Volume 3 — CHAPTER XI. THE MAYA-QUICHÉ LANGUAGES.

The Maya-Quiché, the Languages of the Civilized Nations of Central America—Enumeration of the Members of this Family—Hypothetical Analogies with Languages of the Old World—Lord's Prayers in the Chañabal, Chiapanec, Chol, Tzendal, Zoque, and Zotzil—Pokonchi Grammar—The Mame or Zaklopahkap—Quiché Grammar—Cakchiquel Lord's Prayer—Maya Grammar—Totonac Grammar—Totonac Dialects—Huastec Grammar.

The languages of the civilized nations of Central America, being all more or less affiliated, may be not improperly classified as the Maya-Quiché family, the Maya constituting the mother tongue. Commencing in the neighborhood of the river Goazacoalco, thence extending over Tabasco, Chiapas, Yucatan, Guatemala, and portions of Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, it occupies the same relatively important position in the south as the Aztec farther north. Besides spreading out over this immense area, there are two branches still farther north, isolated from the mother tongue, yet conterminous to each other, the Huastec and the Totonac of Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz. Without including the last mentioned, probably the fullest enumeration of all these languages, is given by the Licenciado Diego García de Palacio, in a letter addressed to the King of Spain, in the year 1576. Omitting the Aztec, which he includes in his catalogue, his summary is substantially as follows. In Chiapas, the Chiapanec, Tloque, Zotzil, and Zeldal-Quelen; in Soconusco, a tongue which he designates as the mother language and another called the Vebetlateca; in Suchitepec and Guatemala, the Mame, Achi, Guatemaltec, Chinantec, Hutatec, and Chirichota; in Vera Paz, the Pokonchi, and Caechicolchi; in the valleys of Acacebastla and Chiquimula, the Tlacacebastla, and Apay; and in the valley of San Miguel, the Poton, Taulepa, and Ulua. Other authors mention, in Guatemala the Quiché, the Cakchiquel, the Zutugil, the Chorti, the Alaguilac, the Caichi, the Ixil, the Zoque, the Coxoh, the Chañabal, the Chol, the Uzpanteca, the Aguacateca, the Quecchi; and in Yucatan, the stock language, the Maya. Among all these languages thus enumerated by different authors, it is not at all unlikely that some have been mentioned twice under different names.[XI'-1] Most, if not all of them, are related to, if indeed they did not spring from one mother tongue, the Maya, of which a dialect, called the Tzendal is said to be the oldest language spoken in any of these countries. In fact, they all appear to be dialects and variations of some few tongues of yet greater antiquity, which again have sprung from the oldest of all, the Maya. This latter, I may say, forms the linguistic centre, from which all the others radiate, decreasing in consanguinity according to the distance from this centre, losing, by intermixture, and the adoption of foreign words, their aboriginal forms, until on reaching the outer edge of the circle, it becomes difficult to trace their connection with the source from which they sprang.[XI'-2]

THE MAYA LANGUAGE IN YUCATAN.

The Maya, with its many affiliations, may be well compared in its grammatical construction and capacity to the Aztec. It has in this respect been likened to the ancient Greek which it is said to resemble in many points. Although monosyllabic words are of frequent occurrence, it has not, as is common to monosyllabic languages, many very harsh and guttural sounds, but is generally called soft and well-sounding. The dialects spoken on the coast of Yucatan and near Belize, are the purest and most elegant of the Maya family, and the greater the distance from this region, the greater are the variations from the pure Maya.[XI'-3] Some remarkable hypotheses, which, if proven, would revolutionize many existing theories, ethnologic and philologic, have latterly been brought forward by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg. This gentleman, who has devoted himself to the study of ancient Central America and Mexico for many years, and who is fully conversant with the languages of Yucatan and Guatemala, the Maya and Quiché, claims to have discovered a close connection between the Maya, Quiché, Cakchiquel, Zutugil, and others, with most of the chief languages of Europe; prominent among which he places the Greek, but mentions also Latin, French, English, German, Flemish, Danish, and others. Although on examination many of the abbé's so-called roots display similarities, both phonetic and in meaning, with some European words, still a large majority are evidently twisted to conform to the writer's ideas, and it will require not alone further investigations, but unprejudiced studies, such as are not made for the purpose of proving any particular hypothesis, to substantiate his theories. Until such impartial comparisons are made, and a clearer light thrown upon the subject, these Central American languages must remain content to be treated as strangers to those of the old world.[XI'-4] Of the languages previously enumerated I have the following specimens.

The Lord's Prayer in Chañabal, spoken in Comitan, in the state of Chiapas:

Tattic hayá culchahan tanlinubal á vihil jacué eg bagtic á guajan acotuc á guabal hichuc ili luhum jastal culchahan. Yipil caltzil eg güiniquil tic aquitic sva yabanhi soc culanperdon eg multic hichuc qucj ganticon guazt culanticon perdon machá hay smul sigilticon soc mi ztagua concoctic mulil mas lec coltayotic scab pucuj jachuc.

CHIAPANEC, CHOL, AND TZENDAL.

Lord's Prayer in Chiapanec:

Pua manguemé nilumá cané nacapajó totomomo copamimé chambriomo chalaya guipumutamu; gadilojá istanacupu cajilucá nacopajó: cajilo baña yacameomo nuori may tarilu mindamu oguajime lla copomimemo taguajime nambucamuñeme cuqueme gadiluca si memu casimemu tagnagime nambucamuñeme copá tipusitumu bica tipucapuimu mujarimimuñame mangueme. Diusi mutarilú nitangame chacuillame caji Jesus.

Lord's Prayer in Chol:

Tiat te lojon, aué tipuchan utzat alvilacaval trictic tolejón han gracia chulee viliç á pucical vafchec ti paniumil chee tipanchan. Laa cual ti juun pel quin, de vennomelojón gualee sutven lasvet baschee mue sutvenlaa y vetob laspibulob. Llastel ti lolontecl cotanon melojon y chachan jaipel y tiué nialoloion. Amen Jesus.

Lord's Prayer in Tzendal, as spoken near the celebrated ruins of Palenque:

Tatic, ta nacalat tachulchan: chulalviluc te ajalalvilé: acatalúc te aguajualé: acapastayuc: te tuxacane tajich ta chulchan jichucnix ta valumilal. Ecuctae jujhan acabeyaotic te guag vixtum cuntic tajujun caal chaybeyaotic te multic achiotic chaybetic ate hay smul cagtojoltique soyoc mameaguac yalucotic ta mulil colta yaoticnax tastojol piscil te colae. Amen Jesus.

Lord's Prayer in Zoque, as spoken in Tabasco, Chiapas, and parts of Oajaca:

Theshata tzapguesmue itupue yavecotzamué mis nei, yaminé mis yumihacui, ya tuque mis sunoycui, yecnasquesi tzapquesmuese. Tesané hoimuepe homepe tzihete yshoy, yatocoyates mis hescova hes jaziquet mis atocoipasé thesquesipue jatzi huitemistetzaeu hocysete cuijomue ticomaye ya cotzocamisthe mumuyatzipue quesi, tese yatuque. Amen Jesus.

Lord's Prayer in Zotzil:

Totit ot-te nacal oi ta vinagel-utzilaluc á vi-acotal aguajualel-acopas huc á chul cano-echuc nox ta vinagel-eclusé ta valumil-acbeotic e cham-llocom llocomutic-ech xachaibeutic-cuie tag tojolic-ma á guae llalucuntic-ta altajoltic-ech xacolta utic nox ta stojol ti coloc. Amen Jesus.[XI'-5]

POKONCHI GRAMMAR.

Of the Pokonchi Language I have a short grammar, by Thomas Gage, which has also been used by Vater and Gallatin. Following are a few of its prominent features:

Nouns are declined by the aid of particles, of which there are two kinds, varying accordingly as the word to be declined commences with a consonant or with a vowel. For words commencing with a consonant the particles nu, a, ru, ca, ata, and quitacque are used; and for those commencing with a vowel, v, av, r, c, or q, ta, qu, and tacque. These particles are partly prefixed and partly affixed, as will appear in the following examples. So the word pat, house, and tat, father, are by Gage declined in the following manner.

My house nupat Our house capat

Thy house apat Your house apatta

His house rupat Their house quipattacque

My father nutat Our father catat

Thy father atat Your father atatta

His father rutat Their father quitattacque

The declension of the word acun, son, and ixim, corn, are given by Gage, as follows:

My son vacun Our son cacun

Thy son avacun Your son avacunta

His son racun Their son cacuntaque

My corn vixim Our corn quixim

Thy corn avixim Your corn avicimta

His corn rixim Their corn quiximtacque

Verbs in like manner change the particles, by means of which they are conjugated, accordingly as the word commences with a consonant or a vowel. For those commencing with a consonant the particles are;—nu, na, inru, inca, nata, inquitacque. Thus the word locoh, to love, is conjugated as follows:

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOCOH, TO LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, nulocoh We love, incalocoh

Thou lovest, nalocoh You love, nalocohto

He loves, inrulucoh They love, inquilocohtacque

PRESENT PASSIVE.

I am loved, quiloconhi We are loved, coloconhi

Thou art loved, tiloconhi You are loved, tiloconhita

He is loved, inroconhi They are loved, quiloconhitacque

PERFECT PASSIVE.

I have been loved, xinloconhi

Thou hast been loved, ixtiloconhi

He has been loved, ixloconhi

We have been loved, xoloconhi

You have been loved, ixtiloconhita

They have been loved, xiloconhi tacque

IMPERATIVE.

Be thou loved, tiloconhi

Let him be loved, chiloconho

Let us be loved, chicaloconho

Be ye loved, tiloconhota

Let them be loved, chiquiloconho taque

I can love, inchoinulocoh

I will love, inranulocoh

I have been willing to love, ixnulocoh

I have been able to love, ixcholixnulocoh

I can love thee, tichol nulocoh

I will love thee, tira nulocoh

Sometimes the verb I will is added to express the future;—inva, I will; nava, thou wilt; inra, he will.

Verbs beginning with a vowel have the following particles;—ino, nav, inr, inqu, or inc, nauta, inqu tacque, or inc tacque. Thus the verb eça, to deliver, is conjugated.

I deliver, inveça We deliver, inqueça

Thou deliverest, naveça You deliver, naveçata

He delivers, inreça They deliver, inqueça tacque

Adjectives are indeclinable, and the plural of nouns cannot be distinguished from the singular, as;—kiro uinac, good man; kiro uinac, good men.

The following Lord's Prayer comes from the same source:

Catat taxah vilcat; nimta incaharçihi avi; inchalita avihauripau cana. Invanivita nava yahvir vacacal, he invataxab. Chaye runa cahuhunta quih viic; naçachtamac, he inçachve quimac ximacquivi chiquih; macoacana chipam catacchyhi, coaveçata china unche tsiri, mani quiro, he inqui. Amen.[XI'-6]

MAME CONJUGATION.

Of the Mame, or Zaklohpakap, the following extract is from a grammar written by Diego de Reynoso. The letters used are: a, b, ch, e, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, t, u, v, x, y, z, tz. There are no special syllables or signs to express gender, but distinct words are used, as;—mama, old man; ahkimikeia, old woman; mamail, old age of a man; keiail, or ahkimikil, old age of a woman. The plural of animate beings is expressed by the particle e prefixed to the word;—vuinak, person; evuinak, persons; but it is considered as elegant also to affix the same e;—kiahol, son; ekiahole, sons. For inanimate things, either numerals or adjectives expressing the plural are used;—abah, stone; ikoh abah, many stones. Personal pronouns are;—ain, I; aia, thou; ahu or ahi, he; ao or aoio, we; ae or aeie, you; aehu or aehi, they.

Me, to me, in me vuih

Thee, to thee, in thee tiha

Him, to him, in him tihu

Us, to us, in us kiho

You, to you, in you kihae

Them, to them, in them kihaehu

Of me, by me vuxm

By thee tuma

By him tumhi

By us kumo

By you kume

By them kumhu

By myself tipa

By himself tiphi

By ourselves kibo

By yourselves kibe

By themselves kibaehu or kibhu

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I am, ain in, or ain inen We are, ao, or aoia

Thou art, aia You are, ae, or aeie

He is, ahu They are, aehu

IMPERFECT. PERFECT.

I was, ain took I have been, ain hi

PLUPERFECT.

I had been, ain tokem

FIRST FUTURE. SECOND FUTURE.

I shall be, in abenelem, or ain loiem I shall have been, ain lohi

IMPERATIVE.

Be, a u ia

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB XTALEM, TO LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, ain tzum chim xtalem We love, tzum ko xtalem o

Thou lovest, tzum xtalem a You love, tzum che xtalem e

He loves, tzum xtalem hu They love, tzum che xtalem hu

IMPERFECT.

I loved, tzum tok chim xtalem

PERFECT.

I have loved, ini xtalim, uni xtale, ma chim xtalim,

ma ni xtale, or ma uni xtale

PLUPERFECT.

I had loved, ixtok chim xtalim

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall love, uni xtalibetz, or ain chim xtalem

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have loved, ain lo in xtalem

IMPERATIVE.

Love thou, ixtalin o ia

Let him love, ixtalin o hu

Let us love, ko ixtalin o

Love you, ixtalin ke ie

Let them love, ixtalin ke hu[XI'-7]

Of the Quiché, there is an abundance of material. The letters used are;—a, b, c, e, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, t, u, v, x, y, z, tz, tch. Gender is expressed by prefixing the noun ixok, woman, to the word, as;—coh, lion; ixok coh, lioness; mun, slave; ixok mun, female slave. The sound ish expressed by the letter x denotes inferiority, and is therefore frequently used to express the feminine of inferior beings. U in the Quichè and ru in the Cakchiquel are either possessive pronouns or denote the possession of the word which follows. The particles re and ri are at times used for the same purpose;—u chuch ahpop, the mother of the prince; qui quoxtum tinanit, the ramparts of the town. Before the vowels a, o, and u, they are changed to c; and before e and i, to qu. Derivatives are formed with the preposition ah, either prefixed or affixed to the primitive noun;—car, fish; ahcar, the fisherman; tzih, word; ahtzih, the speaker; etc. No positive rule can be given for the formation of the plural, as there are several different methods in use. The most common appears to be by the affixes ab, eb, ib, ob, ub;—beom, merchant; plural, beomab; ixok, woman; plural, ixokib; ahau, lord; plural, ahauab. In the Cakchiquel language the last letter b is omitted, as;—ixokib, women, in Quiché, is ixoki in Cakchiquel. With adjectives the syllables ak, tak, ic, tic, etc., are used instead;—nim, great; nimak ha, great houses; rihi, old; rihitak vinak, old people; utz, good; utzic va, good eatables. Adjectives are always placed before the substantives;—zak, white; zaki ha, white house. Substantives are formed from adjectives by adding one of the particles, al, el, il, ol, ul;—nim, great; nimal, the greatness; zak, white; zakil, the whiteness; utz, good; utzil, the goodness. These same substantives can be turned into adjectives again by adding the particle ah;—nimalah mak, great sin; utzilah achi, good man. In the same manner all substantives may be turned into adjectives by adding one of the particles alah, elah, ilah, olah, ulah, etc.; ahau, king or lord; ahaualah, royal.

To express the comparative, the present participle of the verb iqou, to surpass, which is iqouinak, is used, and sometimes also the word yalacuhinak, from yalacuh, to exceed. For example;—nim, great, comparative, iqouinak chi nim, he who surpasses in greatness; iqouinak chi nim u hebeliquiil ka xokahau Gapoh maria chiqui vi conohel ixokib, (literally) surpasses in great beauty our Lady the Virgin Mary all other women. The superlative is expressed by the syllable maih, very great or much; nim, great or greatly; tih, xoo, quï, much; all of which are placed before the word and are followed by the syllable chi;—maih chi nim, very great; maih chi hebel, very fine; maih chi tinamit, very great city; xoo qatan, very great heat; tih nima ha, very great house. The adverb lavolo or lolo is also used for the same purpose—lavolo or lolo cou ch' a bana, hold it strong.

The names of colors are duplicated to express the superlative, as;—rax rax, very green; zak zak, very white.

The reverential syllables in use are lal and la—lal nu cahau, your excellency is my father; in alcual la, I am the son of your excellency.

QUICHÉ PRONOUNS.

PRONOUNS.

I, or me in, nu, nuv

Thou at, a

He are, ri, r'

Myself xavi in

Thyself xavi at

Himself xavi are

We oh

You yx

They e, he

Ourselves xavi oh

Yourselves xavi yx

Themselves xavi e, he

When a noun commences with a consonant, nu, a, u, in the singular, and ka, y, qui, in the plural are used as possessive pronouns, but if it commences with a vowel, v, av', r, are employed in the singular, and k', yv', c', or qu', in the plural.

My slave nu mun

Thy slave a mun

His slave u mun

Our slaves ka munib

Your slaves y munib

Their slaves oui munib

My wrath v' oyoual

Thy wrath av' oyoual

His wrath r' oyoual

Our wrath k' oyoual

Your wrath yv' oyoual

Their wrath c' oyoual

INTERROGATIVES.

Who naki, achinak, apachinak

Who am I apa-in-chinak

Who art thou apa-at-chinak

Who is this apachinak-ri

Who is it naki-la

Who would it be naki-lalo

Who are we apa-oh-chinak

Who are you apa-yx-chinak

Who are they apa-e-chinak

The verb, to be, is expressed by either ux, or qo, or qohe. As an example of its conjugation I insert the indicative present.

I am, in ux or in qolic

Thou art, at ux " at qolic

He is, are ux " are qolic

We are, oh ux " oh qolic

You are, yx ux " yx qolic

They are, e, or he ux " e, or he qolic

Four different kinds of verbs are given in the grammar compiled by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, which he calls active, absolute, passive, and neuter. The following sentences are given as specimens of each kind. Active;—can nu logoh v' ahtih, I love my master. Absolute;—qu' i logon, or logonic, I love; qu' i tzibanic, I write. Passive;—ta x-e tzonox rumal ahtzak, then they were interrogated by the creator. Neuter;—qu' i cam, or qui cam, I die; qu' in ul, I come; qu' i be, I go; qu' i var, I sleep.

QUICHÉ CONJUGATIONS.

Following I insert the conjugation of the active verb to love, in which the word logoh, love, commences with a consonant, and also the conjugation of the active verb oyohbeh, to wait, which commences with a vowel, thus showing the different particles used.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, ca nu logoh We love, ca ka logoh

Thou lovest, c' a logoh You love, qu' y logoh

He loves, c' u logoh They love, ca que logoh

PERFECT.

I have loved, x-in, xi-nu, or x-nu logoh, or nu logom

PLUPERFECT.

I had loved, nu, or x-nu logom-chic

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall love, ch' in, x-ch'in chi nu, or x-chi nu logoh

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I love, ca nu logoh-tah

If I had loved, nu logom-chi-tah

PARTICIPLE.

Loving, logonel

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB OYOBEH, TO WAIT.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I wait, ca v'oyobeh We wait, ca k' oyobeh

Thou waitest, c' av' oyobeh You wait, qu' yv' oyobeh

He waits, ca r' oyobeh They wait, ca c' oyobeh

PERFECT.

I have waited, xi-v' oyobeh, or av' oyobem

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have waited, chi v', or xchi v oyobeh

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I wait, ca v' oyobeh-tah

In the following three columns I give a specimen of the conjugation of the absolute, passive, and neuter verb.

ABSOLUTE. PASSIVE.

I love, qu'i logon I am loved, qu'i logox

Thou lovest, c'at logon Thou art loved, c'at logox

He loves, ca logon He is loved, ca legox

We love, koh logon We are loved, koh logox

You love, qu'y logon You are loved, qu'ix logox

They love, que logon They are loved, que logox

NEUTER.

I roll, qu'i bol We roll, koh bol

Thou rollest, c'at bol You roll, qu' yx bol

He rolls, ca bol They roll, que bol

ABSOLUTE. PASSIVE.

I have loved, x-i logon, I was loved, x-i logox,

or in logoninak or in logoxinak

NEUTER.

I have arrived, x-in ul, or in ulinak

FIRST FUTURE.

ABSOLUTE. PASSIVE.

I shall love, x-qui logon I shall be loved, x-qui logox

NEUTER.

I shall arrive, x-qu'in ul

There are further mentioned a reciprocal and a distributive verb.

Of the former the following is an example.

I love myself, ca nu logoh uib

Thou lovest thyself, c'a logoh rib

He loves himself, c'u logoh rib

We love ourselves, ca ka logoh kib

You love yourselves, qu'y logoh yvib

They love themselves, ca qui logoh quib

Of the second form this is an example.

Thee I love, cat nu logoh

He loves his father, cu ri, or are logoh a cahau

You love us, koh y logoh

Thee they love, cat que logoh

The prepositions—ma, man, or mana, and mave, are negatives. When man, or mana, is used with a verb, the particle tah must be added;—man ca v' il-tah, I do not see. Father Ximenez calls the following irregular verbs, qo, qoh, or qolic, pa, ux, or uxic; qaz, to live, and oh, or ho, to go.

The conjugation of the last mentioned is as follows.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

I go, h'in We go, o'ho

Thou goest, h'at You go, h'yx

He goes, oh, or ho They go, h'e

The Zutugil and Cakchiquel appear to bear a closer relationship to each other, than the Cakchiquel and Quiché. Some of the principal differences between the three are the following. The plural of nouns which in the Quiché is formed by the affixes ab, eb, ob, ib, ub, is in the Cakchiquel designated by simply affixing the vowels of the above syllables, and in the Zutugil by the affixes ay, or i. The pronouns which in the Quiché and Cakchiquel are in, I, etc., are in the Zutugil doubled, as;—in-in, I, etc. The possessive pronouns differ in all three of the languages. The Quiché has vech, mine; avecha, thine; rech, his; kech, ours; yvech, yours; quech, theirs. In the Cakchiquel these are;—vichin, avichin, richin, kichin, yvichin, quichin, and the Zutugil changes the ch of the Cakchiquel into n;—vixin, avixin, rixin, kixin, yvixin, quixin. The dative in the Quiché is chuvech, to me, in the Cakchiquel chuvichin, and in the Zutugil, chuvixin. Reciprocal pronouns in the Quiché are vib, avib, rib, kib, yvib, and quib, and in the Zutugil they are vi, avi, ri, ki, yvi, qui. The verb ganeh, which also means to love, is in the Cakchiquel and Zutugil conjugated as follows.

I love, tin ganeh We love, ti ka ganeh

Thou lovest, tah ganeh You love, ty ganeh

He loves, tu ganeh They love, ti qui ganeh

There are also many other words which differ in one or more letters in the three languages, but it appears that they are nevertheless so much alike that the different people speaking them can understand one another.

QUICHÉ AND CAKCHIQUEL LORD'S PRAYERS.

Lord's Prayer in the Quiché:

Ka cachau chi cab lal qo-vi, r'auazirizaxic-tah bi la. Chi pe-tah ahauarem la. Chi ban-ta ahauam la, varal chuvi uleu queheri ca ban chi cah. Yah la chikech ka hutagihil va. Zacha la ka mak, queheri ca ka zacho qui mak rii x-e makun chike ruq m'oh ocotah la pa takchiibal mak, xata noh col-ta la pa itzel. Quehe ch'uxoc.

Lord's Prayer in Cakchiquel:

Ka tata r'at qoh chi cah, r'auazirizaxic-tah a bi. Ti pe-ta-ok av' ahauarem. Ti ban-tah av'ahoom vave chuvi uleu, quereri tan-ti ban chi cah. Ta yata-ok chike vacamic ka hutagihil vay. Ta zach-ta-qa-ok ka mak, quereri tan-ti ka zach qui mak riy x-e makun chike. Ruquin qa maqui-tah koh av'ocotah pa takchiibal mak, xatah koh a colo pan itzel. Quere ok t'ux.[XI'-8]

Of the Maya Grammar, the following is a brief compendium:

The following alphabet is used to write the Maya language: a, b, c, ç, z, tz, ɔ, cti, ch, e, h, i, y, k, l, m, n, o, p, pp, t, th, u, x.

The letter ç is pronounced like the English z, or as if for example the word cambeç, were spelled cambez. The ɔ is pronounced as if spelled dj, ɔib is pronounced as if written djib, to write; h, not aspirated, and very frequently omitted; k, rather guttural; pp and p, sharp and with force; th, hard, at the same time approximating slightly the English tt. The gender of rational beings is denoted by the prefixes ah, for masculine, and ix, for feminine;—ah cambezah, master; ix cambezah, mistress. With animals the particles xibil, for males, and chupul, for females, is prefixed. An exception to this rule is the word pal;—xibil pal, the boy; and chupal pal, the girl. Nouns form the plural by adding the particle ob;—ich, eye; ich ob, eyes. Adjectives ending in nac, in the plural lose their two last syllables and substitute for them the syllable lac;—kakatnác, an idle thing; kaklác, idle things. When an adjective and substantive are joined together, the adjective is always placed before the substantive, but the plural is expressed only in the substantive;—man, uinic; good, utzul; utzúl uinicob, good men. To form the comparative, the last vowel of the adjective with the letter l added to it is affixed; frequently, the particle il is simply affixed;—further, the pronoun of the third person u or y is always prefixed, in the comparative;—tibil, a good thing; ú tibilil, a better thing; utz, good; yutzil, or yutzul, better; lob, bad; ulobol, or ulobil, worse; kaz, ugly; ukazal, or ukazil, uglier. The superlative is expressed by the particle hach, which is prefixed;—lob, bad; hachlob, very bad. Il added to nouns and adjectives serves to make them abstracts, uinic, man; uinicil, humanity.

MAYA CONJUGATIONS.

There are four kinds of pronouns used in the Maya, all of which are used in conjugating verbs. But the two last are also used, united with nouns, or as possessive pronouns, and never alone, or as absolute pronouns.

PRONOUNS.

I ten We tóon

Thou tech You téex

He lay They lóob

I en We on

Thou ech You ex

He laylo They ob

I, mine in We, ours ca

Thou, thine a You, yours a-ex

He, his ú They, theirs ú-ob

Mine u Ours ca

Thine au Yours au-ex

His y Theirs y-ob

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

Myself in-ba Ourselves ca-ba

Thyself a-ba Yourselves a-ba-ex

Himself ú-ba Themselves ú-ba-ob

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILLARY VERB TENI, TO BE.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

I am, ten We are, tóon

Thou art, tech You are, téex

He is, lay They are, lóob

IMPERFECT.

I was, ten cuchi

PERFECT.

I have been, ten hi

PLUPERFECT.

I had been, ten hi-ili cuchi

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall be, bin ten-ac

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have been, ten hi-ili coshom

IMPERATIVE.

Be, ten-ac

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I be, ten-ac en

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I were, hi ten-ac

FIRST CONJUGATION OF THE VERB NACAL, TO ASCEND.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I ascend, nacal in cah We ascend, nacal ca cah

Thou ascendest, nacal a cah You ascend, nacal a-cau-ex

He ascends, nacal ú cah They ascend, nacal ú-cah-ob

IMPERFECT. PERFECT.

I ascended, nacal in cah-cuchi I have ascended, nac-en

PLUPERFECT.

I had ascended, nac-eu ili-cuehi

FIRST FUTURE. SECOND FUTURE.

I shall ascend, bin nacac-en I shall have ascended, nac-en ili-cuchom

IMPERATIVE.

Ascend, nacac-en

SECOND CONJUGATION CAMBEZAH, TO INSTRUCT.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I instruct, cambezah in cah, or ten cambezic

Thou instructest, cambezah á cah, " tech cambezic

He instructs, cambezah ú cah, " lay cambezic

We instruct, cambezah ca cah, " tóon cambezic

You instruct, cambezah á cah-ez, " téex cambezic

They instruct, cambezah ú cah-ob, " lóob cambezic

IMPERFECT.

I instructed, cambezah in cah cuchi

PERFECT.

I have instructed, in cambezah

PLUPERFECT.

I had instructed, in cambezah ili-cuchi

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall instruct, bin in cambez

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have instructed, in cambezah ili-cochom

IMPERATIVE.

Let me instruct, in cambez

Instruct thou, cambez

Let him instruct, ú cambez

Let us instruct, ca cambez

Instruct you, á cambez ex

Let them instruct, ú cambez ob

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I instruct, ten in cambez

The third and fourth conjugations not differing from the above, I do not insert them.

THE LORD'S PRAYER.

Cayum ( Our father ) ianeeh ( who art ) ti ( in ) càannob ( heaven ) cilichthantabac ( blessed be ) akaba: ( thy name; ) tac ( it may ) a ( come ) ahaulil ( thy kingdom ) c' ( us ) okol. ( over. ) Mencahac ( Be done ) a ( thine ) uolah ( will ) uai ( as ) ti ( on ) luun ( earth ) bai ( as ) ti ( in ) caanè. ( heaven. ) Zanzamal ( Daily ) uah ( bread ) ca ( us ) azotoon ( give ) heleae ( to-day ) caazaatez ( us forgive ) c' ( our ) ziipil ( sins ) he bik ( as ) c' ( we ) zaatzic ( forgive ) uziipil ( their sins ) ahziipiloobtoone ( to sinners ) ma ix ( not also ) appatic ( let ) c' ( us ) lubul ( fall ) ti ( in ) tuntah, ( temptation ) caatocoon ( us deliver ) ti ( from ) lob.[XI'-9] ( evil. )

To the two languages the Huaztec and Totonac spoken respectively in the states of Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz, great antiquity is ascribed. I include them both in this chapter, and classify them with the Maya family; the Huaztec because its relationship has already been satisfactorily established by Vater and his successors, and the Totonac on the statements of Sahagun and other good authorities.[XI'-10] Of both of these languages I insert some grammatical notes. The Totonac is divided into four principal dialects, named respectively that of the Sierra Alta or Tetikilhati, that of Xalpan y Pontepec, or Chakahuaxti, the Ipapana and the Naolingo or Tatimolo. The following grammar refers specially to the last dialect.

TOTONAC GRAMMAR.

The letters used are a, ch, e, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, t, u, v, x, y, z, tz, lh. Compounded or agglutinated words are of frequent occurrence; they seem to be joined without any particular system, although it appears that the last letter is oftentimes omitted. The following shows the composition of a word;—lioxilhmagatlakachalikihuin, to go prophesying; composed of the particle li, the verb oxilha, the adverb magat, the substantive lakatin, and the verbs chaan and likihuin. There are no particular signs or letters to express the gender, but in most cases the words huixkana, male, and pozkat, female, are prefixed to words.

The plural for animated beings is formed by one of the following terminations;—n, in, nin, itni, nitni, an, na, ne, ni, no, nu;—oxga, youth; oxgan, youths; agapon, heaven; agaponin, heavens; pulana, captain; pulananin, captains; makan, hand; makanitni, hands; ztako, star; ztakonitni, stars; xanat, flower; xanatna, flowers; etc., etc.; in and itni are used when the word ends with a consonant, and nin and nitni when it ends with a vowel.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

I akit

Me kin

Thou huix

He amah, or huata

We akin

Us kila, or kinka

You huixin

They huatonin

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB IK-PAXKI-Y, I LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, ik-paxki-y We love, ik-paxki-yauh

Thou lovest, paxki-a You love, paxki-yatit

He loves, paxki-y They love, paxki-goy

IMPERFECT.

I loved, xak-paxki-y

PERFECT.

I have loved, ik-paxki-lh, or ik-paxki-nit

PLUPERFECT.

I had loved, xah-paxki-nit

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall love, nak-paxki-y

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have loved, ik-paxki lh nahuan, or ik-paxki-nit nahuan

IMPERATIVE.

Love, ka-paxki

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I love, kak-paxki-lh

IMPERFECT.

If I loved, xax-paxki-lh

The difference between the three dialects may be seen:

Heart nako alkonoko lakatzin

World kiltamako katoxahuat tankilatzon

Moon malkoyo papa laxkipap

Maize koxi tapaxni kizpa

Good tzey tlaan kolhana

Truth ztonkua loloto tikxliana

To believe akaeniy kanalay katayahuay

The Lord's Prayer in the dialect of Naolingo:

Kintlatkane ( Our father ) nak ( in ) tiayan ( heaven ) huil ( art ) takollalihuakahuanli ó ( sanctified be ) mimaokxot ( thy name ) nikiminanin ( come ) ó mintakakchi ( thy kingdom ) tacholakahuanla ( be done ) ó minpahuat ( thy name ) cholei ( as ) kaknitiet ( world ) chalchix ( as ) nak ( in ) tiayan. O ( heaven. ) kinchouhkan ( Our bread ) lakalliya ( daily ) nikilaixkiuh ( give us ) yanohue ( to-day ) kakilamatzankaniuh ( forgive us ) kintakallitkan ( our faults ) chonlei ó ( as we ) kitnan ( ourselves ) lamatzankaniyauh ( we forgive ) ó kintalakallaniyan ( our debtors ) ka ( and ) ala ( not ) kilamaktaxtoyauh ( us lead ) nali ( that ) yoyauh ( we be ) naka ( in ) liyogni. ( temptation. ) Chon ( So ) tacholakahuanla. ( be it done. )

The descriptions or grammatical remarks of Vater and Pimentel, vary in many points. For instance, Vater says that the letters k and v are not used in this language, while Pimentel mentions them both as being used. The expression of the plural is also given differently by both, as are also several other points.[XI'-11]

HUAZTEC GRAMMAR.

From the grammar of Carlos de Tapia Zenteno, which was also used by Gallatin and Pimentel, I offer the following remarks on the Huaztec:

The letters used in writing this language are: a, b, ch, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, t, u, v, x, y, z, tz. The pronunciation is soft. Gender is denoted by the addition of the words imik, man, and uxum, woman;—tzalle, king; uxumtzalle, queen; tzejelinik, young man; tzejeluxum, young girl. The affix chick is used to express the plural;—atik, son; atikchick, sons; but there are a few exceptions to this rule. Diminutives are expressed by the preposition chichick, as;—te, tree; chichikte, small tree. In some cases the preposition tzakam, or the affix il, is used for this purpose. In the superlative the syllable le is used before the word, as;—pullik, great; lepullik, very great. Personal pronouns;—nana, I; tata, thou; jaja, he; huahua, we; xaxa, you; baba, they.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TAHJAL, TO HAVE.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

I have, nana utahjal or intahjal We have, huahua yatahjal

Thou hast, tata atahjal or ittahjal You have, xaxa yatahjal

He has, taja, intahjal They have, baba tahjal

IMPERFECT.

I had, nana utahjalitz or intahjalitz

PERFECT.

I have had, nana utahjaitz or utahjamal, or utahjamalitz

PLUPERFECT.

I had had, nana utahjalak or utahjamalak, or utahjamalakitz

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall have, nana ku or kin, or kiatajah

IMPERATIVE.

Have, tata katahja

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I have, nana kutahja or kiatahja

IMPERFECT.

If I had, nana kin or intahjalak

INFINITIVE.

To have, tahjal

Verbal nouns and participles are formed by adding x or chix, to the infinitive, as;—tzobnal, to know; and tzobnax, he who knows. There are said to be several different dialects of this language in use. Following is the Pater Noster as given by Zenteno in his Doctrina, and as spoken in the mountains of the district of Tampico.

Pailomê ( Father ) anitquahat ( art ) tiaeb, ( heaven ) quaquauhlu ( holy said ) anabi, ( thy name ) cachich ( come ) anatzalletal. ( thy kingdom. ) Katahan ( Be done ) analenal ( thy will ) têtitzabal, ( on the earth ) nuantiani ( as ) huatahab ( to have ) tiaeb. ( heaven. ) Ani ( And ) tacupiza ( thou give ) xahue ( to-day ) cailel ( each day ) yabacanil ( our bread ) ani ( and ) tacupaculamchi ( thou forgive ) antuhualabchic, ( sins ) antiani ( as ) huahua ( we ) tupaculamchial ( forgive ) tutomnanchixlomchik, ( debtors ) ani ( and ) ib ( not ) takuhila ( lead ) tincal ( that we ) ib ( not ) cucuallam ( fall us ) tin ( in ) exextalab. ( temptation. ) Timat ( But ) taculouh ( save us ) timbâ ana ( from ) ib ( no ) cuacua. ( holy (evil) ) Anitz ( so ) catahan. ( be it done.[XI'-12] )

Lord's Prayer in the dialect spoken in the Department of San Luis Potosí:

Tatu puilom huahuá, itcuajat, ti eb chie pelit santo jajatz abi cachic atzale tal ti eb al huahua: catajatz taculbetal hantzaná titzabal hantini tiaeb ani cap ud patalaguicha tacubinanchi, xoque ani tacupaculanchi; cal igualab, ani ela tegui tacupalanchi cal y at guitzab ani il tacujila cugualan cal junhi fataxtalb, maxibtaculohu cal ban atax mal tajana guatalel.

Lord's Prayer in the dialect spoken in another part of the district of Tampico:

HUAZTEC LORD'S PRAYER.

Pailon qüa que cuajat tiá el: tu cab tajal hanchaná enta bi ca chix hanti ca ilál cataja na aquiztal hanchana antich aval quinitine tiá el. An pan abalgüa ti patás hüicha ha, tu piza segue, tu placuanchi ni gualal anchaná jontinégüá y placuanchal in at qualablom, il tú en gila cu cualan anti atás cha lablal, tu en librari ti patas an ataz tabal, anchaná juntam. Anchanan catajan.[XI'-13]