J

JACK, s. Short for Jack-Sepoy; in former days a familiar style for the native soldier; kindly, rather than otherwise.

1853.—"... he should be leading the Jacks."—Oakfield, ii. 66.

JACK, s. The tree called by botanists Artocarpus integrifolia, L. fil., and its fruit. The name, says Drury, is "a corruption of the Skt. word Tchackka, which means the fruit of the tree" (Useful Plants, p. 55). There is, however, no such Skt. word; the Skt. names are Kantaka, Phala, Panasa, and Phalasa. [But the Malayāl. chakka is from the Skt. chakra, 'round.'] Rheede rightly gives Tsjaka (chăkka) as the Malayālam name, and from this no doubt the Portuguese took jaca and handed it on to us. "They call it," says Garcia Orta, "in Malavar jacas, in Canarese and Guzerati panas" (f. 111). "The Tamil form is sākkei, the meaning of which, as may be adduced from various uses to which the word is put in Tamil, is 'the fruit abounding in rind and refuse.'" (Letter from Bp. Caldwell.)

We can hardly doubt that this is the fruit of which Pliny writes: "Major alia pomo et suavitate praecellentior; quo sapientiores Indorum vivunt. (Folium alas avium imitatur longitudine trium cubitorum, latitudine duum). Fructum e cortice mittit admirabilem succi dulcedine; ut uno quaternos satiet. Arbori nomen palae, pomo arienae; plurima est in Sydracis, expeditionum Alexandri termino. Est et alia similis huic; dulcior pomo; sed interaneorum valetudini infesta" (Hist. Nat. xii. 12). Thus rendered, not too faithfully, by Philemon Holland: "Another tree there is in India, greater yet than the former; bearing a fruit much fairer, bigger, and sweeter than the figs aforesaid; and whereof the Indian Sages and Philosophers do ordinarily live. The leaf resembleth birds' wings, carrying three cubits in length, and two in breadth. The fruit it putteth forth at the bark, having within it a wonderfull pleasant juice: insomuch as one of them is sufficient to give four men a competent and full refection. The tree's name is Pala, and the fruit is called Ariena. Great plenty of them is in the country of the Sydraci, the utmost limit of Alexander the Great his expeditions and voyages. And yet there is another tree much like to this, and beareth a fruit more delectable that this Ariena, albeit the guts in a man's belly it wringeth and breeds the bloudie flix" (i. 361).

Strange to say, the fruit thus described has been generally identified with the plantain: so generally that (we presume) the Linnaean name of the plantain Musa sapientum, was founded upon the interpretation of this passage. (It was, I find, the excellent Rumphius who originated the erroneous identification of the ariena with the plantain). Lassen, at first hesitatingly (i. 262), and then more positively (ii. 678), adopts this interpretation, and seeks ariena in the Skt. vāraṇa. The shrewder Gildemeister does the like, for he, sans phrase, uses arienae as Latin for 'plantains.' Ritter, too, accepts it, and is not staggered even by the uno quaternos satiet. Humboldt, quoth he, often saw Indians make their meal with a very little manioc and three bananas of the big kind (Platano-arton). Still less sufficed the Indian Brahmins (sapientes), when one fruit was enough for four of them (v. 876, 877). Bless the venerable Prince of Geographers! Would one Kartoffel, even "of the big kind," make a dinner for four German Professors? Just as little would one plantain suffice four Indian Sages.

The words which we have italicised in the passage from Pliny are quite enough to show that the jack is intended; the fruit growing e cortice (i.e. piercing the bark of the stem, not pendent from twigs like other fruit), the sweetness, the monstrous size, are in combination infallible. And as regards its being the fruit of the sages, we may observe that the jack fruit is at this day in Travancore one of the staples of life. But that Pliny, after his manner, has jumbled things, is also manifest. The first two clauses of his description (Major alia, &c.; Folium alas, &c.) are found in Theophrastus, but apply to two different trees. Hence we get rid of the puzzle about the big leaves, which led scholars astray after plantains, and originated Musa sapientum. And it is clear from Theophrastus that the fruit which caused dysentery in the Macedonian army was yet another. So Pliny has rolled three plants into one. Here are the passages of Theophrastus:—

"(1) And there is another tree which is both itself a tree of great size, and produces a fruit that is wonderfully big and sweet. This is used for food by the Indian Sages, who wear no clothes. (2) And there is yet another which has the leaf of a very long shape, and resembling the wings of birds, and this they set upon helmets; the length is about two cubits.... (3) There is another tree the fruit of which is long, and not straight but crooked, and sweet to the taste. But this gives rise to colic and dysentery ("Ἄλλο τέ ἐστιν οὖ ὁ καρπὸς μακρὸς καὶ οὔκ εὐθύς ἀλλὰ σκολιὸς, ἐσθιόμενος δὲ γλυκύς. οὗτος ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ δηγμὸν ποιεῖ καὶ δυσεντέριαν ...") wherefore Alexander published a general order against eating it."—(Hist. Plant. iv. 4-5).

It is plain that Pliny and Theophrastus were using the same authority, but neither copying the whole of what he found in it.

The second tree, whose leaves were like birds' wings and were used to fix upon helmets, is hard to identify. The first was, when we combine the additional characters quoted by Pliny but omitted by Theophrastus, certainly the jack; the third was, we suspect, the mango (q.v.). The terms long and crooked would, perhaps, answer better to the plantain, but hardly the unwholesome effect. As regards the uno quaternos satiet, compare Friar Jordanus below, on the jack: "Sufficiet circiter pro quinque personis." Indeed the whole of the Friar's account is worth comparing with Pliny's. Pliny says that it took four men to eat a jack, Jordanus says five. But an Englishman who had a plantation in Central Java told one of the present writers that he once cut a jack on his ground which took three men—not to eat—but to carry!

As regards the names given by Pliny it is hard to say anything to the purpose, because we do not know to which of the three trees jumbled together the names really applied. If pala really applied to the jack, possibly it may be the Skt. phalasa, or panasa. Or it may be merely p'hala, 'a fruit,' and the passage would then be a comical illustration of the persistence of Indian habits of mind. For a stranger in India, on asking the question, 'What on earth is that?' as he well might on his first sight of a jack-tree with its fruit, would at the present day almost certainly receive for answer: 'Phal hai khudāwand!'—'It is a fruit, my lord!' Ariena looks like hiraṇya, 'golden,' which might be an epithet of the jack, but we find no such specific application of the word.

Omitting Theophrastus and Pliny, the oldest foreign description of the jack that we find is that by Hwen T'sang, who met with it in Bengal:

c. A.D. 650.—"Although the fruit of the pan-wa-so (panasa) is gathered in great quantities, it is held in high esteem. These fruits are as big as a pumpkin; when ripe they are of a reddish yellow. Split in two they disclose inside a quantity of little fruits as big as crane's eggs; and when these are broken there exudes a juice of reddish-yellow colour and delicious flavour. Sometimes the fruit hangs on the branches, as with other trees; but sometimes it grows from the roots, like the fo-ling (Radix Chinae), which is found under the ground."—Julien, iii. 75.

c. 1328.—"There are some trees that bear a very big fruit called chaqui; and the fruit is of such size that one is enough for about five persons. There is another tree that has a fruit like that just named, and it is called Bloqui [a corruption of Malayāl. varikka, 'superior fruit'], quite as big and as sweet, but not of the same species. These fruits never grow upon the twigs, for these are not able to bear their weight, but only from the main branches, and even from the trunk of the tree itself, down to the very roots."—Friar Jordanus, 13-14.

A unique MS. of the travels of Friar Odoric, in the Palatine Library at Florence, contains the following curious passage:—

c. 1330.—"And there be also trees which produce fruits so big that two will be a load for a strong man. And when they are eaten you must oil your hands and your mouth; they are of a fragrant odour and very savoury; the fruit is called chabassi." The name is probably corrupt (perhaps chacassi?). But the passage about oiling the hands and lips is aptly elucidated by the description in Baber's Memoirs (see below), a description matchless in its way, and which falls off sadly in the new translation by M. Pavet de Courteille, which quite omits the "haggises."

c. 1335.—"The Shakī and Barkī. This name is given to certain trees which live to a great age. Their leaves are like those of the walnut, and the fruit grows direct out of the stem of the tree. The fruits borne nearest to the ground are the barkī; they are sweeter and better-flavoured than the Shakī ..." etc. (much to the same effect as before).—Ibn Batuta, iii. 127; see also iv. 228.

c. 1350.—"There is again another wonderful tree called Chake-Baruke, as big as an oak. Its fruit is produced from the trunk, and not from the branches, and is something marvellous to see, being as big as a great lamb, or a child of three years old. It has a hard rind like that of our pine-cones, so that you have to cut it open with a hatchet; inside it has a pulp of surpassing flavour, with the sweetness of honey, and of the best Italian melon; and this also contains some 500 chestnuts of like flavour, which are capital eating when roasted."—John de' Marignolli, in Cathay, &c., 363.

c. 1440.—"There is a tree commonly found, the trunk of which bears a fruit resembling a pine-cone, but so big that a man can hardly lift it; the rind is green and hard, but still yields to the pressure of the finger. Inside there are some 250 or 300 pippins, as big as figs, very sweet in taste, and contained in separate membranes. These have each a kernel within, of a windy quality, of the consistence and taste of chestnuts, and which are roasted like chestnuts. And when cast among embers (to roast), unless you make a cut in them they will explode and jump out. The outer rind of the fruit is given to cattle. Sometimes the fruit is also found growing from the roots of the tree underground, and these fruits excel the others in flavour, wherefore they are sent as presents to kings and petty princes. These (moreover) have no kernels inside them. The tree itself resembles a large fig-tree, and the leaves are cut into fingers like the hand. The wood resembles box, and so it is esteemed for many uses. The name of the tree is Cachi" (i.e. Çachi or Tzacchi).—Nicolo de' Conti.

The description of the leaves ... "foliis da modum palmi intercisis"—is the only slip in this admirable description. Conti must, in memory, have confounded the Jack with its congener the bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa or incisifolia). We have translated from Poggio's Latin, as the version by Mr. Winter Jones in India in the XVth Century is far from accurate.

1530.—"Another is the kadhil. This has a very bad look and flavour (odour?). It looks like a sheep's stomach stuffed and made into a haggis. It has a sweet sickly taste. Within it are stones like a filbert.... The fruit is very adhesive, and on account of this adhesive quality many rub their mouths with oil before eating them. They grow not only from the branches and trunk, but from its root. You would say that the tree was all hung round with haggises!"—Leyden and Erskine's Baber, 325. Here kadhil represents the Hind. name kaṭhal. The practice of oiling the lips on account of the "adhesive quality" (or as modern mortals would call it, 'stickiness') of the jack, is still usual among natives, and is the cause of a proverb on premature precautions: Gāch'h meṅ Kaṭhal, honṭh meṅ tel! "You have oiled your lips while the jack still hangs on the tree!" We may observe that the call of the Indian cuckoo is in some of the Gangetic districts rendered by the natives as Kaṭhal pakkā! Kaṭhal pakkā! i.e. "Jack's ripe," the bird appearing at that season.

[1547.—"I consider it right to make over to them in perpetuity ... one palm grove and an area for planting certain mango trees and jack trees (mangueiras e jaqueiras) situate in the village of Calangute...."—Archiv. Port. Orient., fasc. 5, No. 88.]

c. 1590.—"In Sircar Hajypoor there are plenty of the fruits called Kathul and Budhul; some of the first are so large as to be too heavy for one man to carry."—Gladwin's Ayeen, ii. 25. In Blochmann's ed. of the Persian text he reads barhal, [and so in Jarrett's trans. (ii. 152),] which is a Hind. name for the Artocarpus Lakoocha of Roxb.

1563.—"R. What fruit is that which is as big as the largest (coco) nuts?

"O. You just now ate the chestnuts from inside of it, and you said that roasted they were like real chestnuts. Now you shall eat the envelopes of these....

"R. They taste like a melon; but not so good as the better melons.

"O. True. And owing to their viscous nature they are ill to digest; or say rather they are not digested at all, and often issue from the body quite unchanged. I don't much use them. They are called in Malavar jacas; in Canarin and Guzerati panás.... The tree is a great and tall one; and the fruits grow from the wood of the stem, right up to it, and not on the branches like other fruits."—Garcia, f. 111.

[1598.—"A certain fruit that in Malabar is called iaca, in Canara and Gusurate Panar and Panasa, by the Arabians Panax, by the Persians Fanax."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. ii. 20.

[c. 1610.—"The Jaques is a tree of the height of a chestnut."—Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. ii. 366.

[1623.—"We had Ziacche, a fruit very rare at this time."—P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. ii. 264.]

1673.—"Without the town (Madras) grows their Rice ... Jawks, a Coat of Armour over it, like an Hedg-hog's, guards its weighty Fruit."—Fryer, 40.

1810.—"The jack-wood ... at first yellow, becomes on exposure to the air of the colour of mahogany, and is of as fine a grain."—Maria Graham, 101.

1878.—"The monstrous jack that in its eccentric bulk contains a whole magazine of tastes and smells."—Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden, 49-50.

It will be observed that the older authorities mention two varieties of the fruit by the names of shakī and barkī, or modifications of these, different kinds according to Jordanus, only from different parts of the tree according to Ibn Batuta. P. Vincenzo Maria (1672) also distinguishes two kinds, one of which he calls Giacha Barca, the other Giacha papa or girasole. And Rheede, the great authority on Malabar plants, says (iii. 19):

"Of this tree, however, they reckon more than 30 varieties, distinguished by the quality of their fruit, but all may be reduced to two kinds; the fruit of one kind distinguished by plump and succulent pulp of delicious honey flavour, being the varaka; that of the other, filled with softer and more flabby pulp of inferior flavour, being the Tsjakapa."

More modern writers seem to have less perception in such matters than the old travellers, who entered more fully and sympathetically into native tastes. Drury says, however, "There are several varieties, but what is called the Honey-jack is by far the sweetest and best."

"He that desireth to see more hereof let him reade Ludovicus Romanus, in his fifth Booke and fifteene Chapter of his Navigaciouns, and Christopherus a Costa in his cap. of Iaca, and Gracia ab Horto, in the Second Booke and fourth Chapter," saith the learned Paludanus.... And if there be anybody so unreasonable, so say we too—by all means let him do so! [A part of this article is derived from the notes to Jordanus by one of the present writers. We may also add, in aid of such further investigation, that Paludanus is the Latinised name of v.d. Broecke, the commentator on Linschoten. "Ludovicus Romanus" is our old friend Varthema, and "Gracia ab Horto" is Garcia De Orta.]

JACKAL, s. The Canis aureus, L., seldom seen in the daytime, unless it be fighting with the vultures for carrion, but in shrieking multitudes, or rather what seem multitudes from the noise they make, entering the precincts of villages, towns, of Calcutta itself, after dark, and startling the newcomer with their hideous yells. Our word is not apparently Anglo-Indian, being taken from the Turkish chaḳāl. But the Pers. shaghāl is close, and Skt. srigāla, 'the howler,' is probably the first form. The common Hind. word is gīdar, ['the greedy one,' Skt. gṛidh]. The jackal takes the place of the fox as the object of hunting 'meets' in India; the indigenous fox being too small for sport.

1554.—"Non procul inde audio magnum clamorem et velut hominum irridentium insultantiumque voces. Interrogo quid sit; ... narrant mihi ululatum esse bestiarum, quas Turcae Ciacales vocant...."—Busbeq. Epist. i. p. 78.

1615.—"The inhabitants do nightly house their goates and sheepe for feare of Iaccals (in my opinion no other than Foxes), whereof an infinite number do lurke in the obscure vaults."—Sandys, Relation, &c., 205.

1616.—"... those jackalls seem to be wild Doggs, who in great companies run up and down in the silent night, much disquieting the peace thereof, by their most hideous noyse."—Terry, ed. 1665, p. 371.

1653.—"Le schekal est vn espèce de chien sauvage, lequel demeure tout le jour en terre, et sort la nuit criant trois ou quatre fois à certaines heures."—De la Boullaye-le-Gouz, ed. 1657, p. 254.

1672.—"There is yet another kind of beast which they call Jackhalz; they are horribly greedy of man's flesh, so the inhabitants beset the graves of their dead with heavy stones."—Baldaeus (Germ. ed.), 422.

1673.—"An Hellish concert of Jackals (a kind of Fox)."—Fryer, 53.

1681.—"For here are many Jackalls, which catch their Henes, some Tigres that destroy their Cattle; but the greatest of all is the King; whose endeavour is to keep them poor and in want."—Knox, Ceylon, 87. On p. 20 he writes Jacols.

1711.—"Jackcalls are remarkable for Howling in the Night; one alone making as much noise as three or four Cur Dogs, and in different Notes, as if there were half a Dozen of them got together."—Lockyer, 382.

1810.—Colebrooke (Essays, ii. 109, [Life, 155]) spells shakal. But Jackal was already English.

c. 1816.—

1880.—"The mention of Jackal-hunting in one of the letters (of Lord Minto) may remind some Anglo-Indians still living, of the days when the Calcutta hounds used to throw off at gun-fire."—Sat. Rev. Feb. 14.

JACK-SNIPE of English sportsmen is Gallinago gallinula, Linn., smaller than the common snipe, G. scolopacinus, Bonap.

JACKASS COPAL. This is a trade name, and is a capital specimen of Hobson-Jobson. It is, according to Sir R. Burton, [Zanzibar, i. 357], a corruption of chakāzi. There are three qualities of copal in the Zanzibar market. 1. Sandarusi m'ti, or 'Tree Copal,' gathered directly from the tree which exudes it (Trachylobium Mossambicense). 2. Chakāzi or chakazzi, dug from the soil, but seeming of recent origin, and priced on a par with No. 1. 3. The genuine Sandarusi, or true Copal (the Animé of the English market), which is also fossil, but of ancient production, and bears more than twice the price of 1 and 2 (see Sir J. Kirk in J. Linn. Soc. (Botany) for 1871). Of the meaning of chakāzi we have no authentic information. But considering that a pitch made of copal and oil is used in Kutch, and that the cheaper copal would naturally be used for such a purpose, we may suggest as probable that the word is a corr. of jahāzi, and = 'ship-copal.'

JACQUETE, Town and Cape, n.p. The name, properly Jakad, formerly attached to a place at the extreme west horn of the Kāthiawāṛ Peninsula, where stands the temple of Dwarka (q.v.). Also applied by the Portuguese to the Gulf of Cutch. (See quotation from Camoens under DIUL-SIND.) The last important map which gives this name, so far as we are aware, is Aaron Arrowsmith's great Map of India, 1816, in which Dwarka appears under the name of Juggut.

1525.—(Melequyaz) "holds the revenue of Crystna, which is in a town called Zaguete where there is a place of Pilgrimage of gentoos which is called Crysna...."—Lembrança das Cousas da India, 35.

1553.—"From the Diul estuary to the Point of Jaquete 38 leagues; and from the same Jaquete, which is the site of one of the principal temples of that heathenism, with a noble town, to our city Diu of the Kingdom of Guzarat, 58 leagues."—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1555.—"Whilst the tide was at its greatest height we arrived at the gulf of Chakad, where we descried signs of fine weather, such as sea-horses, great snakes, turtles, and sea-weeds."—Sidi 'Ali, p. 77.

[1563.—"Passed the point of Jacquette, where is that famous temple of the Resbutos (see RAJPOOT)."—Barros, IV. iv. 4.]

1726.—In Valentyn's map we find Jaquete marked as a town (at the west point of Kāthiawāṛ) and Enceada da Jaquete for the Gulf of Cutch.

1727.—"The next sea-port town to Baet, is Jigat. It stands on a Point of low Land, called Cape Jigat. The City makes a good Figure from the Sea, showing 4 or 5 high Steeples."—A. Hamilton, i. 135; [ed. 1744].

1813.—"Jigat Point ... on it is a pagoda; the place where it stands was formerly called Jigat More, but now by the Hindoos Dorecur (i.e. Dwarka, q.v.). At a distance the pagoda has very much the appearance of a ship under sail.... Great numbers of pilgrims from the interior visit Jigat pagoda...."—Milburn, i. 150.

1841.—"Jigat Point called also Dwarka, from the large temple of Dwarka standing near the coast."—Horsburgh, Directory, 5th ed., i. 480.

JADE, s. The well-known mineral, so much prized in China, and so wonderfully wrought in that and other Asiatic countries; the yashm of the Persians; nephrite of mineralogists.

The derivation of the word has been the subject of a good deal of controversy. We were at one time inclined to connect it with the yada-tāsh, the yada stone used by the nomads of Central Asia in conjuring for rain. The stone so used was however, according to P. Hyakinth, quoted in a note with which we were favoured by the lamented Prof. Anton Schiefner, a bezoar (q.v.).

Major Raverty, in his translation of the Ṭabaḳāt-i-Nāṣirī, in a passage referring to the regions of Ṭukhāristān and Bāmiān, has the following: "That tract of country has also been famed and celebrated, to the uttermost parts of the countries of the world, for its mines of gold, silver, rubies, and crystal, bejādah [jade], and other [precious] things" (p. 421). On bejādah his note runs: "The name of a gem, by some said to be a species of ruby, and by others a species of sapphire; but jade is no doubt meant." This interpretation seems however chiefly, if not altogether, suggested by the name; whilst the epithets compounded of bejāda, as given in dictionaries, suggest a red mineral, which jade rarely is. And Prof. Max Müller, in an interesting letter to the Times, dated Jan. 10, 1880, states that the name jade was not known in Europe till after the discovery of America, and that the jade brought from America was called by the Spaniards piedra de ijada, because it was supposed to cure pain in the groin (Sp. ijada); for like reasons to which it was called lapis nephriticus, whence nephrite (see Bailey, below). Skeat, s.v. says: "It is of unknown origin; but probably Oriental. Prof. Cowell finds yedá a material out of which ornaments are made, in the Divyávadána; but it does not seem to be Sanskrit." Prof. Müller's etymology seems incontrovertible; but the present work has afforded various examples of curious etymological coincidences of this kind. [Prof. Max Müller's etymology is now accepted by the N.E.D. and by Prof. Skeat in the new edition of his Concise Dict. The latter adds that ijada is connected with the Latin ilia.]

[1595.—"A kinde of greene stones, which the Spaniards call Piedras hijadas, and we vse for spleene stones."—Raleigh, Discov. Guiana, 24 (quoted in N.E.D.).]

1730.—"Jade, a greenish Stone, bordering on the colour of Olive, esteemed for its Hardness and Virtues by the Turks and Poles, who adorn their fine Sabres with it; and said to be a preservative against the nephritick Colick."—Bailey's Eng. Dict. s.v.

JADOO, s. Hind. from Pers. jādū, Skt. yātu; conjuring, magic, hocus-pocus.

[1826.—"'Pray, sir,' said the barber, 'is that Sanscrit, or what language?' 'May be it is jadoo,' I replied, in a solemn and deep voice."—Pandurang Hari, ed. 1873, i. 127.]

JADOOGUR, s. Properly Hind. jādūghar, 'conjuring-house' (see the last). The term commonly applied by natives to a Freemasons' Lodge, when there is one, at an English station. On the Bombay side it is also called Shaitān khāna (see Burton's Sind Revisited), a name consonant to the ideas of an Italian priest who intimated to one of the present writers that he had heard the raising of the devil was practised at Masonic meetings, and asked his friend's opinion as to the fact. In S. India the Lodge is called Talai-vĕṭṭa-Kovil, 'Cut-head Temple,' because part of the rite of initiation is supposed to consist in the candidate's head being cut off and put on again.

JAFNA, JAFNAPATÁM, n.p. The very ancient Tamil settlement, and capital of the Tamil kings on the singular peninsula which forms the northernmost part of Ceylon. The real name is, according to Emerson Tennent, Yalpannan, and it is on the whole probable that this name is identical with the Galiba (Prom.) of Ptolemy. [The Madras Gloss. gives the Tamil name as Yāzhppānam, from yazh-pānan, 'a lute-player'; "called after a blind minstrel of that name from the Chola country, who by permission of the Singhalese king obtained possession of Jaffna, then uninhabited, and introduced there a colony of the Tamul people."]

1553.—"... the Kingdom Triquinamalé, which at the upper end of its coast adjoins another called Jafanapatam, which stands at the northern part of the island."—Barros, III. ii. cap. i.

c. 1566.—In Cesare de' Federici it is written Gianifanpatan.—Ramusio, iii. 390v.

[JAFFRY, s. A screen or lattice-work, made generally of bamboo, used for various purposes, such as a fence, a support for climbing plants, &c. The ordinary Pers. ja'farī is derived from a person of the name of Ja'far; but Mr. Platts suggests that in the sense under consideration it may be a corr. of Ar. ẓafirat, ẓafir, 'a braided lock.'

[1832.—"Of vines, the branches must also be equally spread over the jaffry, so that light and heat may have access to the whole."—Trans. Agri. Hort. Soc. Ind. ii. 202.]

JAGGERY, s. Coarse brown (or almost black) sugar, made from the sap of various palms. The wild date tree (Phoenix sylvestris, Roxb.), Hind. khajūr, is that which chiefly supplies palm-sugar in Guzerat and Coromandel, and almost alone in Bengal. But the palmyra, the caryota, and the coco-palm all give it; the first as the staple of Tinnevelly and northern Ceylon; the second chiefly in southern Ceylon, where it is known to Europeans as the Jaggery Palm (kitūl of natives); the third is much drawn for toddy (q.v.) in the coast districts of Western India, and this is occasionally boiled for sugar. Jaggery is usually made in the form of small round cakes. Great quantities are produced in Tinnevelly, where the cakes used to pass as a kind of currency (as cakes of salt used to pass in parts of Africa, and in Western China), and do even yet to some small extent. In Bombay all rough unrefined sugar-stuff is known by this name; and it is the title under which all kinds of half-prepared sugar is classified in the tariff of the Railways there. The word jaggery is only another form of sugar (q.v.), being like it a corr. of the Skt. śarkarā, Konkani sakkarā, [Malayāl. chakkarā, whence it passed into Port. jagara, jagra].

1516.—"Sugar of palms, which they call xagara."—Barbosa, 59.

1553.—Exports from the Maldives "also of fish-oil, coco-nuts, and jágara, which is made from these after the manner of sugar."—Barros, Dec. III. liv. iii. cap. 7.

1561.—"Jagre, which is sugar of palm-trees."—Correa, Lendas, i. 2, 592.

1563.—"And after they have drawn this pot of çura, if the tree gives much they draw another, of which they make sugar, prepared either by sun or fire, and this they call jagra."—Garcia, f. 67.

c. 1567.—"There come every yeere from Cochin and from Cananor tenne or fifteene great Shippes (to Chaul) laden with great nuts ... and with sugar made of the selfe same nuts called Giagra."—Caesar Frederike, in Hakl. ii. 344.

1598.—"Of the aforesaid sura they likewise make sugar, which is called Iagra; they seeth the water, and set it in the sun, whereof it becometh sugar, but it is little esteemed, because it is of a browne colour."—Linschoten, 102; [Hak. Soc. ii. 49].

1616.—"Some small quantity of wine, but not common, is made among them; they call it Raak (see ARRACK), distilled from Sugar, and a spicy rinde of a tree called Jagra."—Terry, ed. 1665, p. 365.

1727.—"The Produce of the Samorin's Country is ... Cocoa-Nut, and that tree produceth Jaggery, a kind of sugar, and Copera (see COPRAH), or the kernels of the Nut dried."—A. Hamilton, i. 306; [ed. 1744, i. 308].

c. 1750-60.—"Arrack, a coarse sort of sugar called Jagree, and vinegar are also extracted from it" (coco-palm).—Grose, i. 47.

1807.—"The Tari or fermented juice, and the Jagory or inspissated juice of the Palmira tree ... are in this country more esteemed than those of the wild date, which is contrary to the opinion of the Bengalese."—F. Buchanan, Mysore, &c., i. 5.

1860.—"In this state it is sold as jaggery in the bazaars, at about three farthings per pound."—Tennent's Ceylon, iii. 524.

JAGHEER, JAGHIRE, s. Pers. jāgīr, lit. 'place-holding.' A hereditary assignment of land and of its rent as annuity.

[c. 1590.—"Farmán-i-zabíts are issued for ... appointments to jágírs, without military service."—Āīn, i. 261.

[1617.—"Hee quittes diuers small Jaggers to the King."—Sir T. Roe, Hak. Soc. ii. 449.]

c. 1666.—"... Not to speak of what they finger out of the Pay of every Horseman, and of the number of the Horses; which certainly amounts to very considerable Pensions, especially if they can obtain good Jah-ghirs, that is, good Lands for their Pensions."—Bernier, E.T. 66; [ed. Constable, 213].

1673.—"It (Surat) has for its Maintenance the Income of six Villages; over which the Governor sometimes presides, sometimes not, being in the Jaggea, or diocese of another."—Fryer, 120.

" "Jageah, an Annuity."—Ibid. Index, vi.

1768.—"I say, Madam, I know nothing of books; and yet I believe upon a land-carriage fishery, a stamp act, or a jaghire, I can talk my two hours without feeling the want of them."—Mr. Lofty, in The Good-Natured Man, Act ii.

1778.—"Should it be more agreeable to the parties, Sir Matthew will settle upon Sir John and his Lady, for their joint lives, a jagghire.

"Sir John.—A Jagghire?

"Thomas.—The term is Indian, and means an annual Income."—Foote, The Nabob, i. 1.

We believe the traditional stage pronunciation in these passages is Jag Hire (assonant in both syllables to Quag Mire); and this is also the pronunciation given in some dictionaries.

1778.—"... Jaghires, which were always rents arising from lands."—Orme, ed. 1803, ii. 52.

1809.—"He was nominally in possession of a larger jaghire."—Ld. Valentia, i. 401.

A territory adjoining Fort St. George was long known as the Jaghire, or the Company's Jaghire, and is often so mentioned in histories of the 18th century. This territory, granted to the Company by the Nabob of Arcot in 1750 and 1763, nearly answers to the former Collectorate of Chengalput and present Collectorate of Madras.

[In the following the reference is to the Jirgah or tribal council of the Pathan tribes on the N.W. frontier.

[1900.—"No doubt upon the occasion of Lord Curzon's introduction to the Waziris and the Mohmunds, he will inform their Jagirs that he has long since written a book about them."—Contemporary Rev. Aug. p. 282.]

JAGHEERDAR, s. P.—H. jāgīrdār, the holder of a jagheer.

[1813.—"... in the Mahratta empire the principal Jaghiredars, or nobles, appear in the field...."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. i. 328.]

1826.—"The Resident, many officers, men of rank ... jagheerdars, Brahmins, and Pundits, were present, assembled round my father."—Pandurang Hari, 389; [ed. 1873, ii. 259].

1883.—"The Sikhs administered the country by means of jagheerdars, and paid them by their jagheers: the English administered it by highly paid British officers, at the same time that they endeavoured to lower the land-tax, and to introduce grand material reforms."—Bosworth Smith, L. of Ld. Lawrence, i. 378.

JAIL-KHANA, s. A hybrid word for 'a gaol,' commonly used in the Bengal Presidency.

JAIN, s. and adj. The non-Brahmanical sect so called; believed to represent the earliest heretics of Buddhism, at present chiefly to be found in the Bombay Presidency. There are a few in Mysore, Canara, and in some parts of the Madras Presidency, but in the Middle Ages they appear to have been numerous on the coast of the Peninsula generally. They are also found in various parts of Central and Northern India and Behar. The Jains are generally merchants, and some have been men of enormous wealth (see Colebrooke's Essays, i. 378 seqq.; [Lassen, in Ind. Antiq. ii. 193 seqq., 258 seqq.]). The name is Skt. jaina, meaning a follower of jina. The latter word is a title applied to certain saints worshipped by the sect in the place of gods; it is also a name of the Buddhas. An older name for the followers of the sect appears to have been Nirgrantha, 'without bond,' properly the title of Jain ascetics only (otherwise Yatis), [and in particular of the Digambara or 'sky-clad,' naked branch]. (Burnell, S. Indian Palaeography, p. 47, note.)

[c. 1590.—"Jaina. The founder of this wonderful system was Jina, also called Arhat, or Arhant."—Āīn, ed. Jarrett, iii. 188.]

JALEEBOTE, s. Jālībōt. A marine corruption of jolly-boat (Roebuck). (See GALLEVAT.)

JAM, s. Jām.

a. A title borne by certain chiefs in Kutch, in Kāthiāwāṛ, and on the lower Indus. The derivation is very obscure (see Elliot, i. 495). The title is probably Bilūch originally. There are several Jāms in Lower Sind and its borders, and notably the Jām of Las Bela State, a well-known dependency of Kelat, bordering the sea. [Mr. Longworth Dames writes: "I do not think the word is of Balochi origin, although it is certainly made use of in the Balochi language. It is rather Sindhi, in the broad sense of the word, using Sindhi as the natives do, referring to the tribes of the Indus valley without regard to the modern boundaries of the province of Sindh. As far as I know, it is used as a title, not by Baloches, but by indigenous tribes of Rājput or Jat origin, now, of course, all Musulmans. The Jām of Las Bela belongs to a tribe of this nature known as the Jāmhat. In the Dera Ghāzī Khān District it is used by certain local notables of this class, none of them Baloches. The principal tribe there using it is the Udhāna. It is also an honorific title among the Mochis of Dera Ghāzī Khān town."]

[c. 1590.—"On the Gujarat side towards the south is a Zamíndár of note whom they call Jám...."—Āīn, ed. Jarrett, ii. 250.

[1843.—See under DAWK.]

b. A nautical measure, Ar. zām, pl. azwām. It occurs in the form geme in a quotation of 1614 under JASK. It is repeatedly used in the Mohit of Sidi 'Ali, published in the J. As. Soc. Bengal. It would appear from J. Prinsep's remarks there that the word is used in various ways. Thus Baron J. Hammer writes to Prinsep: "Concerning the measure of azwām the first section of the IIId. chapter explains as follows: 'The zām is either the practical one ('arfī), or the rhetorical (iṣṭilāḥī—but this the acute Prinsep suggests should be aṣṭarlābī, 'pertaining to the divisions of the astrolabe'). The practical is one of the 8 parts into which day and night are divided; the rhetorical (but read the astrolabic) is the 8th part of an inch (iṣāba) in the ascension and descension of the stars; ...' an explanation which helps me not a bit to understand the true measure of a zām, in the reckoning of a ship's course." Prinsep then elucidates this: The zām in practical parlance is said to be the 8th part of day and night; it is in fact a nautical watch or Hindu pahar (see PUHUR). Again, it is the 8th part of the ordinary inch, like the jau or barleycorn of the Hindus (the 8th part of an angul or digit), of which jau, zām is possibly a corruption. Again, the iṣāba or inch, and the zām or ⅛ of an inch, had been transferred to the rude angle-instruments of the Arab navigators; and Prinsep deduces from statements in Sidi 'Ali's book that the iṣāba was very nearly equal to 96′ and the zām to 12′. Prinsep had also found on enquiry among Arab mariners, that the term zām was still well known to nautical people as 1⁄5 of a geographical degree, or 12 nautical miles, quite confirmatory of the former calculation; it was also stated to be still applied to terrestrial measurements (see J.A.S.B. v. 642-3).

1013.—"J'ai déjà parlé de Sérira (read Sarbaza) qui est située à l'extremité de l'île de Lâmeri, à cent-vingt zâmâ de Kala."—Ajāīb-al-Hind, ed. Van der Lith et Marcel Devic, 176.

" "Un marin m'a rapporté qu'il avait fait la traversée de Sérira (Sarbaza) à la Chine dans un Sambouq (see SAMBOOK). 'Nous avions parcouru,' dit-il, 'un espace de cinquante zâmâ, lorsqu'une tempête fondit sur notre embarcation.... Ayant fait de l'eau, nous remîmes à la voile vers le Senf, suivant ses instructions, et nous y abordâmes sains et saufs, après un voyage de quinze zâmâ."—Ibid. pp. 190-91.

1554.—"26th Voyage from Calicut to Kardafun" (see GUARDAFUI).

"... you run from Calicut to Kolfaini (i.e. Kalpeni, one of the Laccadive Ids.) two zāms in the direction of W. by S., the 8 or 9 zāms W.S.W. (this course is in the 9 degree channel through the Laccadives), then you may rejoice as you have got clear of the islands of Fúl, from thence W. by N. and W.N.W. till the pole is 4 inches and a quarter, and then true west to Kardafún."

* * * * *

"27th Voyage, from Diú to Malacca.

"Leaving Diú you go first S.S.E. till the pole is 5 inches, and side then towards the land, till the distance between it and the ship is six zāms; from thence you steer S.S.E. ... you must not side all at once but by degrees, first till the farkadain (β and γ in the Little Bear) are made by a quarter less than 8 inches, from thence to S.E. till the farkadain are 7¼ inches, from thence true east at a rate of 18 zāms, then you have passed Ceylon."—The Mohit, in J.A.S.B. v. 465.

The meaning of this last routier is: "Steer S.S.E. till you are in 8° N. Lat. (lat. of Cape Comorin); make then a little more easting, but keep 72 miles between you and the coast of Ceylon till you find the β and γ of Ursa Minor have an altitude of only 12° 24′ (i.e. till you are in N. Lat. 6° or 5°), and then steer due east. When you have gone 216 miles you will be quite clear of Ceylon."

1625.—"We cast anchor under the island of Kharg, which is distant from Cais, which we left behind us, 24 giam. Giam is a measure used by the Arab and Persian pilots in the Persian Gulf; and every giam is equal to 3 leagues; insomuch that from Cais to Kharg we had made 72 leagues."—P. della Valle, ii. 816.

JAMBOO, JUMBOO, s. The Rose-apple, Eugenia jambos, L. Jambosa vulgaris, Decand.; Skt. jambū, Hind. jam, jambū, jamrūl, &c. This is the use in Bengal, but there is great confusion in application, both colloquially and in books. The name jambū is applied in some parts of India to the exotic guava (q.v.), as well as to other species of Eugenia; including the jāmun (see JAMOON), with which the rose-apple is often confounded in books. They are very different fruits, though they have both been classed by Linnaeus under the genus Eugenia (see further remarks under JAMOON). [Mr. Skeat notes that the word is applied by the Malays both to the rose-apple and the guava, and Wilkinson (Dict. s.v.) notes a large number of fruits to which the name jambū is applied.]

Garcia de Orta mentions the rose-apple under the name Iambos, and says (1563) that it had been recently introduced into Goa from Malacca. This may have been the Eugenia Malaccensis, L., which is stated in Forbes Watson's Catalogue of nomenclature to be called in Bengal Malāka Jamrūī, and in Tamil Malākā maram i.e. 'Malacca tree.' The Skt. name jambū is, in the Malay language, applied with distinguishing adjectives to all the species.

[1598.—"The trees whereon the Iambos do grow are as great as Plumtrees."—Linschoten, Hak. Soc. ii. 31.]

1672.—P. Vincenzo Maria describes the Giambo d'India with great precision, and also the Giambo di China—no doubt J. malaccensis—but at too great length for extract, pp. 351-352.

1673.—"In the South a Wood of Jamboes, Mangoes, Cocoes."—Fryer, 46.

1727.—"Their Jambo Malacca (at Goa) is very beautiful and pleasant."—A. Hamilton, i. 255; [ed. 1744, i. 258].

1810.—"The jumboo, a species of rose-apple, with its flower like crimson tassels covering every part of the stem."—Maria Graham, 22.

JAMES AND MARY, n.p. The name of a famous sand-bank in the Hoogly R. below Calcutta, which has been fatal to many a ship. It is mentioned under 1748, in the record of a survey of the river quoted in Long, p. 10. It is a common allegation that the name is a corruption of the Hind. words jal mari, with the supposed meaning of 'dead water.' But the real origin of the name dates, as Sir G. Birdwood has shown, out of India Office records, from the wreck of a vessel called the "Royal James and Mary," in September 1694, on that sand-bank (Letter to the Court, from Chuttanuttee, Dec. 19, 1694). [Report on Old Records, 90.] This shoal appears by name in a chart belonging to the English Pilot, 1711.

JAMMA, s. P.—H. jāma, a piece of native clothing. Thus, in composition, see PYJAMMAS. Also stuff for clothing, &c., e.g. mom-jama, wax-cloth. ["The jama may have been brought by the Aryans from Central Asia, but as it is still now seen it is thoroughly Indian and of ancient date."—Rajendralala Mitra, Indo-Aryans, i. 187 seq.

[1813.—"The better sort (of Hindus) wear ... a jama, or long gown of white calico, which is tied round the middle with a fringed or embroidered sash."—Forbes, Or. Mem. 2nd ed. i. 52].

JAMOON, s. Hind. jāmun, jāman, jāmlī, &c. The name of a poor fruit common in many parts of India, and apparently in E. Africa, the Eugenia jambolana, Lamk. (Calyptranthes jambolana of Willdenow, Syzygium jambolanum of Decand.) This seems to be confounded with the Eugenia jambos, or Rose-apple (see JAMBOO, above), by the author of a note on Leyden's Baber which Mr. Erskine justly corrects (Baber's own account is very accurate), by the translators of Ibn Batuta, and apparently, as regards the botanical name, by Sir R. Burton. The latter gives jamli as the Indian, and zam as the Arabic name. The name jambū appears to be applied to this fruit at Bombay, which of course promotes the confusion spoken of. In native practice the stones of this fruit have been alleged to be a cure for diabetes, but European trials do not seem to have confirmed this.

c. 13**.—"The inhabitants (of Mombasa) gather also a fruit which they call jamūn, and which resembles an olive; it has a stone like the olive, but has a very sweet taste."—Ibn Batuta, ii. 191. Elsewhere the translators write tchoumoûn (iii. 128, iv. 114, 229), a spelling indicated in the original, but surely by some error.

c. 1530.—"Another is the jaman.... It is on the whole a fine looking tree. Its fruit resembles the black grape, but has a more acid taste, and is not very good."—Baber, 325. The note on this runs: "This, Dr. Hunter says, is the Eugenia Jambolana, the rose-apple (Eugenia jambolana, but not the rose-apple, which is now called Eugenia jambu.—D.W.). The jâman has no resemblance to the rose-apple; it is more like an oblong sloe than anything else, but grows on a tall tree."

1563.—"I will eat of those olives,——, at least they look like such; but they are very astringent (ponticas) as if binding,——, and yet they do look like ripe Cordova olives.

"O. They are called jambolones, and grow wild in a wood that looks like a myrtle grove; in its leaves the tree resembles the arbutus; but like the jack, the people of the country don't hold this fruit for very wholesome."—Garcia, f. 111y.

1859.—"The Indian jamli.... It is a noble tree, which adorns some of the coast villages and plantations, and it produces a damson-like fruit, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour."—Burton, in J.R.G.S. ix. 36.

JANCADA, s. This name was given to certain responsible guides in the Nair country who escorted travellers from one inhabited place to another, guaranteeing their security with their own lives, like the Bhāts of Guzerat. The word is Malayāl. chaṅṅāḍam (i.e. changngāḍam, [the Madras Gloss. writes channātam, and derives it from Skt. sanghāta, 'union']), with the same spelling as that of the word given as the origin of jangar or jangada, 'a raft.' These jancadas or jangadas seem also to have been placed in other confidential and dangerous charges. Thus:

1543.—"This man who so resolutely died was one of the jangadas of the Pagode. They are called jangades because the kings and lords of those lands, according to a custom of theirs, send as guardians of the houses of the Pagodes in their territories, two men as captains, who are men of honour and good cavaliers. Such guardians are called jangadas, and have soldiers of guard under them, and are as it were the Counsellors and Ministers of the affairs of the pagodes, and they receive their maintenance from the establishment and its revenues. And sometimes the king changes them and appoints others."—Correa, iv. 328.

c. 1610.—"I travelled with another Captain ... who had with him these Jangai, who are the Nair guides, and who are found at the gates of towns to act as escort to those who require them.... Every one takes them, the weak for safety and protection, those who are stronger, and travel in great companies and well armed, take them only as witnesses that they are not aggressors in case of any dispute with the Nairs."—Pyrard de Laval, ch. xxv.; [Hak. Soc. i. 339, and see Mr. Gray's note in loco].

1672.—"The safest of all journeyings in India are those through the Kingdom of the Nairs and the Samorin, if you travel with Giancadas, the most perilous if you go alone. These Giancadas are certain heathen men, who venture their own life and the lives of their kinsfolk for small remuneration, to guarantee the safety of travellers."—P. Vincenzo Maria, 127.

See also Chungathum, in Burton's Goa, p. 198.

JANGAR, s. A raft. Port. jangada. ["A double platform canoe made by placing a floor of boards across two boats, with a bamboo railing." (Madras Gloss.).] This word, chiefly colloquial, is the Tamil-Malayāl. shangāḍam, channātam (for the derivation of which see JANCADA). It is a word of particular interest as being one of the few Dravidian words, [but perhaps ultimately of Skt. origin], preserved in the remains of classical antiquity, occurring in the Periplus as our quotation shows. Bluteau does not call the word an Indian term.

c. 80-90.—"The vessels belonging to these places (Camara, Poducē, and Sopatma on the east coast) which hug the shore to Limyricē (Dimyricē), and others also called Σάγγαρα, which consist of the largest canoes of single timbers lashed together; and again those biggest of all which sail to Chryse and Ganges, and are called Κολανδίοφωντα."—Periplus, in Müller's Geog. Gr. Min., i. "The first part of this name for boats or ships is most probably the Tam. kul̤inda = hollowed: the last ōḍam = boat."—Burnell, S.I. Palaeography, 612.

c. 1504.—"He held in readiness many jangadas of timber."—Correa, Lendas, I. i. 476.

c. 1540.—"... and to that purpose had already commanded two great Rafts (jãgadas), covered with dry wood, barrels of pitch and other combustible stuff, to be placed at the entering into the Port."—Pinto (orig. cap. xlvi.), in Cogan, p. 56.

1553.—"... the fleet ... which might consist of more than 200 rowing vessels of all kinds, a great part of them combined into jangadas in order to carry a greater mass of men, and among them two of these contrivances on which were 150 men."—Barros, II. i. 5.

1598.—"Such as stayed in the ship, some tooke bords, deals, and other peeces of wood, and bound them together (which y^e Portingals cal Iangadas) every man what they could catch, all hoping to save their lives, but of all those there came but two men safe to shore."—Linschoten, p. 147; [Hak. Soc. ii. 181; and see Mr. Gray on Pyrard de Laval, Hak. Soc. i. 53 seq.].

1602.—"For his object was to see if he could rescue them in jangadas, which he ordered him immediately to put together of baulks, planks, and oars."—Couto, Dec. IV. liv. iv. cap. 10.

1756.—"... having set fire to a jungodo of Boats, these driving down towards the Fleet, compelled them to weigh."—Capt. Jackson, in Dalrymple's Or. Rep. i. 199.

c. 1790.—"Sangarie." See quotation under HACKERY.

c. 1793.—"Nous nous remîmes en chemin à six heures du matin, et passâmes la rivière dans un sangarie ou canot fait d'un palmier creusé."—Haafner, ii. 77.

JANGOMAY, ZANGOMAY, JAMAHEY, &c., n.p. The town and state of Siamese Laos, called by the Burmese Zimmé, by the Siamese Xiengmai or Kiang-mai, &c., is so called in narratives of the 17th century. Serious efforts to establish trade with this place were made by the E.I. Company in the early part of the 17th century, of which notice will be found in Purchas, Pilgrimage, and Sainsbury, e.g. in vol. i. (1614), pp. 311, 325; (1615) p. 425; (1617) ii. p. 90. The place has again become the scene of commercial and political interest; an English Vice-Consulate has been established; and a railway survey undertaken. [See Hallett, A Thousand Miles on an Elephant, 74 seqq.]

c. 1544.—"Out of this Lake of Singapamor ... do four very large and deep rivers proceed, whereof the first ... runneth Eastward through all the Kingdoms of Sornau and Siam ...; the Second, Jangumaa ... disimboking into the Sea by the Bar of Martabano in the Kingdom of Pegu...."—Pinto (in Cogan, 165).

1553.—(Barros illustrates the position of the different kingdoms of India by the figure of a (left) hand, laid with the palm downwards) "And as regards the western part, following always the sinew of the forefinger, it will correspond with the ranges of mountains running from north to south along which lie the kingdom of Avá, and Bremá, and Jangomá."—III. ii. 5.

c. 1587.—"I went from Pegu to Iamayhey, which is in the Countrey of the Langeiannes, whom we call Iangomes; it is five and twentie dayes iourney to Northeast from Pegu.... Hither to Iamayhey come many Merchants out of China, and bring great store of Muske, Gold, Silver, and many things of China worke."—R. Fitch, in Hakl. ii.

c. 1606.—"But the people, or most part of them, fled to the territories of the King of Jangoma, where they were met by the Padre Friar Francisco, of the Annunciation, who was there negotiating ..."—Bocarro, 136.

1612.—"The Siamese go out with their heads shaven, and leave long mustachioes on their faces; their garb is much like that of the Peguans. The same may be said of the Jangomas and the Laojoes" (see LAN JOHN).—Couto, V. vi. 1.

c. 1615.—"The King (of Pegu) which now reigneth ... hath in his time recovered from the King of Syam ... the town and kingdom of Zangomay, and therein an Englishman called Thomas Samuel, who not long before had been sent from Syam by Master Lucas Anthonison, to discover the Trade of that country by the sale of certaine goods sent along with him for that purpose."—W. Methold, in Purchas, v. 1006.

[1617.—"Jangama." See under JUDEA.

[1795.—"Zemee." See under SHAN.]

JAPAN, n.p. Mr. Giles says: "Our word is from Jeh-pun, the Dutch orthography of the Japanese Ni-pon." What the Dutch have to do with the matter is hard to see. ["Our word 'Japan' and the Japanese Nihon or Nippon, are alike corruptions of Jih-pen, the Chinese pronunciation of the characters (meaning) literally 'sun-origin.'" (Chamberlain, Things Japanese, 3rd ed. 221).] A form closely resembling Japán, as we pronounce it, must have prevailed, among foreigners at least, in China as early as the 13th century; for Marco Polo calls it Chipan-gu or Jipan-ku, a name representing the Chinese Zhi-păn-Kwe ('Sun-origin-Kingdom'), the Kingdom of the Sunrise or Extreme Orient, of which the word Nipon or Niphon, used in Japan, is said to be a dialectic variation. But as there was a distinct gap in Western tradition between the 14th century and the 16th, no doubt we, or rather the Portuguese, acquired the name from the traders at Malacca, in the Malay forms, which Crawfurd gives as Jăpung and Jăpang.

1298.—"Chipangu is an Island towards the east in the high seas, 1,500 miles distant from the Continent; and a very great Island it is. The people are white, civilized, and well-favoured. They are Idolaters, and dependent on nobody...."—Marco Polo, bk. iii. ch. 2.

1505.—"... and not far off they took a ship belonging to the King of Calichut; out of which they have brought me certain jewels of good value; including Mccccc. pearls worth 8,000 ducats; also three astrological instruments of silver, such as are not used by our astrologers, large and well-wrought, which I hold in the highest estimation. They say that the King of Calichut had sent the said ship to an island called Saponin to obtain the said instruments...."—Letter from the K. of Portugal (Dom Manuel) to the K. of Castille (Ferdinand). Reprint by A. Burnell, 1881, p. 8.

1521.—"In going by this course we passed near two very rich islands; one is in twenty degrees latitude in the antarctic pole, and is called Cipanghu."—Pigafetta, Magellan's Voyage, Hak. Soc., 67. Here the name appears to be taken from the chart or Mappe-Monde which was carried on the voyage. Cipanghu appears by that name on the globe of Martin Behaim (1492), but 20 degrees north, not south, of the equator.

1545.—"Now as for us three Portugals, having nothing to sell, we employed our time either in fishing, hunting, or seeing the Temples of these Gentiles, which were very sumptuous and rich, whereinto the Bonzes, who are their priests, received us very courteously, for indeed it is the custom of those of Jappon (do Japão) to be exceeding kind and courteous."—Pinto (orig. cap. cxxxiv.), in Cogan, E.T. p. 173.

1553.—"After leaving to the eastward the isles of the Lequios (see LEW CHEW) and of the Japons (dos Japões), and the great province of Meaco, which for its great size we know not whether to call it Island or Continent, the coast of China still runs on, and those parts pass beyond the antipodes of the meridian of Lisbon."—Barros, I. ix. 1.

1572.—

By Burton:

1727.—"Japon, with the neighbouring Islands under its Dominions, is about the magnitude of Great Britain."—A. Hamilton, ii. 306; [ed. 1744, ii. 305].

JARGON, JARCOON, ZIRCON, s. The name of a precious stone often mentioned by writers of the 16th century, but respecting the identity of which there seems to be a little obscurity. The English Encyclopaedia, and the Times Reviewer of Emanuel's book On Precious Stones (1866), identify it with the hyacinth or jacinth; but Lord Stanley of Alderley, in his translation of Barbosa (who mentions the stone several times under the form giagonza and jagonza), on the authority of a practical jeweller identifies it with corundum. This is probably an error. Jagonza looks like a corruption of jacinthus. And Haüy's Mineralogy identifies jargon and hyacinth under the common name of zircon. Dana's Mineralogy states that the term hyacinth is applied to these stones, consisting of a silicate of zirconia, "which present bright colours, considerable transparency, and smooth shining surfaces.... The variety from Ceylon, which is colourless, and has a smoky tinge, and is therefore sold for inferior diamonds, is sometimes called jargon" (Syst. of Mineral., 3rd ed., 1850, 379-380; [Encycl. Britt. 9th ed. xxiv. 789 seq.]).

The word probably comes into European languages through the Span. azarcon, a word of which there is a curious history in Dozy and Engelmann. Two Spanish words and their distinct Arabic originals have been confounded in the Span. Dict. of Cobarruvias (1611) and others following him. Sp. zarca is 'a woman with blue eyes,' and this comes from Ar. zarḳā, fem. of azraḳ, 'blue.' This has led the lexicographers above referred to astray, and azarcon has been by them defined as a 'blue earth, made of burnt lead.' But azarcon really applies to 'red-lead,' or vermilion, as does the Port. zarcão, azarcão, and its proper sense is as the Dict. of the Sp. Academy says (after repeating the inconsistent explanation and etymology of Cobarruvias), "an intense orange-colour, Lat. color aureus." This is from the Ar. zarḳūn, which in Ibn Baithar is explained as synonymous with salīḳūn, and asranj, "which the Greeks call sandix," i.e. cinnabar or vermilion (see Sontheimer's Ebn Beithar, i. 44, 530). And the word, as Dozy shows, occurs in Pliny under the form syricum (see quotations below). The eventual etymology is almost certainly Persian, either zargūn, 'gold colour,' as Marcel Devic suggests, or āzargūn (perhaps more properly āẓargūn, from āẓar, 'fire'), 'flame-colour,' as Dozy thinks.

A.D. c. 70.—"Hoc ergo adulteratur minium in officinis sociorum, et ubivis Syrico. Quonam modo Syricum fiat suo loco docebimus, sublini autem Syrico minium conpendi ratio demonstrat."—Plin. N. H. XXXIII. vii.

" "Inter facticios est et Syricum, quo minium sublini diximus. Fit autem Sinopide et sandyce mixtis."—Ibid. XXXV. vi.

1796.—"The artists of Ceylon prepare rings and heads of canes, which contain a complete assortment of all the precious stones found in that island. These assemblages are called Jargons de Ceilan, and are so called because they consist of a collection of gems which reflect various colours."—Fra Paolino, Eng. ed. 1800, 393. (This is a very loose translation. Fra Paolino evidently thought Jargon was a figurative name applied to this mixture of stones, as it is to a mixture of languages).

1813.—"The colour of Jargons is grey, with tinges of green, blue, red, and yellow."—I. Mawe, A Treatise on Diamonds, &c. 119.

1860.—"The 'Matura Diamonds,' which are largely used by the native jewellers, consist of zircon, found in the syenite, not only uncoloured, but also of pink and yellow tints, the former passing for rubies."—Tennent's Ceylon, i. 38.

JAROOL, s. The Lagerstroemia reginae, Roxb. H.-Beng. jarūl, jāral. A tree very extensively diffused in the forests of Eastern and Western India and Pegu. It furnishes excellent boat-timber, and is a splendid flowering tree. "An exceeding glorious tree of the Concan jungles, in the month of May robed as in imperial purple, with its terminal panicles of large showy purple flowers. I for the first time introduced it largely into Bombay gardens, and called it Flos reginae"—Sir G. Birdwood, MS.

1850.—"Their forests are frequented by timber-cutters, who fell jarool, a magnificent tree with red wood, which, though soft, is durable under water, and therefore in universal use for boat building."—Hooker, Him. Journals, ed. 1855, ii. 318.

1855.—"Much of the way from Rangoon also, by the creeks, to the great river, was through actual dense forest, in which the jarool, covered with purple blossoms, made a noble figure."—Blackwood's Mag., May 1856, 538.

JASK, JASQUES, CAPE-, n.p. Ar. Rās Jāshak, a point on the eastern side of the Gulf of Omān, near the entrance to the Persian Gulf, and 6 miles south of a port of the same name. The latter was frequented by the vessels of the English Company whilst the Portuguese held Ormus. After the Portuguese were driven out of Ormus (1622) the English trade was moved to Gombroon (q.v.). The peninsula of which Cape Jask is the point, is now the terminus of the submarine cable from Bushire; and a company of native infantry is quartered there. Jāsak appears in Yāḳūt as "a large island between the land of Omān and the Island of Kish." No island corresponds to this description, and probably the reference is an incorrect one to Jask (see Dict. de la Perse, p. 149). By a curious misapprehension, Cape Jasques seems to have been Englished as Cape James (see Dunn's Or. Navigator, 1780, p. 94).

1553.—"Crossing from this Cape Moçandan to that opposite to it called Jasque, which with it forms the mouth of the strait, we enter on the second section (of the coast) according to our division...."—Barros, I. ix. i.

1572.—

By Burton:

1614.—"Per Postscript. If it please God this Persian business fall out to y^r contentt, and y^t you thinke fitt to adventure thither, I thinke itt not amisse to sett you downe as y^e Pilotts have informed mee of Jasques, w^ch is a towne standinge neere y^e edge of a straightte Sea Coast where a ship may ride in 8 fathome water a Sacar shotte from y^e shoar and in 6 fathome you maye bee nearer. Jasque is 6 Gemes (see JAM, b) from Ormus southwards and six Gemes is 60 cosses makes 30 leagues. Jasques lieth from Muschet east. From Jasques to Sinda is 200 cosses or 100 leagues. At Jasques com̃only they have northe winde w^ch blowethe trade out of y^e Persian Gulfe. Mischet is on y^e Arabian Coast, and is a little portte of Portugalls."—MS. Letter from Nich. Downton, dd. November 22, 1614, in India Office; [Printed in Foster, Letters, ii. 177, and compare ii. 145].

1617.—"There came news at this time that there was an English ship lying inside the Cape of Rosalgate (see ROSALGAT) with the intention of making a fort at Jasques in Persia, as a point from which to plunder our cargoes...."—Bocarro, 672.

[1623.—"The point or peak of Giasck."—P. della Valle, Hak. Soc. i. 4.

[1630.—"Iasques." (See under JUNK.)]

1727.—"I'll travel along the Sea-coast, towards Industan, or the Great Mogul's Empire. All the Shore from Jasques to Sindy, is inhabited by uncivilized People, who admit of no Commerce with Strangers...."—A. Hamilton, i. 115; [ed. 1744].

JASOOS, s. Ar.-H. jāsūs, 'a spy.'

1803.—"I have some Jasooses, selected by Col. C——'s brahmin for their stupidity, that they might not pry into state secrets, who go to Sindia's camp, remain there a phaur (see PUHUR) in fear ..."—M. Elphinstone, in Life, i. 62.

JAUN, s. This is a term used in Calcutta, and occasionally in Madras, of which the origin is unknown to the present writers. [Mr. H. Beveridge points out that it is derived from H.—Beng. yān, defined by Sir G. Haughton: "a vehicle, any means of conveyance, a horse, a carriage, a palkee." It is Skt. yāna, with the same meaning. The initial ya in Bengali is usually pronounced ja. The root is yā, 'to go.'] It is, or was, applied to a small palankin carriage, such as is commonly used by business men in going to their offices, &c.

c. 1836.—

[The Jaun Bazar is a well-known low quarter of Calcutta.]

[1892.—

JAVA, n.p. This is a geographical name of great antiquity, and occurs, as our first quotation shows, in Ptolemy's Tables. His Ἰαβαδίου represents with singular correctness what was probably the Prakrit or popular form of Yava-dvīpa (see under DIU and MALDIVES), and his interpretation of the Sanskrit is perfectly correct. It will still remain a question whether Yava was not applied to some cereal more congenial to the latitude than barley,^[145] or was (as is possible) an attempt to give an Indian meaning to some aboriginal name of similar sound. But the sixth of our quotations, the transcript and translation of a Sanskrit inscription in the Museum at Batavia by Mr. Holle, which we owe to the kindness of Prof. Kern, indicates that a signification of wealth in cereals was attached to the name in the early days of its Indian civilization. This inscription is most interesting, as it is the oldest dated inscription yet discovered upon Javanese soil. Till a recent time it was not known that there was any mention of Java in Sanskrit literature, and this was so when Lassen published the 2nd vol. of his Indian Antiquities (1849). But in fact Java was mentioned in the Rāmāyana, though a perverted reading disguised the fact until the publication of the Bombay edition in 1863. The passage is given in our second quotation; and we also give passages from two later astronomical works whose date is approximately known. The Yava-Koṭi, or Java Point of these writers is understood by Prof. Kern to be the eastern extremity of the island.

We have already (see BENJAMIN) alluded to the fact that the terms Jāwa, Jāwi were applied by the Arabs to the Archipelago generally, and often with specific reference to Sumatra. Prof. Kern, in a paper to which we are largely indebted, has indicated that this larger application of the term was originally Indian. He has discussed it in connection with the terms "Golden and Silver Islands" (Suvarṇa dvīpa and Rūpya dvīpa), which occur in the quotation from the Rāmāyana, and elsewhere in Sanskrit literature, and which evidently were the basis of the Chrysē and Argyrē, which take various forms in the writings of the Greek and Roman geographers. We cannot give the details of his discussion, but his condensed conclusions are as follows:—(1.) Suvarṇa-dvīpa and Yava-dvīpa were according to the prevalent representations the same; (2.) Two names of islands originally distinct were confounded with one another; (3.) Suvarṇa-dvīpa in its proper meaning is Sumatra, Yava-dvīpa in its proper meaning is Java; (4.) Sumatra, or a part of it, and Java were regarded as one whole, doubtless because they were politically united; (5.) By Yava-koṭi was indicated the east point of Java.

This Indian (and also insular) identification, in whole or in part, of Sumatra with Java explains a variety of puzzles, e.g. not merely the Arab application of Java, but also the ascription, in so many passages, of great wealth of gold to Java, though the island, to which that name properly belongs, produces no gold. This tradition of gold-produce we find in the passages quoted from Ptolemy, from the Rāmāyana, from the Holle inscription, and from Marco Polo. It becomes quite intelligible when we are taught that Java and Sumatra were at one time both embraced under the former name, for Sumatra has always been famous for its gold-production. [Mr. Skeat notes as an interesting fact that the standard Malay name Jāwă and the Javanese Jāwa preserve the original form of the word.]

(Ancient).—"Search carefully Yava dvīpa, adorned by seven Kingdoms, the Gold and Silver Island, rich in mines of gold. Beyond Yava dvīpa is the Mountain called Sisira, whose top touches the sky, and which is visited by gods and demons."—Rāmāyana, IV. xl. 30 (from Kern).

A.D. c. 150.—"Iabadiu (Ἰαβαδίου), which means 'Island of Barley,' most fruitful the island is said to be, and also to produce much gold; also the metropolis is said to have the name Argyrē (Silver), and to stand at the western end of the island."—Ptolemy, VII. ii. 29.

414.—"Thus they voyaged for about ninety days, when they arrived at a country called Ya-va-di [i.e. Yava-dvīpa]. In this country heretics and Brahmans flourish, but the Law of Buddha hardly deserves mentioning."—Fahian, ext. in Groeneveldt's Notes from Chinese Sources.

A.D. c. 500.—"When the sun rises in Ceylon it is sunset in the City of the Blessed (Siddha-pura, i.e. The Fortunate Islands), noon at Yava-koṭi, and midnight in the Land of the Romans."—Aryabhata, IV. v. 13 (from Kern).

A.D. c. 650.—"Eastward by a fourth part of the earth's circumference, in the world-quarter of the Bhadrāśvas lies the City famous under the name of Yava koti whose walls and gates are of gold."—Suryā-Siddhānta, XII. v. 38 (from Kern).

Saka, 654, i.e. A.D. 762.—"Dvīpavaram Yavākhyam atulan dhân-yādivājâīhikam sampannam kanakākaraih" ... i.e. the incomparable splendid island called Java, excessively rich in grain and other seeds, and well provided with gold-mines."—Inscription in Batavia Museum (see above).

943.—"Eager ... to study with my own eyes the peculiarities of each country, I have with this object visited Sind and Zanj, and Ṣanf (see CHAMPA) and Ṣīn (China), and Zābaj."—Maṣ'ūdī, i. 5.

" "This Kingdom (India) borders upon that of Zābaj, which is the empire of the Mahrāj, King of the Isles."—Ibid. 163.

992.—"Djava is situated in the Southern Ocean.... In the 12th month of the year (992) their King Maradja sent an embassy ... to go to court and bring tribute."—Groeneveldt's Notes from Chinese Sources, pp. 15-17.

1298.—"When you sail from Ziamba (Chamba) 1500 miles in a course between south and south-east, you come to a very great island called Java, which, according to the statement of some good mariners, is the greatest Island that there is in the world, seeing that it has a compass of more than 3000 miles, and is under the dominion of a great king.... Pepper, nutmegs, spike, galanga, cubebs, cloves, and all the other good spices are produced in this island, and it is visited by many ships with quantities of merchandise from which they make great profits and gain, for such an amount of gold is found there that no one would believe it or venture to tell it."—Marco Polo, in Ramusio, ii. 51.

c. 1330.—"In the neighbourhood of that realm is a great island, Java by name, which hath a compass of a good 3000 miles. Now this island is populous exceedingly, and is the second best of all islands that exist.... The King of this island hath a palace which is truly marvellous.... Now the great Khan of Cathay many a time engaged in war with this King; but this King always vanquished and got the better of him."—Friar Odoric, in Cathay, &c., 87-89.

c. 1349.—"She clandestinely gave birth to a daughter, whom she made when grown up Queen of the finest island in the world, Saba by name...."—John de' Marignolli, ibid. 391.

c. 1444.—"Sunt insulae duae in interiori India, e pene extremis orbis finibus, ambae Java nomine, quarum altera tribus, altera duobus millibus milliarum protenditur orientem versus; sed Majoris, Minorisque cognomine discernuntur."—N. Conti, in Poggius, De Var. Fortunae.

1503.—The Syrian Bishops Thomas, Jaballaha, Jacob, and Denha, sent on a mission to India in 1503 by the (Nestorian) Patriarch Elias, were ordained to go "to the land of the Indians and the islands of the seas which are between Dabag and Sin and Masin (see MACHEEN)."—Assemani, III. Pt. i. 592. This Dabag is probably a relic of the Zābaj of the Relation, of Maṣ'ūdī, and of Al-birūnī.

1516.—"Further on ... there are many islands, small and great, amongst which is one very large which they call Java the Great.... They say that this island is the most abundant country in the world.... There grow pepper, cinnamon, ginger, bamboos, cubebs, and gold...."—Barbosa, 197.

Referring to Sumatra, or the Archipelago in general.

Saka, 578, i.e. A.D. 656.—"The Prince Adityadharma is the Deva of the First Java Land (prathama Yava-bhū). May he be great! Written in the year of Saka, 578. May it be great!"—From a Sanskrit Inscription from Pager-Ruyong, in Menang Karbau (Sumatra), publd. by Friedrich, in the Batavian Transactions, vol. xxiii.

1224.—"Ma'bar (q.v.) is the last part of India; then comes the country of China (Ṣín), the first part of which is Jāwa, reached by a difficult and fatal sea."—Yāḳūt, i. 516.

" "This is some account of remotest Ṣín, which I record without vouching for its truth ... for in sooth it is a far off land. I have seen no one who had gone to it and penetrated far into it; only the merchants seek its outlying parts, to wit the country known as Jāwa on the sea-coast, like to India; from it are brought Aloeswood ('ūd), camphor, and nard (sunbul), and clove, and mace (basbāsa), and China drugs, and vessels of china-ware."—Ibid. iii. 445.

Kazwīnī speaks in almost the same words of Jāwa. He often copies Yāḳūt, but perhaps he really means his own time (for he uses different words) when he says: "Up to this time the merchants came no further into China than to this country (Jāwa) on account of the distance and difference of religion."—ii. 18.

1298.—"When you leave this Island of Pentam and sail about 100 miles, you reach the Island of Java the Less. For all its name 'tis none so small but that it has a compass of 2000 miles or more...." &c.—Marco Polo, bk. iii. ch. 9.

c. 1300.—"... In the mountains of Jáva scented woods grow.... The mountains of Jáva are very high. It is the custom of the people to puncture their hands and entire body with needles, and then rub in some black substance."—Rashīd-uddīn, in Elliot, i. 71.

1328.—"There is also another exceeding great island, which is called Jaua, which is in circuit more than seven [thousand?] miles as I have heard, and where are many world's wonders. Among which, besides the finest aromatic spices, this is one, to wit, that there be found pygmy men.... There are also trees producing cloves, which when they are in flower emit an odour so pungent that they kill every man who cometh among them, unless he shut his mouth and nostrils.... In a certain part of that island they delight to eat white and fat men when they can get them...."—Friar Jordanus, 30-31.

c. 1330.—"Parmi les isles de la Mer de l'Inde il faut citer celle de Djâwah, grande isle célèbre par l'abondance de ses drogues ... au sud de l'isle de Djâwah on remarque la ville de Fansour, d'où le camphre Fansoûri tire son nom."—Géog. d'Aboulfeda, II. pt. ii. 127. [See CAMPHOR].

c. 1346.—"After a passage of 25 days we arrived at the Island of Jāwa, which gives its name to the lubān jāwiy (see BENJAMIN).... We thus made our entrance into the capital, that is to say the city of Sumatra; a fine large town with a wall of wood and towers also of wood."—Ibn Batuta, iv. 228-230.

1553.—"And so these, as well as those of the interior of the Island (Sumatra), are all dark, with lank hair, of good nature and countenance, and not resembling the Javanese, although such near neighbours, indeed it is very notable that at so small a distance from each other their nature should vary so much, all the more because all the people of this Island call themselves by the common name of Jawis (Jaüijs), because they hold it for certain that the Javanese (os Jãos) were formerly lords of this great Island...."—Barros, III. v. 1.

1555.—"Beyond the Island of Iaua they sailed along by another called Bali; and then came also vnto other called Aujaue, Cambaba, Solor.... The course by these Islands is about 500 leagues. The ancient cosmographers call all these Islands by the name Iauos; but late experience hath found the names to be very diuers as you see."—Antonio Galvano, old E.T. in Hakl. iv. 423.

1856.—

JAVA-RADISH, s. A singular variety (Raphanus caudatus, L.) of the common radish (R. sativus, L.), of which the pods, which attain a foot in length, are eaten and not the root. It is much cultivated in Western India, under the name of mugra [see Baden-Powell, Punjab Products, i. 260]. It is curious that the Hind. name of the common radish is mūlī, from mūl, 'root,' exactly analogous to radish from radix.

[JAVA-WIND, s. In the Straits Settlements an unhealthy south wind blowing from the direction of Java is so called. (Compare SUMATRA, b.)]

JAWAUB, s. Hind. from Ar. jawāb, 'an answer.' In India it has, besides this ordinary meaning, that of 'dismissal.' And in Anglo-Indian colloquial it is especially used for a lady's refusal of an offer; whence the verb passive 'to be jawaub'd.' [The Jawaub Club consisted of men who had been at least half a dozen times 'jawaub'd.'

1830.—"'The Juwawb'd Club,' asked Elsmere, with surprise, 'what is that?'

"''Tis a fanciful association of those melancholy candidates for wedlock who have fallen in their pursuit, and are smarting under the sting of rejection.'"—Orient. Sport. Mag., reprint 1873, i. 424.]

Jawāb among the natives is often applied to anything erected or planted for a symmetrical double, where

"In the houses of many chiefs every picture on the walls has its jawab (or duplicate). The portrait of Scindiah now in my dining-room was the jawab (copy in fact) of Mr. C. Landseer's picture, and hung opposite to the original in the Darbar room" (M.-Gen. Keatinge). ["The masjid with three domes of white marble occupies the left wing and has a counterpart (jawāb) in a precisely similar building on the right hand side of the Tāj. This last is sometimes called the false masjid; but it is in no sense dedicated to religious purposes."—Führer, Monumental Antiquities, N.W.P., p. 64.]

JAY, s. The name usually given by Europeans to the Coracias Indica, Linn., the Nīlkanṭh, or 'blue-throat' of the Hindus, found all over India.

[1878.—"They are the commonality of birddom, who furnish forth the mobs which bewilder the drunken-flighted jay when he jerks, shrieking in a series of blue hyphen-flashes through the air...."—Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden, 3.]

JEEL, s. Hind. jhīl. A stagnant sheet of inundation; a mere or lagoon. Especially applied to the great sheets of remanent inundation in Bengal. In Eastern Bengal they are also called bheel (q.v.)

[1757.—"Towards five the guard waked me with notice that the Nawab would presently pass by to his palace of Mootee jeel."—Holwell's Letter of Feb. 28, in Wheeler, Early Records, 250.]

The Jhīls of Silhet are vividly and most accurately described (though the word is not used) in the following passage:—

c. 1778.—"I shall not therefore be disbelieved when I say that in pointing my boat towards Sylhet I had recourse to my compass, the same as at sea, and steered a straight course through a lake not less than 100 miles in extent, occasionally passing through villages built on artificial mounds: but so scanty was the ground that each house had a canoe attached to it."—Hon. Robert Lindsay, in Lives of the Lindsays, iii. 166.

1824.—"At length we ... entered what might be called a sea of reeds. It was, in fact, a vast jeel or marsh, whose tall rushes rise above the surface of the water, having depth enough for a very large vessel. We sailed briskly on, rustling like a greyhound in a field of corn."—Heber, i. 101.

1850.—"To the geologist the Jheels and Sunderbunds are a most instructive region, as whatever may be the mean elevation of their waters, a permanent depression of 10 to 15 feet would submerge an immense tract."—Hooker's Himalayan Journals, ed. 1855, ii. 265.

1885.—"You attribute to me an act, the credit of which was due to Lieut. George Hutchinson, of the late Bengal Engineers.^[146] That able officer, in company with the late Colonel Berkley, H.M. 32nd Regt., laid out the defences of the Alum Bagh camp, remarkable for its bold plan, which was so well devised that, with an apparently dangerous extent, it was defensible at every point by the small but ever ready force under Sir James Outram. A long interval ... was defended by a post of support called 'Moir's Picket' ... covered by a wide expanse of jheel, or lake, resulting from the rainy season. Foreseeing the probable drying up of the water, Lieut. Hutchinson, by a clever inspiration, marched all the transport elephants through and through the lake, and when the water disappeared, the dried clay-bed, pierced into a honey-combed surface of circular holes a foot in diameter and two or more feet deep, became a better protection against either cavalry or infantry than the water had been...."—Letter to Lt.-Col. P. R. Innes from F. M. Lord Napier of Magdāla, dd. April 15.

Jeel and bheel are both applied to the artificial lakes in Central India and Bundelkhand.

JEETUL, s. Hind. jītal. A very old Indian denomination of copper coin, now entirely obsolete. It long survived on the western coast, and the name was used by the Portuguese for one of their small copper coins in the forms ceitils and zoitoles. It is doubtful, however, if ceitil is the same word. At least there is a medieval Portuguese coin called ceitil and ceptil (see Fernandes, in Memorias da Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa, 2da Classe, 1856); this may have got confounded with the Indian Jital. The jītal of the Delhi coinage of Alā-ud-dīn (c. 1300) was, according to Mr. E. Thomas's calculations, 1⁄64 of the silver tanga, the coin called in later days the rupee. It was therefore just the equivalent of our modern pice. But of course, like most modern denominations of coin, it has varied greatly.

c. 1193-4.—"According to Ḳuṭb-ud-Dīn's command, Nizam-ud-Dīn Mohammad, on his return, brought them [the two slaves] along with him to the capital, Dihli; and Malik Ḳuṭb-ud-Dīn purchased both the Turks for the sum of 100,000 jitals."—Raverty, Ṭabaḳāṭ-i-Nāṣiri, p. 603.

c. 1290.—"In the same year ... there was dearth in Dehli, and grain rose to a jital per sír (see SEER)."—Ẓiáh-ud-dín Barní, in Elliot, iii. 146.

c. 1340.—"The dirhem sultānī is worth ⅓ of the dirhem shashtānī ... and is worth 3 fals, whilst the jītal is worth 4 fals; and the dirhem hashtkānī, which is exactly the silver dirhem of Egypt and Syria, is worth 32 fals."—Shihābuddīn, in Notices et Extraits, xiii. 212.

1554.—In Sunda. "The cash (caixas) here go 120 to the tanga of silver; the which caixas are a copper money larger than ceitils, and pierced in the middle, which they say have come from China for many years, and the whole place is full of them."—A. Nunes, 42.

c. 1590.—"For the purpose of calculation the dam is divided into 25 parts, each of which is called a jétal. This imaginary division is only used by accountants."—Āīn, ed. Blochmann, i. 31.

1678.—"48 Juttals, 1 Pagod, an Imaginary Coin."—Fryer (at Surat), 206.

c. 1750-60.—"At Carwar 6 pices make the juttal, and 48 juttals a Pagoda."—Grose, i. 282.

JEHAUD, s. Ar. jihād, ['an effort, a striving']; then a sacred war of Musulmans against the infidel; which Sir Herbert Edwardes called, not very neatly, 'a crescentade.'

[c. 630 A.D.—"Make war upon such of those to whom the Scriptures have been given who believe not in God, or in the last day, and who forbid not that which God and his Prophet have forbidden, and who profess not the profession of the truth, until they pay tribute (jizyah) out of hand, and they be humbled."—Korān, Surah ix. 29.]

1880.—"When the Athenians invaded Ephesus, towards the end of the Peloponnesian War, Tissaphernes offered a mighty sacrifice at Artemis, and raised the people in a sort of Jehad, or holy war, for her defence."—Sat. Review, July 17, 84b.

[1901.—"The matter has now assumed the aspect of a 'Schad,' or holy war against Christianity."—Times, April 4.]

JELAUBEE, s. Hind. jalebī, [which is apparently a corruption of the Ar. zalābiya, P. zalībiya]. A rich sweetmeat made of sugar and ghee, with a little flour, melted and trickled into a pan so as to form a kind of interlaced work, when baked.

[1870.—"The poison is said to have been given once in sweetmeats, Jelabees."—Chevers, Med. Jurisp. 178.]

JELLY, s. In South India this is applied to vitrified brick refuse used as metal for roads. [The Madras Gloss. gives it as a synonym for kunkur.] It would appear from a remark of C. P. Brown (MS. notes) to be Telugu zalli, Tam. shalli, which means properly 'shivers, bits, pieces.'

[1868.—"... anicuts in some instances coated over the crown with jelly in chunam."—Nelson, Man. of Madura, Pt. v. 53.]

JELUM, n.p. The most westerly of the "Five Rivers" that give their name to the Punjab (q.v.), (among which the Indus itself is not usually included). Properly Jailam or Jīlam, now apparently written Jhīlam, and taking this name from a town on the right bank. The Jhilam is the Ὑδάσπης of Alexander's historians, a name corrupted from the Skt. Vitastā, which is more nearly represented by Ptolemy's Βιδάσπης. A still further (Prakritic) corruption of the same is Behat (see BEHUT).

1037.—"Here he (Mahmūd) fell ill, and remained sick for fourteen days, and got no better. So in a fit of repentance he forswore wine, and ordered his servants to throw all his supply ... into the Jailam. ..."—Baihaḳī, in Elliot, ii. 139.

c. 1204.—"... in the height of the conflict, Shams-ud-dîn, in all his panoply, rode right into the water of the river Jīlam ... and his warlike feats while in that water reached such a pitch that he was despatching those infidels from the height of the waters to the lowest depths of Hell ..."—Ṭabaḳāṭ, by Raverty, 604-5.

1856.—

JEMADAR, JEMAUTDAR, &c. Hind. from Ar.—P. jama'dar, jama' meaning 'an aggregate,' the word indicates generally, a leader of a body of individuals. [Some of the forms are as if from Ar.—P. jamā'at, 'an assemblage.'] Technically, in the Indian army, it is the title of the second rank of native officer in a company of sepoys, the Sūbadār (see SOUBADAR) being the first. In this sense the word dates from the reorganisation of the army in 1768. It is also applied to certain officers of police (under the dārogha), of the customs, and of other civil departments. And in larger domestic establishments there is often a jemadār, who is over the servants generally, or over the stables, camp service and orderlies. It is also an honorific title often used by the other household servants in addressing the bihishtī (see BHEESTY).

1752.—"The English battalion no sooner quitted Tritchinopoly than the regent set about accomplishing his scheme of surprising the City, and ... endeavoured to gain 500 of the Nabob's best peons with firelocks. The jemautdars, or captains of these troops, received his bribes and promised to join."—Orme, ed. 1803, i. 257.

1817.—"... Calliaud had commenced an intrigue with some of the jematdars, or captains of the enemy's troops, when he received intelligence that the French had arrived at Trichinopoly."—Mill, iii. 175.

1824.—"'Abdullah' was a Mussulman convert of Mr. Corrie's, who had travelled in Persia with Sir Gore Ouseley, and accompanied him to England, from whence he was returning ... when the Bishop took him into his service as a 'jemautdar,' or head officer of the peons."—Editor's note to Heber, ed. 1844, i. 65.

[1826.—"The principal officers are called Jummahdars, some of whom command five thousand horse."—Pandurang Hari, ed. 1873, i. 56.]

JENNYE, n.p. Hind. Janaī. The name of a great river in Bengal, which is in fact a portion of the course of the Brahmaputra (see BURRAMPOOTER), and the conditions of which are explained in the following passage written by one of the authors of this Glossary many years ago: "In Rennell's time, the Burrampooter, after issuing westward from the Assam valley, swept south-eastward, and forming with the Ganges a fluvial peninsula, entered the sea abreast of that river below Dacca. And so almost all English maps persist in representing it, though this eastern channel is now, unless in the rainy season, shallow and insignificant; the vast body of the Burrampooter cutting across the neck of the peninsula under the name of Jenai, and uniting with the Ganges near Pubna (about 150 miles N.E. of Calcutta), from which point the two rivers under the name of Pudda (Padda) flow on in mighty union to the sea." (Blackwood's Mag., March 1852, p. 338.)

The river is indicated as an offshoot of the Burrampooter in Rennell's Bengal Atlas (Map No. 6) under the name of Jenni, but it is not mentioned in his Memoir of the Map of Hindostan. The great change of the river's course was palpably imminent at the beginning of the last century; for Buchanan (c. 1809) says: "The river threatens to carry away all the vicinity of Dewangunj, and perhaps to force its way into the heart of Nator." (Eastern India, iii. 394; see also 377.) Nator or Nattore was the territory now called Rajshāhī District. The real direction of the change has been further south. The Janai is also called the Jamunā (see under JUMNA). Hooker calls it Jummal (?) noticing that the maps still led him to suppose the Burrampooter flowed 70 miles further east (see Him. Journals, ed. 1855, ii. 259).

JENNYRICKSHAW, s. Read Capt. Gill's description below. Giles states the word to be taken from the Japanese pronunciation of three characters, reading jin-riki-sha, signifying 'Man—Strength—Cart.' The term is therefore, observes our friend E. C. Baber, an exact equivalent of "Pullman-Car"! The article has been introduced into India, and is now in use at Simla and other hill-stations. [The invention of the vehicle is attributed to various people—to an Englishman known as "Public-spirited Smith" (8 ser. Notes and Queries, viii. 325); to native Japanese about 1868-70, or to an American named Goble, "half-cobbler and half-missionary." See Chamberlain, Things Japanese, 3rd ed. 236 seq.]

1876.—"A machine called a jinnyrickshaw is the usual public conveyance of Shanghai. This is an importation from Japan, and is admirably adapted for the flat country, where the roads are good, and coolie hire cheap.... In shape they are like a buggy, but very much smaller, with room inside for one person only. One coolie goes into the shafts and runs along at the rate of 6 miles an hour; if the distance is long, he is usually accompanied by a companion who runs behind, and they take it in turn to draw the vehicle."—W. Gill, River of Golden Sand, i. 10. See also p. 163.

1880.—"The Kuruma or jin-ri-ki-sha consists of a light perambulator body, an adjustable hood of oiled paper, a velvet or cloth lining and cushion, a well for parcels under the seat, two high slim wheels, and a pair of shafts connected by a bar at the ends."—Miss Bird, Japan, i. 18.

[1885.—"We ... got into rickshaws to make an otherwise impossible descent to the theatre."—Lady Dufferin, Viceregal Life, 89.]

JEZYA, s. Ar. jizya. The poll-tax which the Musulman law imposes on subjects who are not Moslem.

[c. 630 A.D. See under JEHAUD.]

c. 1300.—"The Kázi replied ... 'No doctor but the great doctor (Hanifa) to whose school we belong, has assented to the imposition of Jizya on Hindus. Doctors of other schools allow of no alternative but "Death or Islam."'"—Ẓiā-ud-dīn Barnī, in Elliot, iii. 184.

1683.—"Understand what custome ye English paid formerly, and compare ye difference between that and our last order for taking custome and Jidgea. If they pay no more than they did formerly, they complain without occasion. If more, write what it is, and there shall be an abatement."—Vizier's Letter to Nabob, in Hedges, Diary, July 18; [Hak. Soc. i. 100].

1686.—"Books of accounts received from Dacca, with advice that it was reported at the Court there that the Poll-money or Judgeea lately ordered by the Mogul would be exacted of the English and Dutch.... Among the orders issued to Pattana Cossumbazar, and Dacca, instructions are given to the latter place not to pay the Judgeea or Poll-tax, if demanded."—Ft. St. Geo. Consns. (on Tour) Sept. 29 and Oct. 10; Notes and Extracts, No. i. p. 49.

1765.—"When the Hindoo Rajahs ... submitted to Tamarlane; it was on these capital stipulations: That ... the emperors should never impose the jesserah (or poll-tax) upon the Hindoos."—Holwell, Hist. Events, i. 37.

JHAUMP, s. A hurdle of and bamboo, used as a shutter or door. Hind. jhānp, Mahr. jhānpa; in connection with which there are verbs, Hind. jhānp-nā, jhāpnā, ḍhānpnā, 'to cover.' See jhoprā, s.v. ak; [but there seems to be no etymological connection].

JHOOM, s. jhūm. This is a word used on the eastern frontiers of Bengal for that kind of cultivation which is practised in the hill forests of India and Indo-China, under which a tract is cleared by fire, cultivated for a year or two, and then abandoned for another tract, where a like process is pursued. This is the Kumari (see COOMRY) of S.W. India, the Chena of Ceylon (see Emerson Tennent, ii. 463), the toung-gyan of Burma [Gazetteer, ii. 72, 757, the dahya of North India (Skt. dah, 'to burn'), ponam (Tam. pun, 'inferior'), or ponacaud (Mal. punakkātu, pun, 'inferior,' kātu, 'forest') of Malabar]. In the Philippine Islands it is known as gainges; it is practised in the Ardennes, under the name of sartage, and in Sweden under the name of svedjande (see Marsh, Earth as Modified by Human Action, 346).

[1800.—"In this hilly tract are a number of people ... who use a kind of cultivation called the Cotucadu, which a good deal resembles that which in the Eastern parts of Bengal is called Jumea."—Buchanan, Mysore, ii. 177.]