R (continued 2)

c. 1370.—"The guides had maliciously misled them into a place called the Kúnchiran. In this place all the land is impregnated with salt, to a degree impossible to describe."—Shams-i-Síráj-Afíf, in Elliot, iii. 324.

1583.—"Muzaffar fled, and crossed the Ran, which is an inlet of the sea, and took the road to Jessalmír. In some places the breadth of the water of the Ran is 10 kos and 20 kos. He went into the country which they call Kach, on the other side of the water."—Tabaḳāt-i-Akbarī, Ibid. v. 440.

c. 1590.—"Between Chalwaneh, Sircar Ahmedabad, Putten, and Surat, is a low tract of country, 90 cose in length, and in breadth from 7 to 30 cose, which is called Run. Before the commencement of the periodical rains, the sea swells and inundates this spot, and leaves by degrees after the rainy season."—Ayeen, ed. Gladwin, 1800, ii. 71; [ed. Jarrett, ii. 249].

1849.—"On the morning of the 24th I embarked and landed about 6 p.m. in the Runn of Sindh.

RUPEE, s. Hind. rūpiya, from Skt. rūpya, 'wrought silver.' The standard coin of the Anglo-Indian monetary system, as it was of the Mahommedan Empire that preceded ours. It is commonly stated (as by Wilson, in his article on this word, which contains much valuable and condensed information) that the rupee was introduced by Sher Shāh (in 1542). And this is, no doubt, formally true; but it is certain that a coin substantially identical with the rupee, i.e. approximating to a standard of 100 ratis (or 175 grains troy) of silver, an ancient Hindu standard, had been struck by the Mahommedan sovereigns of Delhi in the 13th and 14th centuries, and had formed an important part of their currency. In fact, the capital coins of Delhi, from the time of Iyaltimish (A.D. 1211-1236) to the accession of Mahommed Tughlak (1325) were gold and silver pieces, respectively of the weight just mentioned. We gather from the statements of Ibn Batuta and his contemporaries that the gold coin, which the former generally calls tanga and sometimes gold dīnār, was worth 10 of the silver coin, which he calls dīnār, thus indicating that the relation of gold to silver value was, or had recently been, as 10 : 1. Mahommed Tughlak remodelled the currency, issuing gold pieces of 200 grs. and silver pieces of 140 grs.—an indication probably of a great "depreciation of gold" (to use our modern language) consequent on the enormous amount of gold bullion obtained from the plunder of Western and Southern India. Some years later (1330) Mahommed developed his notable scheme of a forced currency, consisting entirely of copper tokens. This threw everything into confusion, and it was not till six years later that any sustained issues of ordinary coin were recommenced. From about this time the old standard of 175 grs. was readopted for gold, and was maintained till the time of Sher Shāh. But it does not appear that the old standard was then resumed for silver. In the reign of Mahommed's successor Feroz Shāh, Mr. E. Thomas's examples show the gold coin of 175 grs. standard running parallel with continued issues of a silver (or professedly silver) coin of 140 grs.; and this, speaking briefly, continued to be the case to the end of the Lodi dynasty (i.e. 1526). The coinage seems to have sunk into a state of great irregularity, not remedied by Baber (who struck ashrafīs (see ASHRAFEE) and dirhams, such as were used in Turkestan) or Humāyūn, but the reform of which was undertaken by Sher Shāh, as above mentioned.

His silver coin of 175-178 grs. was that which popularly obtained the name of rūpiya, which has continued to our day. The weight, indeed, of the coins so styled, never very accurate in native times, varied in different States, and the purity varied still more. The former never went very far on either side of 170 grs., but the quantity of pure silver contained in it sunk in some cases as low as 140 grs., and even, in exceptional cases, to 100 grs. Variation however was not confined to native States. Rupees were struck in Bombay at a very early date of the British occupation. Of these there are four specimens in the Br. Mus. The first bears obv. 'The Rvpee of Bombaim. 1677. By AUTHORITY of Charles the Second' rev. 'King of Great Britaine . France . and . Ireland .' Wt. 167.8 gr. The fourth bears obv. 'Hon . Soc . Ang . Ind . ori.' with a shield; rev. 'A . Deo . Pax . et . Incrementum:—Mon . Bombay . Anglic . Regim^s. A^o 7^o.' Weight 177.8 gr. Different Rupees minted by the British Government were current in the three Presidencies, and in the Bengal Presidency several were current; viz. the Sikka (see SICCA) Rupee, which latterly weighed 192 grs., and contained 176 grs. of pure silver; the Farrukhābād, which latterly weighed 180 grs.,^[234] containing 165.215 of pure silver; the Benares Rupee (up to 1819), which weighed 174.76 grs., and contained 168.885 of pure silver. Besides these there was the Chalānī or 'current' rupee of account, in which the Company's accounts were kept, of which 116 were equal to 100 sikkas. ["The bharī or Company's Arcot rupee was coined at Calcutta, and was in value 3½ per cent. less than the Sikka rupee" (Beveridge, Bakarganj, 99).] The Bombay Rupee was adopted from that of Surat, and from 1800 its weight was 178.32 grs.; its pure silver 164.94. The Rupee at Madras (where however the standard currency was of an entirely different character, see PAGODA) was originally that of the Nawāb of the Carnatic (or 'Nabob of Arcot') and was usually known as the Arcot Rupee. We find its issues varying from 171 to 177 grs. in weight, and from 160 to 170 of pure silver; whilst in 1811 there took place an abnormal coinage, from Spanish dollars, of rupees with a weight of 188 grs. and 169.20 of pure silver.

Also from some reason or other, perhaps from commerce between those places and the 'Coast,' the Chittagong and Dacca currency (i.e. in the extreme east of Bengal) "formerly consisted of Arcot rupees; and they were for some time coined expressly for those districts at the Calcutta and Dacca Mints." (!) (Prinsep, Useful Tables, ed. by E. Thomas, 24.)

These examples will give some idea of the confusion that prevailed (without any reference to the vast variety besides of native coinages), but the subject is far too complex to be dealt with minutely in the space we can afford to it in such a work as this. The first step to reform and assimilation took place under Regulation VII. of 1833, but this still maintained the exceptional Sicca in Bengal, though assimilating the rupees over the rest of India. The Sicca was abolished as a coin by Act XIII. of 1836; and the universal rupee of British territory has since been the "Company's Rupee," as it was long called, of 180 grs. weight and 165 pure silver, representing therefore in fact the Farrukhābād Rupee.

1610.—"This armie consisted of 100,000 horse at the least, with infinite number of Camels and Elephants: so that with the whole baggage there could not bee lesse than fiue or sixe hundred thousand persons, insomuch that the waters were not sufficient for them; a Mussocke (see MUSSUCK) of water being sold for a Rupia, and yet not enough to be had."—Hawkins, in Purchas, i. 427.

[1615.—"Roupies Jangers (Jahāngīrī) of 100 pisas, which goeth four for five ordinary roupies of 80 pisas called Cassanes (see KUZZANNA), and we value them at 2s. 4d. per piece: Cecaus (see SICCA) of Amadavrs which goeth for 86 pisas; Challennes of Agra, which goeth for 83 pisas."—Foster, Letters, iii. 87.]

1616.—"Rupias monetae genus est, quarum singulae xxvi assibus gallicis aut circiter aequivalent."—Jarric, iii. 83.

" "... As for his Government of Patan onely, he gave the King eleven Leckes of Rupias (the Rupia is two shillings, twopence sterling) ... wherein he had Regall Authoritie to take what he list, which was esteemed at five thousand horse, the pay of every one at two hundred Rupias by the yeare."—Sir T. Roe, in Purchas, i. 548; [Hak. Soc. i. 239, with some differences of reading].

" "They call the peeces of money roopees, of which there are some of divers values, the meanest worth two shillings and threepence, and the best two shillings and ninepence sterling."—Terry, in Purchas, ii. 1471.

[ " "This money, consisting of the two-shilling pieces of this country called Roopeas."—Foster, Letters, iv. 229.]

1648.—"Reducing the Ropie to four and twenty Holland Stuyvers."—Van Twist, 26.

1653.—"Roupie est vne mõnoye des Indes de la valeur de 30s." (i.e. sous).—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, p. 355.

c. 1666.—"And for a Roupy (in Bengal) which is about half a Crown, you may have 20 good Pullets and more; Geese and Ducks, in proportion."—Bernier, E.T. p. 140; [ed. Constable, 438].

1673.—"The other was a Goldsmith, who had coined copper Rupees."—Fryer, 97.

1677.—"We do, by these Presents ... give and grant unto the said Governor and Company ... full and free Liberty, Power, and Authority ... to stamp and coin ... Monies, to be called and known by the Name or Names of Rupees, Pices, and Budgrooks, or by such other Name or Names ..."—Letters Patent of Charles II. In Charters of the E.I. Co., p. 111.

1771.—"We fear the worst however; that is, that the Government are about to interfere with the Company in the management of Affairs in India. Whenever that happens it will be high Time for us to decamp. I know the Temper of the King's Officers pretty well, and however they may decry our manner of acting they are ready enough to grasp at the Rupees whenever they fall within their Reach."—MS. Letter of James Rennell, March 31.

RUSSUD, s. Pers. rasad. The provisions of grain, forage, and other necessaries got ready by the local officers at the camping ground of a military force or official cortège. The vernacular word has some other technical meanings (see Wilson), but this is its meaning in an Anglo-Indian mouth.

[c. 1640-50.—Rasad. (See under TANA.)]

RUT, s. Hind. rath, 'a chariot.' Now applied to a native carriage drawn by a pony, or oxen, and used by women on a journey. Also applied to the car in which idols are carried forth on festival days. [See ROOK.]

[1810-17.—"Tippoo's Aumil ... wanted iron, and determined to supply himself from the rut, (a temple of carved wood fixed on wheels, drawn in procession on public occasions, and requiring many thousand persons to effect its movement)."—Wilks, Sketches, Madras reprint, ii. 281.

[1813.—"In this camp hackeries and ruths, as they are called when they have four wheels, are always drawn by bullocks, and are used, almost exclusively, by the Baees, the Nach girls, and the bankers."—Broughton, Letters, ed. 1892, p. 117.]

1829.—"This being the case I took the liberty of taking the rut and horse to camp as prize property."—Mem. of John Shipp, ii. 183.

RUTTEE, RETTEE, s. Hind. rattī, ratī, Skt. raktikā, from rakta, 'red.' The seed of a leguminous creeper (Abrus precatorius, L.) sometimes called country liquorice—a pretty scarlet pea with a black spot—used from time immemorial in India as a goldsmith's weight, and known in England as 'Crab's eyes.' Mr. Thomas has shown that the ancient rattī may be taken as equal to 1.75 grs. Troy (Numismata Orientalia, New ed., Pt. I. pp. 12-14). This work of Mr. Thomas's contains interesting information regarding the old Indian custom of basing standard weights upon the weight of seeds, and we borrow from his paper the following extract from Manu (viii. 132): "The very small mote which may be discerned in a sunbeam passing through a lattice is the first of quantities, and men call it a trasareṇu. 133. Eight of these trasareṇus are supposed equal in weight to one minute poppy-seed (likhyá), three of those seeds are equal to one black mustard-seed (raja-sarshapa), and three of these last to a white mustard-seed (gaura-sarshapa). 134. Six white mustard-seeds are equal to a middle-sized barley-corn (yava), three such barley-corns to one krishṇala (or raktika), five krishṇalas of gold are one másha, and sixteen such máshas one suvarna," &c. (ibid. p. 13). In the Āīn, Abul Faẓl calls the ratti surkh, which is a translation (Pers. for 'red'). In Persia the seed is called chashm-i-khurūs, 'Cock's eye' (see Blochmann's E.T., i. 16 n., and Jarrett, ii. 354). Further notices of the ratī used as a weight for precious stones will be found in Sir W. Elliot's Coins of Madras (p. 49). Sir Walter's experience is that the ratī of the gem-dealers is a double ratī, and an approximation to the maṇjāḍi (see MANGELIN). This accounts for Tavernier's valuation at 3½ grs. [Mr. Ball gives the weight at 2.66 Troy grs. (Tavernier, ii. 448).]

c. 1676.—"At the mine of Soumelpour in Bengala, they weigh by Rati's, and the Rati is seven eighths of a Carat, or three grains and a half."—Tavernier, E.T. ii. 140; [ed. Ball, ii. 89].

RYOT, s. Ar. ra'īyat, from ra'ā, 'to pasture,' meaning originally, according to its etymology, 'a herd at pasture'; but then 'subjects' (collectively). It is by natives used for 'a subject' in India, but its specific Anglo-Indian application is to 'a tenant of the soil'; an individual occupying land as a farmer or cultivator. In Turkey the word, in the form raiya, is applied to the Christian subjects of the Porte, who are not liable to the conscription, but pay a poll-tax in lieu, the Kharāj, or Jizya (see JEZYA).

[1609.—"Riats or clownes." (See under DOAI.)]

1776.—"For some period after the creation of the world there was neither Magistrate nor Punishment ... and the Ryots were nourished with piety and morality."—Halhed, Gentoo Code, 41.

1789.—

1790.—"A raiyot is rather a farmer than a husbandman."—Colebrooke, in Life, 42.

1809.—"The ryots were all at work in their fields."—Lord Valentia, ii. 127.

1813.—

1820.—"An acquaintance with the customs of the inhabitants, but particularly of the rayets, the various tenures ... the agreements usual among them regarding cultivation, and between them and soucars (see SOWCAR) respecting loans and advances ... is essential to a judge."—Sir T. Munro, in Life, ii. 17.

1870.—"Ryot is a word which is much ... misused. It is Arabic, but no doubt comes through the Persian. It means 'protected one,' 'subject,' 'a commoner,' as distinguished from 'Raees' or 'noble.' In a native mouth, to the present day, it is used in this sense, and not in that of tenant."—Systems of Land Tenure (Cobden Club), 166.

The title of a newspaper, in English but of native editing, published for some years back in Calcutta, corresponds to what is here said; it is Raees and Raiyat.

1877.—"The great financial distinction between the followers of Islam ... and the rayahs or infidel subjects of the Sultan, was the payment of haratch or capitation tax."—Finlay, H. of Greece, v. 22 (ed. 1877).

1884.—"Using the rights of conquest after the fashion of the Normans in England, the Turks had everywhere, except in the Cyclades, ... seized on the greater part of the most fertile lands. Hence they formed the landlord class of Greece; whilst the Rayahs, as the Turks style their non-Mussulman subjects, usually farmed the territories of their masters on the metayer system."—Murray's Handbook for Greece (by A. F. Yule), p. 54.

RYOTWARRY, adj. A technicality of modern coinage. Hind. from Pers. ra'iyatwār, formed from the preceding. The ryotwarry system is that under which the settlement for land revenue is made directly by the Government agency with each individual cultivator holding land, not with the village community, nor with any middleman or landlord, payment being also received directly from every such individual. It is the system which chiefly prevails in the Madras Presidency; and was elaborated there in its present form mainly by Sir T. Munro.

1824.—"It has been objected to the ryotwári system that it produces unequal assessment and destroys ancient rights and privileges: but these opinions seem to originate in some misapprehension of its nature."—Minutes, &c., of Sir T. Munro, i. 265. We may observe that the spelling here is not Munro's. The Editor, Sir A. Arbuthnot, has followed a system (see Preface, p. x.); and we see in Gleig's Life (iii. 355) that Munro wrote 'Rayetwar.'