NOTES ON CHAPTER II.

The Christians have been obliged to accept the performance of these and other foul works since the commencement of the supremacy of the Arabs and Turks, who have submitted them to the most severe humiliations, and to the most vile and oppressive tasks.

"The measures of length, called Middoth, are generally referred to the hand and arm; the following are mentioned: (1) Eçba (Jer. lii. 21), the finger, i.e. the breadth of the finger or thumb; (2) Tephach (1 Kings vii. 26), or tophach (Exodus xxv. 25), the hand-breadth, i.e. the breadth of four fingers; (3) Zereth (Exodus xxviii. 16), the distance between the tips of the thumb and little finger, or the span; (4) Ammah, the whole length of the fore-arm, or cubit. The relative value of these measures is not indicated in any part of the Bible; to fix it, we must consult Josephus and the Rabbinic traditions. In Exodus xxv. 10, the dimensions of the ark are stated as follows; length 2-1/2 cubits, breadth 1-1/2 cubits, height 1-1/2 cubits. Josephus, in the Antiquities (III. 6, § 5), represents the 2-1/2 cubits by 5 spans, and for 1-1/2 cubits puts 3 spans: hence the span was the half of the cubit. The Rabbins agree with Josephus; according to them the zereth is half a cubit, referring to the mean cubit[A] which contained six hand-breadths, each hand-breadth being equivalent to four fingers. These data may be adhered to as exact, because the same proportions recur in other ancient systems. Thus for example the Greeks had their cubits of 1-1/2 feet, which made six hand-breadths or 24 fingers; Herodotus (II. 149) speaks of a cubit of six hands in use amongst the Egyptians. We have then for the relative values of the Hebrew measures the following table:

Ammah1

Zereth2 . 1

Tephach6 . 3 . 1

Eçba24 . 12 . 4 . 1

"The knowledge of the absolute value of any one of these would therefore be sufficient to enable us to deduce those of the rest; but since on this point we have no positive datum, in the writings either of Josephus or of the Rabbins, we must be contented with an approximate estimate by the aid of the Egyptian measures, which modern discoveries enable us to fix with a certain precision. It is probable, besides, that the system of the Hebrews was borrowed from that of the Egyptians. The Rabbins determine their measures of length by the breadth of grains of barley placed side by side—a custom which also prevails amongst the Arabs and other Eastern tribes. It is easily seen that there is an uncertainty in this method of measurement, owing to the unequal sizes of the barley-grains. Maimonides, who has made minute calculations on the subject, has found that the Eçba of the Bible is equal to the breadth of seven average-sized grains of barley[B], which gives for the Ammah 168. It is found by calculations sufficiently exact that the Arab cubit, which is estimated at 144 grains of barley (that is, twenty-four fingers of six grains each), when reduced to (Paris) lines and decimal parts of lines, gives 213.050[C], which would give for the Hebrew Ammah of 168 barley-grains 248.564 (about 560 millimetres, or 22 inches). This result is not thoroughly exact, but it will be seen that it does not differ much from the probable value of the Egyptian measures;—at any rate it may serve to establish the connexion which existed between the measures of the Hebrews and those of the Egyptians.

"But another question presents itself. The learned have attributed to the Hebrews more than one kind of cubit[D], and while we reject mere conjectures that have no solid basis, we must at any rate admit two kinds; the one ancient or Mosaic, used for the measurement of sacred things, the other modern, for common use. In the second book of Chronicles (iii. 3), a 'cubit of the first measure,' or ancient cubit, is spoken of as employed for the measurements of the Temple of Solomon,—which implies the existence of a modern or common cubit. The prophet Ezekiel (xl. 5, xliii. 13) in a vision in which he sees the dimensions of the future temple, speaks evidently of a cubit containing a hand-breadth more than the ordinary cubit, from which we may conclude that between the two cubits there was a difference of a hand-breadth. This difference the Talmud interprets in the sense, that the less contained only five of the six hand-breadths of the greater[E]; but it would be more consistent to give them the same ratio as the two different Egyptian cubits had, i.e. that of 7 : 6, approximately. Further, it is probable that each of the two was divided into six hand-breadths; the Talmud speaks expressly of longer and shorter hand-breadths[F]. The old Mosaic cubit was, without doubt, the royal cubit of the Egyptians, and the different scales of this still extant, together with the measurements of several Egyptian monuments, give for its mean value about 525 millimetres[G] (or 20.67 inches). This result appears less doubtful since it differs by only 35 millimetres from that which was found by the very uncertain calculation of the breadth of the barley-grains. Admitting this, we obtain for the value of the ordinary cubit 450 millimetres or 433.5 (i.e. 17.71 or 17.07 inches), according as we take the Egyptian ratio 7 : 6 or that of the Talmud 6 : 5. Each of these two cubits was divided in the same proportion into two spans, six hand-breadths, and twenty-four fingers.

"With measures of length may be classed those of distance, or road-measures; but the old Hebrews measured their roads in a very vague and uncertain manner; and as we shall not need to refer to their measurements in this book, I leave the discussion of them to turn to those which are necessary.

"In the Græco-Roman period the Jews reckoned by stadia and miles; which measures are found in the Old Testament and in the Talmud, as is also the Sabbath-day's journey (Acts i. 12), which was about 2000 cubits."

Josephus also often quotes his measurements in stadia, so I will speak of these. Three principal kinds of stadia are known; the Olympic, equivalent to 184.95 metres (or 606.8 feet); the Pythian, equal to 147.6 metres (or 484.3 feet), and lastly the Philæterian, of 213 metres (or 698.8 feet). Through the whole of this work I have adopted the Olympic, because in the measurements taken in Jerusalem itself, and its environs, I have found that it alone corresponds with all the distances which are cited in stadia by Josephus. That author, speaking of the Mount of Olives, puts it at five stadia from the city, Mount Scopus at seven, the monument of Absalom at two, Herodium at sixty, and lastly, Anathoth at twenty stadia. All these distances I have verified, comparing them with the Olympic stadium, and have always found them exact. Hence it is that I employ this to measure the thirty-three stadia of the city's circumference, and the thirty-nine of the lines drawn round it by Titus, &c. For the sacred cubit of the first measure I have adopted the Egyptian of 20.67 inches, and for the common cubit that of 17.71 inches, as a result of the extended observation and study of measurements that I have made on the old stones which are found in the Eastern wall of the Temple, or of the Haram es-Sherîf; with considerable difficulty I have managed to measure many such which have suffered no mutilation, and have found them to correspond with the ordinary cubits and their aliquot parts of spans, hand-breadths, and digits.

In case the reader should desire to examine more minutely the question of Jewish measures, I refer him to the following works, to which the numerals in the text above relate.

On the same site I have examined a wall made of blocks of stone roughly squared, combined with others of a polygonal form; the size of the stones for the most part being from two to four cubic feet, and all the interstices between them on the two faces and inside being filled with small stones well fitted together without any trace of cement. At an angle where the stones were larger I observed that they were secured together by means of tenons and mortises of parallelepipedal form cut in the stone itself. The wall was about 5-1/2 feet broad by 6 feet high; but it was evident that it must have been mutilated at some time. I assign it to the age of the Jebusites.

Another wall, six feet broad, was composed of large irregular blocks of stone of from four to eight cubic feet. In it could be distinguished four rows placed one above the other, whose stones were fastened by clamps of iron or of stone, and in each was discernible more or less some trace of rude rustic work: in the interstices of the interior were inserted small stones well packed together without cement, so that the internal building of the wall formed a solid mass. To their discredit the Armenians do not trouble themselves about antiquities, and consequently take no pains to preserve such ancient remains as they meet with, but destroy or hide them, or avail themselves of the materials for the building of new walls.

On the north and north-west I have made various excavations in order to recover, if possible, one of the Herodian stones of twenty cubits (Josephus, Jewish War, V. 4, § 2); but after repeated and careful research I have failed to find a single one, I do not say of twenty cubits, but even of four: nothing is found there but rock and small unshapen stones, which do not however give one the idea that they have ever formed part of blocks of larger dimensions.

Jebusite Walls. This name and age I assign to those that are built of unsquared stones of different sizes, some of which are fastened together by tenon and mortise; the interstices being filled with small stones. (See Note III.)

Walls of David. By this name I indicate those walls whose stones are of considerable size and rudely squared, and which present some trace of irregular rustic-work, and are always fastened by tenons of stone or clamps of iron.

Walls of Solomon. (See Plate X.) Walls of Solomon I call those that are composed of large blocks of stone, that have not all the same breadth and height, and whose rude rustic-work, about two inches in relief, is surrounded by a flat band of from two inches to two inches and a half. They are fastened together by tenons and mortises in the stone itself, or by cubical pieces inlaid, of a different stone from the block itself, and contain no cement. The various layers of stone one above the other are in one vertical plane, and diminish in thickness the higher they rise; but the vertical joinings of the stones of any layer do not correspond with any regularity with those of a higher or lower layer (Fig. 1): this kind is especially found in the basement of the east wall of the Haram.

By the wall of Nehemiah I mean that which presents many blocks of the same character with those of the walls of Solomon; but these are joined together in an irregular manner, that is to say, the several layers are not formed of stones of equal heights, some stones appear to be turned upside down, in some the rustic-work is mutilated in places, many are placed aslant, and lastly, not a few shew the holes where the clamps have been (that is, the side is put in front); and besides, there are mixed with these small stones which appear with a portion of rustication, which shews that the large stones of the old wall have been broken in order to place them more carefully in their position. I assign them to Nehemiah, because the Bible informs us (Neh. iv. 17, 18, vi. 15), that he conducted the work in the midst of alarms, the workmen being all armed, so as to render the walls fit to sustain the assaults with which their enemies were threatening them every moment. Accordingly to this they owe the irregularity with which they were formed (Fig. 2). What I have described may be observed in the east wall of the Haram towards the southern end.

Herodian walls I judge to be those which present large squared blocks, polished with accurate exactness, and joined together without cement, but with the most delicate care: they have a rustication, much wrought, standing two or three lines in relief, and surrounded by a band of about an inch and a half wide. In these walls the sizes of the stones diminish regularly as they rise higher from the ground, and the vertical joinings of alternate layers correspond exactly throughout, and are at the middle points of the stones which separate the two layers; lastly, every layer is an inch and a half in rear of the preceding. Walls of this kind are found at the S.E. corner of the Haram, and in its western enclosure towards the south (Fig. 3).

The Roman walls are formed of fine squared stones, well wrought, joined by means of cement. They may be seen on the south and at the south-west corner of the Haram (Fig. 4).

The walls built by the Crusaders, or by the old Arabs (Saracenic work), reveal themselves at once by the economical proportion of the stones, by the excellent way in which they are joined, and sometimes by their being formed of rows of different colours, red, white, and black (Fig. 5).

The Arab walls of the present day are distinguished by their miserable appearance.

(1) The gate called the ancient or first gate on the North-east; (2) the gate of Ephraim, or of Benjamin, on the North, leading to the allotments of these two tribes; (3) the Corner-gate on the North-west, at a distance of 400 cubits from the preceding; (4) the Valley-gate, on the West, leading probably to the valley of Gihon, and the dragon-well (Neh. ii. 13); (5) the Dung-gate on the South-west, 1000 cubits from the preceding (Ibid. iii. 13), apparently the same which was afterwards called the gate of the Essenes; (6) the Fountain-gate on the South-east, so called from the fountain of Siloam (?), possibly the same which Jeremiah (xix. 2) calls Harsith (Pottery-gate), and which led to the valley of Hinnom. On the South side, where Mount Sion is inaccessible, there were probably no gates. There remain still five gates, which must have been on the East or South-east of the Temple in the following order from South to North; (7) the Water-gate; (8) the Horse-gate; (9) the gate of the Review or numbering (vulg. Porta Judicialis, Neh. iii. 31); (10) the Sheep-gate; (11) the Fish-gate;—the Prison-gate (Neh. xii. 39) appears to have been one of the gates of the Temple."

I cannot attribute to the Pisans the entire building of the edifice, but I grant that they may have restored it in great part. It is certain that Solyman repaired this castle in the year 1534; the inscriptions above the entrance tell us thus much.

"Accordingly, as we have said, he (Titus) pitched his camp before the walls of Jerusalem, and made a display of his forces, having drawn them up in battle array. The Jews formed their line close under the walls, where, if success attended them, they could venture further out, and at the same time had a place of shelter ready, in case they should be driven back.

"The cavalry were sent against them together with the light-armed auxiliaries, and fought with doubtful issue; but in time the enemy gave way, and on the following days engaged in frequent skirmishings before the gates, till by their repeated losses they were driven within the walls. The Romans then prepared to carry the place by assault, thinking it unworthy of them to wait till the enemy should be starved out, and volunteered for the dangerous duty of the storming party, some from real valour, many from a reckless bravery and coveting its special rewards. Titus himself had Rome with its wealth and pleasures before his eyes, which seemed to be retarded should not Jerusalem fall at once. But the city, naturally difficult of access, was further strengthened by works and defences which would prove sufficient protection even on level ground. For two hills, which rise to a considerable elevation, were enclosed by walls scientifically made to slant or bend inwards, in order that the flank of a besieging party might be exposed to fire. The edge of the rock breaks off in precipices, and the towers were built to the height of 60 feet, where the form of the mountain added to the height, and to a height of 120 in the lower ground, presenting a wonderful appearance, and at a distance seemingly of equal height. There was a second line of walls inside surrounding the king's palace, and the conspicuous roof of the Antonian tower, so named by Herod in compliment to Marcus Antonius.

"The Temple was a sort of citadel with walls of its own, superior to the rest in construction and finish; the porticoes by which the circuit of the building was made, forming themselves an excellent rampart. It contains a spring of never-failing water, and large reservoirs hollowed out under the soil, and pools and cisterns for storing the rain-water. Its builders had foreseen that frequent wars must arise from the singularity of their customs, and so had provided everything even to meet a long siege; and when the city was taken by Pompeius, their fears and experiences had taught them most of the necessary precautions. And availing themselves of the greed of the reign of Claudius, they purchased the right of fortifying the town, and built walls in time of peace, in apparent anticipation of war—a medley population, its numbers swollen by the disasters of other cities; for all the most headstrong men had taken refuge there, and therefore they were more riotous in their behaviour. They had three leaders, and three armies. The outermost and widest line of walls was defended by Simon, the middle of the city by John, the Temple by Eleazar. John and Simon had the largest number of troops, and the most efficiently armed, while Eleazar had the strongest position: but internecine fighting, treachery, and incendiarism were rife amongst them, and a great quantity of corn was burnt. In time John having sent a detachment of soldiers to murder Eleazar and his band, under plea of offering sacrifice, made himself master of the Temple. In this way the city split up into two factions, till on the approach of the Romans harmony was produced by the war from without."

"There are in Jerusalem two large pools by the side of the Temple; to wit, one on the right, and another on the left, which Solomon made. Inside the city there be two pools with five porticoes, which are called Bethsaida: there men with diseases of many years' standing were healed. The water of these pools is somewhat turbid and of a reddish hue. There likewise is a crypt, where Solomon was wont to torture the unclean spirits. There is the corner of a very high tower, whither the Lord went up, and he that tempted said unto Him, (Cast thyself down from hence); and the Lord said unto him, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God, but Him only shalt thou serve. There is also the great corner-stone of which it was said, The stone which the builders rejected. Also at the head of the corner and under the battlements of the tower itself are several chambers on the spot where Solomon had his palace. There too standeth the chamber in the which he sat, and described Wisdom, which chamber is roofed by one single stone. There are two large reservoirs for the subterraneous water, and pools built with great labour. And in the building itself where the Temple was, which Solomon built, you would say that the blood of Zacharias on the marble before the altar had been shed this very day; and the marks of the nails of the soldiers who slew him are so plainly seen, that you would think they had been planted on wax over the whole area. Also there be there two statues of Hadrian, and not far from the statues is a stone much worn, to which the Jews come every year, and anoint it, and bemoan themselves with sighs and rend their garments, and so depart. There is also the house of Hezekiah, king of Judah. Also as you go out into Jerusalem to go up mount Sion, below you on the left in the valley hard by the wall is a pool which is called Siloam. It has four porches, and another large pool without. Its spring runs for six days and nights, but on the seventh is an entire Sabbath, and it runs not by night nor by day. Continuing along the same road up mount Sion, you may see the place where was the house of Caiaphas the priest, and to this time the column still remains where they scourged Jesus. Within the walls of Sion is seen the place where David had his palace, and of seven synagogues which were there one only remains; the rest are ploughed and sown over, as the prophet Esaias foretold. Then to proceed outside the wall, as you go from Sion to the Neapolitan gate, on the right in the valley below are the walls where was once the palace of Pontius Pilate; there our Lord had hearing before He suffered. On the left is the hill of Golgotha, where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw thence is the crypt where His body was laid, and on the third day He rose again: on this spot Constantine the Emperor has erected lately a basilica, or church, of wondrous beauty, having at the side reservoirs from which water is drawn, and behind it a bath where children are baptized.

"Also at Jerusalem, as you go to the Eastern gate, to climb the slope of the Mount of Olives, on the left is the valley, called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, where are the vines, and the stone where Judas Iscariot betrayed Christ; while on the right is the palm-tree from which the children plucked the boughs, as Christ entered the city, and strewed them in the way before Him. Not far thence, about a stone's throw, are two monumental columns of wondrous beauty: on one was placed the statue of the prophet Isaiah, a true monolith, and on the other Hezekiah, the king of the Jews. Thence you ascend the Mount of Olives, where the Lord taught His Apostles before His Passion. There a basilica was built by order of Constantine. Not far thence is the mountain whither the Lord went out to pray, when He took with Him Peter and John, and there appeared unto them Moses and Elias. Eastward thence at 1500 paces is a village called Bethany, in which is a crypt where Lazarus was laid, whom the Lord raised to life."

"Jerusalem.

"Beït el-Mocaddas (Jerusalem) is an illustrious and ancient city, full of ancient monuments. It bears the name of Ilia (Ælia Capitolina). Situated on a mountain easy of access on every side," (Edrisi was mistaken, or has been mistranslated), "it extends from West to East. On the West is the gate called El-Mihrab; beneath is the cupola of David (to whom God be merciful): on the East the gate called the Gate of Mercy, which is generally shut, being opened only on the Feast of Palms; to the South the gate of Seihun (Sion); on the North the gate called the Gate of 'Amud el-Ghorab. Starting from the western gate, or gate of El-Mihrab, you go in an easterly direction by a broad street, till you come to the great Church of the Resurrection, called by Mohammedans Comamé. This church is the object of the pilgrimage of Christians from all countries of the East and the West. Entering by the western door you find yourself under a cupola which covers the whole enclosure, and which is one of the most remarkable sights in the world. The church itself is beneath this door, and it is not possible to go down into the lower part of the building on this side; the descent is made on the north side by a door which opens at the top of a long staircase of thirty steps, which door is called Bâb Sitti Mariam. At the entrance of the church the spectator finds the Holy Sepulchre, a building of considerable size, with two doors, and surmounted by a cupola of very solid construction, built with admirable skill; of these two doors one, on the north side, faces the door of S. Mary, the other faces the South, and is called Bâb es-Salubié (door of the Crucifixion): on this side is the peristyle of the church, in front of which, towards the east, is another church of considerable size and note, where the Christians celebrate their holy offices and make their prayers and oblations.

"On the east of this church, by a gentle descent, you come to the prison where the Lord Messiah was confined, and to the place where he was crucified. The large dome has a circular opening to the sky, and all round it and in the interior are seen pictures representing the Prophets, the Lord Messiah, S. Mary his mother, and S. John Baptist. Among the lamps which are hung above the Holy Sepulchre are distinguished three which are of gold and are placed in a particular spot. If you leave the principal church, and turn your steps eastward, you will come to the sacred dwelling, which was built by Solomon the son of David, and was a resort of pilgrims in the time of the greatness of the Jews. This temple was subsequently taken from them, and they were driven out of it upon the arrival of the Mohammedans. Under the Moslem supremacy it was enlarged, and is (at this day) the large mosque known to Mohammedans under the name of Mesjid el-Aksa. There is none in the world which equals it in size, if you except the great mosque of Cordova in Andalusia: for, as I am told, the roof of that mosque is larger than that of Mesjid el-Aksa. To proceed, the area of this latter forms a parallelogram whose length is two hundred fathoms (ba'a) and its breadth a hundred and eighty. The half of this space, which is near to the Mihrab, is covered by a roof (or rather by a dome) of stone supported by several rows of columns, the rest being open to the sky. In the centre of the building is a large dome, known as the Dome of the Rock: it has been ornamented with arabesques in gold, and with other beautiful works, by the care of different Moslem Khalifs. Beneath this is the falling stone. This stone is of a quadrangular form like a shield, one of its extremities rising above the ground to the height of about half a fathom, the other being close to the ground; it is nearly cubical, and its breadth nearly equal to its length, that is to say, about ten cubits (Zira'a). Beneath is a cavern, or a dark recess, ten cubits long by five wide, whose height is about six feet. It is entered only by torch-light. The building contains four doors; opposite the western is seen the altar on which the children of Israel offered their sacrifices; near the eastern door is the church called the Holy of Holies, an elegant building; on the south is a chapel which was used by the Mohammedans, but the Christians made themselves masters of it by main force, and it has remained in their power up to the time of the present work (1154 A.D.). They have converted this chapel into a convent, where reside certain members of the order of the Templars, i.e. of the Servants of the House of God. Lastly, the northern door faces a garden well planted with different kinds of trees, and surrounded by columns of marble carved with much skill. At the end of the garden is a refectory for the priests, and for those who are preparing to enter the religious orders.

"Leaving this place of worship, and turning eastward, you will come to the Gate of Mercy, shut, as we have just said, but near it is another gate by which you can go in or out, and which is called Bâb el-Asbat (or of the tribes of Israel). Within bow-shot from the latter is a very large and very beautiful church under the patronage of S. Mary, known by the name of Djesmanié; here is the tomb (of the Virgin) in sight of the Mount of Olives, about a mile distant from Bâb el-Asbat. On the road by which this mountain is ascended is seen another church, large and solidly built, which is called the church of the Pater Noster; and on the top is a large church where men and women live a cloister life, awaiting thus the reward of heaven. On the south-east of the mountain is the tomb of Lazarus, who was raised to life by the Lord Messiah; and two miles from Mount Olivet, the village from which was brought the ass on which the Lord rode on his entry into Jerusalem; this village is now deserted and in ruins.

"It is on leaving the tomb of Lazarus that the road begins which leads to the Jordan, which river is distant a day's journey from the Holy City. Before arriving at its banks you will pass the city of Erikha (Jericho), three miles distant from the river. Near the Jordan is a large church under the patronage of S. John Baptist, served by Greek monks. The Jordan flows out of the lake of Tiberias, and empties its waters into the lake of Sodom and Gomorrah, cities which the Most High drowned as a punishment for the wickedness of their inhabitants. To the south of this river is an immense desert.

"As regards the southern side of Jerusalem: leaving the city by the gate of Sion, you find, at the distance of a stone's throw, the Church of Sion, a beautiful church, and fortified, where is seen the chamber in which the Lord Messiah did eat with His disciples, and also the table, which exists to this day, and is to be seen on Thursdays. From the gate of Sion you descend into a ravine well known under the name of the Valley of Gehenna (Hinnom), near which is the Church of S. Peter. In this ravine is the fountain of Selwan (Siloam), where the Lord Messiah gave sight to a blind man, who had not before known the light of day. To the south of this spring is the field which was bought by the Messiah for the burial of strangers. Not far from it are numerous dwellings cut out in the rock, and occupied by pious hermits."