kaes kolgoelltm, ( forgive (those) ) lu e épl ( who have ) gulguílt ( debts ) l ( with ) kaempilè. ( us. ) Kae ( Us ) olkschílilt ( assist ) ta ( not ) ka keskuèstm lu ( at any time receive ) tèie; ( evil; ) u ( but ) kai ( us ) gulguillilt ( preserve uninjured ) lu tel ( from ) teié. ( evil. ) Komi ezgail. ( Be it so.[III'-28] )

The above is taken from the grammar of Mengarini, written in Latin; following is a Lord's Prayer of the Pend d'Oreilles, from Father De Smet, who wrote in French:

Kyleeyou, (Our father) Itchitchemask, (of heaven,) askwees (that your name) kowaaskshamenshem (be respected) ailetzemilkou (by all the) yeelskyloog; (earth;) ntziezie (reign) telletzia (in all) spoo (the) oez. (hearts. ) Assinteels (That your will) astskole, (be done) yelstoloeg (on earth) etzageel (as also) Itchichemask. (in heaven.) Hoogwitzilt (Give us) yettilgwa (now) lokaitssia (all our) petzim. (necessaries.) Knwaasksmeemiltem (Forgive us) klotayie (the evil) kloitskeyen (which we have done,) etzageel (as) kaitsskolgwelem (we forgive) klotoiye ((the evil)) kloitskwen (to those who) klielskyloog. (us have offended.) Koaxalock (Accord to us) shitem (assistance) takaakskwentem (to evade) klotaiye; (evil;) kowaaksgweeltem (but deliver us) klotaiye. (from evil.) Komieetzegeel. (So be it.[III'-29])

Also belonging to this family are the languages spoken by the Skitsuish, Pisquouse, Nsietshaws, Nisquallies, and Chehalis. The Nsietshaw differs more than the others from the Salish proper, which is the stock language of this family, and particularly in not possessing any labials; the letters m and b being changed to w, and p to h. Thus, in the Chehalis and Nisqually languages, we have, numan, son; tomokh, earth; pansototsi, winter; which, in the Nsietshaw, are pronounced respectively, nuwon, tawekh and hansototsi. The Chehalis is spoken in three dialects, the Chehalis proper, the Quaiantl, and the Queniauitl.[III'-30]

The languages of the Salish Family, particularly that of the Chehalis, are rich in words, by means of which everything coming within their knowledge may find expression; they are not easily acquired by strangers; it is difficult for the different nations and tribes to make themselves understood to one another. This is owing principally to the many localisms in vogue among them, of which there is a good specimen in the Chehalis language. Thus, tolneuch means west-wind, off shore, toward the sea, or to the west. Now, if the Chehalis are leaving the shore in a canoe, and one of them wants to tell his mate to put her head off shore, he will say tolneuch, but if in a hurry, neuch neuch. Claathlum signifies east-wind, also ashore; this they transpose into clath clath.[III'-31] The Clallum and Lummi languages have another peculiarity, which is a certain nasal sound at the commencement and ending of words like a strong nasal ns; also a broad a sound as in far, path. The sounds of the letters v, r, z, are wanting.[III'-32] The frequently occurring ending tl has also led to speculation, and to a search for Aztec affinities among these languages, but nothing except this phonetic similarity has been discovered. This tl ending is very common. Swan says that, "sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end all their words with tl; and the effect is ludicrous to hear three or four talking at the same time, with this singular sound, like so many sitting hens.'[III'-33] East of the Salish, the Kitunaha, Kootenai, or Coutanie language is spoken. Authorities differ widely in describing this language. Parker calls it "open and sonorous, and free from gutturals, which are common in the language of the surrounding tribes;" while Capt. Palliser affirms that it is "most guttural and unpronounceable by a European, every word appearing to be brought from their lowest extremities with difficulty."[III'-34] The following Lord's Prayer, taken by a Frenchman will give a better idea of the language than any description:

Katitoe (Our father,) naitle (who art) naite, (in heaven,) akiklenais (may thy) zedabitskinne (name be great) wilkane. (and honored.) Ninshalinne (Be thou) oshemake (the master) kapaik (of all) akaitlainam. (hearts.) Inshazetluité (May thy will) younoamake (be done on earth) yekakaekinaitte. (as it is in heaven.) Komnakaike (Grant us) logenie (this day) niggenawaishne (all our wants.) naiosaem miaitéke. ( ) Kekepaime (Forgive us) nekoetjekoetleaitle (all the evil we have) ixzeai, (done, ) iyakaikakaaike (as we forgive) iyazeaikinawash (all the evil) kokakipaimenaitle. (done unto us.) Amatikezawes (Strengthen us) itchkestshimmekakkowêlle (against all evil,) akatakzen. (and deliver us from it.) Shaeykiakakaaike. (May it be so.[III'-35])

SAHAPTIN LANGUAGES.

The languages of the Sahaptin family are spoken along the Lewis and Snake Rivers and their tributaries, as far as the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The Walla Walla, Palouse, Yakima, Kliketat, and Sahaptin proper, some of them widely divergent from the mother tongue, are of this family.[III'-36] The Walla Walla differs from the Sahaptin proper not more than the Portuguese from the Spanish. Father Pandosy made a grammar of the Yakima language, under which he ranges the whole Sahaptin family, dividing it into dialects, as the Walla Walla, the Tairtla, the Roilroilpam, or Kliketat, and the Palouse.[III'-37]

In the Nez Percé language, the following letters only are found: h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, w, a, e, i, o, u, but the missionaries having introduced some new words, it was found necessary to add b, d, f, g, v, z. Agglutination is carried to a great length, and long words are very frequent. In fact, wherever a sentence can be expressed by joining one word to another, it is done, leaving out letters in places, for the sake of euphony. The following is a fair illustration: hitautualawihnankauna, he traveled past in a rainy night. Analysed, hi expresses the third person singular; tau a thing done at night; tuala, something done in the rain; wihnan, to travel on foot; kau is derived from the verb kokauna, to pass by; na expresses the indicative mood, aorist tense, direction from the speaker. The plural of substantives is formed by duplicating the first syllable: pitin, girl; pipitin, girls. Or when the word commences with a vowel, the vowel is sometimes repeated: atwai, old woman; aatwai, old women. Exceptions to this rule are made in words expressing family relations, the prefix ma being employed in such cases, as pika, mother; pikama, mothers. If p terminates the word, it is omitted, as askap, plural askama. To express gender, the words hama, male, and aiat, female, are employed, but the substantive remains unchanged. Nouns are declined either by changing their terminals, or by affixes:

Nom. a house init

Gen. of a house ininm

Acc. house inina

1st Dat. to or for a house initph

2d Dat. in on, or upon a house initpa

1st Abl. with a house initki

2d Abl. from a house initpkinih

3d Abl. for the purpose of a house initain

Comparison—tahs, good; tahs kanmakanm, better; tahsni, best. Personal prounouns—in, I; im, thou; ipi, he, or she; nun, we; ima, ye; imma, they. Of the verb numerous variations are made. They are divided into three classes, neuter, active transitive, and active intransitive. The two neuter verbs are wash, to be; and witsasha, to become. Active intransitive verbs cannot be followed by any accusative.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

DIRECTION FROM. DIRECTION TOWARDS.

I am, in wash

Thou art, im a wash im a wam

He is, it is his, ipi hiwash, ipnim ush ipi hiwam

We are, nun washih

You are, ima ath washih ima ath washinm

They are, it is theirs, imma hiushih, imman aushih imma hiushinm

RECENT PAST TENSE.

I have just been, waka wamka

Thou hast just been, a waka a wamka

He has just been,

it has just been his, hiwaka, awaka hiwamka

We have just been, washeka washinmka

You have just been, ath washeka ath washinmka

They have just been,

it has just been theirs, kinsheka, ausheka hiushinmka[III'-38]

YAKIMA, WALLA WALLA, AND PALOUSE.

The following grammatical notes will serve to illustrate the Yakima and some of the other languages of the Sahaptin family.

SINGULAR.

Nom. the horse kussi-nan

Gen. of the horse kussi-nmi

Dat. to the horse kussi-ow

Acc. the horse kussi-nan

Voc. O horse na-kussi

Abl. for the horse kussi-ei

PLURAL.

Nom. the horses kussi-ma

Gen. of the horses kussi-ma mi

Dat. to the horses kussi-ma-miow

Acc. the horses kussi ma-man

Voc. O horses na-kussi-ma

Abl. for the horses kussi-ma-miei

In the Palouse and Walla Walla languages the affix nan is changed into na. Personal pronouns—I, ink, nes, nesh, or sh; of me, enmi; to me, enmiow; me, inak; for me, enmiei; we, namak, natés, nanam, aatés, or namtk; of us, néémi; to us néémiow; us, némanak; for us, néémiei. The Walla Wallas leaves off the k from the affix ak; thus, instead of inak, me, they say ina, and instead of namak, we, nama.

YAKIMA. WALLA WALLA AND PALOUSE.

He penk penk

Of him pin-mink pinmin

To him pin-miwk pinmiow

Him pin-nim pinminnan

For Him pin-mikaiei pinmiei

They pmak pma

Of Them pe-mink pamin

To them pe-miwk pamiwk

Them pe-minak pamanak

For them pe-mikaiei pamikaiei

In one dialect the terminal ak is changed into ei.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO HAVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I have, nesh wa, or wash nesh

Thou hast, mesh wa, or wash mesh

He has, penk awa, or pinmink awa

We have, natesh wa, or wash natesh

You have, matesh wa, or wash matesh.

They have, pa wa, or pemink awa

PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.

I had, or have had, nesh wacha

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall have, nesh wata

As a specimen of agglutination there is the word ipinashapatawtrahliktamawarsha, he himself makes night disagreeably tiresome long wait; that is, he keeps one long waiting for him at night.

YAKIMA LORD'S PRAYER.

Neemi (Our) Psht, (Father,) imk (thou) nam (who) wamsh (art) Roiemich-nik; (high on the side (heaven);) shir (well) nam 'manak (thou) p'a (they (indef.) ) t-maknani (should) tarnei (respect) wanicht; (the name;) shir (well) ewianawitarnei (should arrive) emink (thy) miawarwit; (chieftainship;) shir (well) nammanak (thee) pa (they) twanenitarnei, (should follow) ichinak (here) techampa, (earth (on)) tenma, (inhabitants (the)) prw, (will) amakwsrimmanak (thou as thyself) pa (they) twanenishamsh (follow) roiemipama (high of the (heaven)) tenma. (inhabitants (the).) Nemanak (Our (us)) nim (give us) t-kwatak (food) kwalissim (always) maisr (to-morrow) maisr. (to-morrow.) Nemanak (Our (us)) laknanim (forget) chélwitit: (sins:) aateskwsri (us as) namak (we) t'normaman (others) laknánisha (forget) chélwitit (sins) anakwnkink (have by which) neémiow (us) pa (have) chelwitia. (offended.) R-t-to (Strong) anianim (make) nemanak (our (us)) temna; (heart;) t-kraw krial. (that it fall not.) Nemanak (Us) eikrenkem ( snatch) chelwitknik (bad from the side.) Ekws (So) iwa (it is) neemi (our) temna. (heart.[III'-39])

COURT LANGUAGE OF THE SAHAPTINS.

The Nez Percés make use of two languages, one the native language proper, or, as a European might say, the court language, and the other a slave language, or jargon. They differ so much, that a stranger fully conversant with one cannot understand the other. This jargon originated, probably, from intermixing prisoners of war of different nationalities who were enslaved, and their languages mingled with each other, and with that of their conquerors. The pure-blooded Nez Percés all understand the jargon, learning it when children, together with their own proper language. Nor is this all. The jargon is more or less modified by each of the several languages, or dialects, in which it is spoken. The employés of the fur companies, who first came in contact with the Sahaptins, were greatly annoyed by this multiformity; as, for example, one Nez Percé coming to sell a beaver skin would say, tammecess taxpool, I wish to sell a beaver; another would say, towèyou weespoose, I wish to trade a beaver; and a third would say, e'towpa e'yechcœ, I wish to trade a beaver.

The following short vocabulary will show some of the differences between the Nez Percé language and the jargon:

NEZ PERCÉ JARGON.

Man kewas winch

Woman eyatt tealacky

Boy tachnutsem tuchnoot

Girl tochanough peten

No waatown, tsya

Knife waltz whapallmeh,

Horse she came koosy

Hair tootanick kookoo

Eyes shelaw Atchass.[III'-40]

Professor Rafinesque, out of twenty-four Sahaptin words, claims to have found six bearing close affinities to the English, but Buschmann says that of these twenty-four, many are not Sahaptin at all.[III'-41] The Waiilatpu language, conterminous with the Sahaptin, is spoken in two dialects, the Cayuse and Mollale. The Cayuses mingle frequently with the Sahaptins, and therefore many words of the latter have been adopted into their tongue. They mostly understand and speak the Sahaptin, and frequently the Walla Walla, and this not from any relationship in the several languages, but from intercourse.[III'-42]

Like their neighbors, the Cayuses employ two languages; one in the transaction of the common affairs of life, and the other on high state occasions, such as when making speeches round the council fire, to determine questions of war and peace, as well as all other intertribal affairs. That is to say, the Sahaptins use their court language on all ordinary, as well as extraordinary occasions, keeping the jargon for their servants, while the Cayuses employ the baser tongue for common, and the higher for state occasions.

The Cayuses were eloquent speakers; their language abounded in elegant expressions, and they well knew how to make the most of it. When first known to Europeans, it was fast fading away, and subsequently merged into the Sahaptin; so fleeting are these native idioms.[III'-43]

DIFFICULTIES OF THE CHINOOK.

The Chinook language is spoken by the different tribes inhabiting the banks of the Lower Columbia and adjacent country. This family is divided into many dialects, which diverge from the mother tongue as we ascend the river; in fact, the upper tribes have mostly to employ an interpreter, when they communicate with those on the lower part of the river. The chief diversities of this language are the Chinook proper, the Wakiakum, Cathlamet, and Clatsop, and the various dialects mentioned by Lewis and Clarke as belonging to those inhabiting this region at the time of their expedition, but which cannot now be positively identified with any of the languages known to us. Two of the last-mentioned dialects, the Multnomah and the Skilloot, the explorers describe as belonging to the Chinook.[III'-44] Among all the languages of north-western America, except perhaps that of the Thlinkeets, the Chinook is considered in its construction the most intricate; and in its pronunciation the most difficult. No words are to be found in the English vocabulary which can accurately describe it. To say that it is guttural, clucking, spluttering, and the like conveys but a faint conception of the sound produced by a Chinook in his frantic effort to unburden his mind of an idea. He does not appear to have yet discovered the use of the lips and tongue in speaking, but struggles with the lower part of the throat to produce sounds for the expression of his thoughts. Some declare that the speech of the Thlinkeets, whose language like that of the Chinook contains no labials, is melody in comparison to the croakings of the Chinooks. Ross says, that "to speak the Chinook dialect, you must be a Chinook."[III'-45] Indeed, they appear to have become tired of their own language and to have voluntarily abandoned it, for, to-day, the youthful Chinook speaks almost wholly Chehalis and the jargon. The employés of the fur companies, voyageurs, trappers and traders, who were accustomed to master with little difficulty the aboriginal tongues which they encountered, were completely nonplussed by the Chinook. A Canadian of Astor's company is the only person known to have acquired it so as to speak it fluently. During a long illness he was nursed by the Chinooks, and during his convalescence devoted his entire time to perfecting himself in their tongue.[III'-46]

Here the sounds of the letters f, r, v, and z do not exist, the pronunciation is generally very indistinct, and ç and s, k and g, d and t, are almost always confounded.

In the first person of the dual and plural of pronouns, the person present and addressed is either included or excluded according to the form used.

Personal pronouns in the Watlala dialect are:

SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

I naika We (two) (exc.) ndaika We (ex.) nçtaika

We (two) (incl.) tkhaika We (incl.) olkhaika

Thou maika You (two) mdaika You miçaika

He iakhka They (two) içtakhka They tkhlaitçka

Of the possessive pronouns the following will serve as examples. They are joined to the noun itukutkhle, or itukwutkhle, house.

SINGULAR.

My house kukwutkhl

Thy house meokwitkhl

His house iakwitkhl

DUAL. PLURAL.

Our house (exc.) ndakwitkhl ntçakwitkhl (exc.)

Our house (incl.) tkhakwitkhl olkhakwitkhl (incl.)

Your house mdakwitkhl mçakwitkhl

Their house içtakwitkhl tkhlakwitkhl

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE COLD.

PRESENT INDICATIVE, SINGULAR.

I am cold, naika tçinokhkeakh

Thou art cold, maika tçiçomkeakh

He is cold, iakhka tçikeakh

DUAL.

We (two) are cold (exc.), ndaika tçiçontkeakh

We (two) are cold (incl.), tkhaika tçiçtkeakh

You (two) are cold, mdaika tçimokeakh

They (two) are cold, ictakhka tçiçtkeakh

PLURAL.

We are cold (exc.), ntçaika tçicontçkeakh

We are cold (incl.), olkhaika tçilokeakh

You are cold, mçaika tçiçomçkeakh

They are cold, tkhlaitçka tçiçotkhlkeakh

IMPERFECT.

Yesterday I was cold, takotkhl naika tçinotkeakh

FIRST FUTURE.

By and bye I shall be cold, atkhlke naika tçiçonkhatka

I shall be cold, naika onçkhatka tçiç

THE VERB TO KILL.

I kill thee, aminowagua

I kill him, tçinowagua

I kill you (dual), omtkinowagua

I kill them (dual), oçtkinowagua

I kill you (pl.), omçkinowagua

I kill them, otkhlkinowngua

You kill him, omçkiwagua

You kill them, otkhlkiwagua

Dialectic differences particularly among the upper Chinooks, or Watlalas, are found principally in words; grammatical forms being alike in both.[III'-47] Kane remarks as a peculiarity that this language contains "no oaths, or any words conveying gratitude or thanks."[III'-48]

CALAPOOYA PRONOUNS.

Moving again southward to the Willamette Valley, I find the Calapooya language, and for the first time a soft and harmonious idiom. Although the guttural kh sometimes occurs, it is more frequently softened to h. The consonants are ç, or s, f, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, or b, t, or d, q, and w. Unlike the Sahaptin and Chinook there are neither dual nor plural forms in the Calapooya language.

The personal pronouns are:

I tsi, or tsii

Thou maha, or maa

He koka, or kak

We soto

You miti

They kinuk

My father tsi simna

Thy father maha kaham

His father kok inifam

Our father soto tufam

Your father miti tifam

Their father kinuk inifam

My mother tsi sinni

Thy mother maha kanni

His mother kok ininnim

Our mother soto tunnim

Your mother miti tinnim

Their mother kinuk ininnim

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE SICK, ILFATIN.

PRESENT NEUTER.

I am sick, tsi ilfatin

Thou art sick, intsi ilfatin

He is sick, ilfatin

We are sick, tsiti ilfaf

You are sick, intsip ilfaf

They are sick, kinuk in ilfaf

NEGATIVE.

I am not sick, wangk tsik ilfatit

IMPERFECT.

I was sick yesterday, ilfatin tsi kuyi

Thou wast sick yesterday, imku ilfatin

He was sick yesterday, hu ilfatin

FIRST FUTURE.

To-morrow I shall be sick, midji taïlfit tsii

The following example will serve to illustrate the great changes verbs undergo in their conjugations;—ksitapatsitup maha, I love thee; tsitapintsuo kok, I love him; himtapintsiwata tsii kak, he loves me; hintsitapintsiwata tsii, dost thou love me?[III'-49]

The Yamkally is spoken at the sources of the Willamette River. A comparison of the Yamkally and Calapooya vocabularies shows a certain relationship between them.[III'-50]

COLUMBIAN AND MEXICAN COMPARISONS.

I have said that certain affinities are discovered between the Waiilatpu and Mollale, and also between the Watlala and Chinook; in these, as well as in the Calapooya and Yamkally, Buschmann discovers faint traces of the Aztec language. Others have discovered a fancied relationship between the language of the Mexicans and those of more northern nations, but Mr Buschmann believes that, descending from the north, the peoples mentioned, whose lands are drained by the Columbia, are the first in which the Aztec, in dim shadows, makes its appearance. These similarities, he discovered not alone by direct comparisons with the Aztec, but also by detecting resemblances between these Columbian dialects and those of certain nations which he calls his Sonora group and its affiliations, all of which contain elements of the Aztec tongue. Yet Mr Buschmann does not therefrom claim any relationship between the Aztecs and Columbians, but only notices these few slight assimilations.[III'-51]

Herewith is a comparative table, containing a few similar words:

Comparative Table, showing Similarities between the Columbian and Mexican Tongues.

ENGLISH. WAIILATPU. MOLLALE. WATLALA. CHINOOK. CALAPOOYA. AZTEC. SONORA FAMILY.

Yes i ia a ah he, aw e, ha

Tooth tenif tanti tlantli

Red tkhlpal tkhlpolpol tlapalli

Wind ikkhala itskhakh ikhala ehecatl heicala

Black tkhlol tkhlalukh tlilli

Water wematkhl webatkhl atl

I naika nëe ne

Chief iatoiang iakant iout, iauta

ANALYSIS OF THE CHINOOK JARGON.

The Chinook jargon is employed by the white people in their intercourse with the natives, as well as by the natives among themselves. It is spoken throughout Oregon, Washington Territory, on Vancouver Island, and extends inland into Idaho and some parts of Montana. It is more than probable that, like other languages de convenance, it formed itself gradually, first among the natives themselves, and that in the course of time, in order to facilitate their intercourse with the aborigines, trappers and traders adopted and improved it, until it was finally brought into its present state. Indeed, so great was the diversity of languages in this vicinity, and so intricate were they, that without something of this kind there could have been but little intercourse between the people.

A somewhat similar mixture I have already mentioned as existing in Alaska. Father Paul Le Jeune gives a short account of a jargon in use between the French and the Indians, in the north-eastern part of America, as early as the year 1633.[III'-52] In Europe a similar mixture, or patois, prevails to this day, the lingua franca, used by the many nationalities that congregate upon the shores of the Mediterranean. In China, and in the East Indies, the so-called pigeon English occupies the same place; and in various parts of Central and Southern America, neutral languages may be found. To show how languages spring up and grow, Vancouver, when visiting the coast in 1792, found in various places along the shores of Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver Island, nations that now and then understood words and sentences of the Nootka and other tongues, some of which had been adopted into their own language.

When Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon seems to have already assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the sentences quoted by the explorers. But not until the arrival of the expedition sent out by John Jacob Astor does it appear that either English or French words, of which it contains a large percentage, were incorporated. Very few, if any, of the words of which the jargon is composed, retain their original shape. The harsh, guttural, and unpronounceable native cackling was softened or omitted, thus forming a speech suited to all. In the same manner, some of the English sounds, like f and r, unpronounceable by the native, were dropped, or transferred into p and l, while all grammatical forms were reduced to the fewest and plainest rules possible.[III'-53] But even in this jargon, there are what may be called dialectic differences; for instance, many words used at the Dalles, are quite unintelligible at the mouth of the Columbia and at Puget Sound. It has often been asserted that the jargon was invented or originated by the Hudson's Bay Company, but although the fur company undoubtedly greatly aided its development, and assisted in perfecting it, it is well known, first, that this jargon existed before the advent of Europeans, and secondly, that languages are not made in this way.

Mr Gibbs states the number of words to be nearly five hundred, and after a careful analysis of the language, has arrived at the following conclusion as to the number contributed by the several nationalities:

Chinook and Clatsop 200 words

Chinook, having analogies with other languages 21 "

Interjections common to several 8 "

Nootka, including dialects 24 "

Chehalis, 32, and Nisqually, 7 39 "

Kliketat and Yakima 2 "

Cree 2 "

Chippeway (Ojibway) 1 "

Wasco (probably) 4 "

Calapooya (probably) 4 "

By direct onomatopœia 6 "

Derivation unknown, or undetermined 18 "

French, 90, Canadian, 4 94 "

English 67 " [III'-54]

As before mentioned, foreign words adopted into the jargon vocabulary are changed to suit the taste of the speaker, as in the word Français, being unable to pronounce the f, r, and n, for Frenchman they say pasaiuks, and for French, pasai. The few words formed by onomatopœia, are after this fashion;—tumtum, heart, an imitation of its beating; tintin, bell; tiktik, watch; liplip, to boil, from the sound of boiling water, and so on.

Neither article nor inflections are employed. Okok, this, at times takes the place of the English the. As a rule, plurals are not distinguished, but sometimes the word haiu, many, is used. Adjectives precede nouns, as in English—lasuai hakatshum, silk handkerchief; masatsi tilikum, bad people. The comparative is expressed, for example, in the sentence, I am stronger than thou, by wek maika skukum kakwa naika, thou not strong as I. Superlative—haias oluman okok kanem, very old that canoe. There are only two conjunctions, pi, derived from the French puis, which denotes and or then; and pos, from suppose, meaning if, in case that, provided that. The particle na is at times used as an interrogative.[III'-55]

The Lord's Prayer in the Chinook jargon is as follows:

Nesika (Our) papa (Father) klaksta ( who) mitlite (stayeth) kopa (in) saghalie, (the above,) kloshe (good) kopa (in) nesika (our) tumtum (hearts (be)) mika (thy) nem; (name;) kloshe (good) mika (thou) tyee (chief) kopa (among) konoway (all) tilikum; (people;) kloshe (good) mika (thy) tumtum (will) kopa (upon) illahie, (earth,) kahkwe (as) kopa (in) saghalie. (the above.) Potlatch (Give) konaway (every) sun (day) nesika (our) muckamuck. (food.) Spose (If) nesika (we) mamook (do) masahchie, (ill,) wake ((be) not) mika (thou) hyas (very) solleks, ( angry,) pe (and) spose (if) klaksta (any one) masahchie (evil) kopa (towards) nesika, (us,) wake (not) nesika (we) solleks (angry) kopa (towards) klaska. ( them.) Mahsh (Send away) siah (far) kopa (from) nesaika (us) konaway (all) masahchie. (evil.[III'-56]) Kloshe kahkwa. ( )