VOLUME XIV SLICE IV Independence, Declaration of to Indo-European Languages (continued 9)

3. Incorporation of noun and adjectives in verb, or of pronouns in verb. From the Kootenay language of south-eastern British Columbia the following examples may be given: Natltlamkine = “He carries (the) head in (his) hand”; Howankotlamkine = “I shake (the) head in (my) hand”; Witlwumine = “(His) belly is large”; Tlitkatine = “He has no tail”; Matlnaktletline = “He opens his eyes.” In these expressions are incorporated, with certain abbreviations of form, the words aqktlam, “head”; aqkowum, “belly”; aqkat, “tail”; aqkaktletl, “eyes.” In some languages the form for the noun incorporated in the verb is entirely different from that in independent use. Of pronominal incorporation these examples are from the Kootenay: Nupqanapine = “He sees me”; Honupqanisine = “I see you”; Tshatlipitlisine = “He will kill you”; Tshatlitqanawasine = “He will bite us”; Tshatltsukwatisine = “He is going to seize you”; Hintshatltlpatlnapine = “You will honour me.” For incorporation of adjectives these examples will serve: Honitenustik = “I paint (my face),” literally, “1 make it red” (kanohos, “red”; the radical is nōs or nūs for nōhōs); Howitlkeine = “I shout,” literally, “I talk big”; Howitlkaine = “I am tall (big).” In some languages the pronouns denoting subject, direct object and indirect object are all incorporated in the verb.

4. The formation of nouns of very composite character by the use of stems or radicals and prefixes, suffixes, &c., of various sorts, the intricacy of such formations exceeding often anything known in the Indo-European and Semitic languages. Often the component parts are “clipped,” or changed by decapitation, decaudation, syncopation, &c., before being used in the compound. The following examples from various Indian languages will illustrate the process:—Kootenay: Aqkinkanuktlamnam = “crown of head,” from aq (prefix of uncertain meaning), kinkan = “top,” tlam = “head,” -nam (suffix = “somebody’s”). Tlingit: Kanyiqkuwate = “aurora,” literally, “fire (kan)-like (yiq)-out-of-doors (ku)-colour (wate).”

5. The development of a great variety of forms for personal and demonstrative pronouns. In the latter, sometimes, the language distinguishes “visibility and invisibility, present and past, location to the right, left, front and back of, and above and below the speaker” (Boas). According to Morice (Trans. Canad. Inst., 1889-1890, p. 187), the Carrier language of the Athabaskan stock has no fewer than seventeen possessive pronouns of the third person.

6. Indistinctness of demarcation between noun and verb; in some languages the transitive and in others the intransitive only is really verbal in form.

7. The use of the intransitive verb as a means of expressing ideas which in European tongues, e.g., would be carried by adjectives. In the Carrier language almost all adjectives are “genuine verbs” (Morice).

8. The expression of abstract nouns in a verbalized form. Thus Cree (Algonkian) generally says, in preference to using the abstract noun pimatisewin, “life,” the periphrastic verb āpimatisenanewuk, literally “that they (indefinite as to person) live.” So far is this carried sometimes that Horden (Cree Grammar, London, 1881, p. 5) says: “I have known an Indian speak a long sentence, on the duties of married persons to each other, without using a single noun.”

As an interesting example of a long word in American-Indian languages may be mentioned the Iroquois taontasakonatiatawitserakninonseronniontonhatieseke. This “word,” which, as Forbes (Congr. intern. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, p. 103) suggests, would serve well on the signboard of a dealer in novelties, is translated by him, “Que plusieurs personnes viennent acheter des habits pour d’autres personnes avec de quoi payer.” Not so formidable is deyeknonhsedehrihadasterasterahetakwa, a term for “stove polish,” in use on the Mohawk Reservation near Brantford, Ontario.

The literature in the native languages of North America due to missionary efforts has now reached large proportions. Naturally Bible translations have been most important. According to Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. pp. 143-145), “the Bible has been printed in part or in whole in 32 Indian languages north of Mexico. In 18 one or more portions have been printed; in 9 others the New Testament or more has appeared; and in 5 languages, namely, the Massachuset, Cree, Labrador Eskimo, Santee Dakota and Tukkuthkutchin, the whole Bible is in print.” Of the 32 languages possessing Bible translations of some sort 3 are Eskimoan dialects, 4 Athabaskan, 13 Algonkian, 3 Iroquoian, 2 Muskogian, 2 Siouan, 1 Caddoan, 1 Sahaptian, 1 Wakashan, 1 Tsimshian, 1 Haidan. Translations of the Lord’s Prayer, hymns, articles of faith and brief devotional compositions exist now in many more languages and dialects. A goodly number of other books have also been made accessible in Indian versions, e.g. Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (Dakota, 1857), Baxter’s Call to the Unconverted (Massachuset, 1655), Goodrich’s Child’s Book of the Creation (Choctaw, 1839), Thomas à Kempis’s Imitation of Christ (Greenland Eskimo, 1787), Newton’s The King’s Highway (Dakota, 1879), &c. The “Five Civilized Tribes,” who are now full-fledged citizens of the state of Oklahoma, possess a mass of literature (legal, religious, political, educational, &c.) published in the alphabet adapted from the “Cherokee Alphabet” invented by Sequoyah about 1821, “which at once raised them to the rank of a literary people.”

Of periodicals in Indian languages there have been many published from time to time among the “Five Civilized Tribes.” Of the Cherokee Advocate, Mooney said in 1897-1898, “It is still continued under the auspices of the Nation, printed in both languages (i.e. Cherokee and English), and distributed free at the expense of the Nation to those unable to read English—an example without parallel in any other government.” More or less ephemeral periodicals (weekly, monthly, &c.) are on record in various Algonkian, Iroquoian, Siouan and other languages, and the Greenland Eskimo have one, published irregularly since 1861. Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 389) chronicles 122 dictionaries (of which more than half are still in MSS.) of 63 North American-Indian languages, belonging to 19 different stocks.

The following linguistic stocks are represented by printed dictionaries (in one or more dialects): Algonkian, Athabaskan, Chinookan, Eskimoan, Iroquoian, Lutuamian, Muskogian, Salishan, Shoshonian, Siouan. There exists a considerable number of texts (myths, legends, historical data, songs, grammatical material, &c.) in quite a number of Indian languages that have been published by scientific investigators. The Algonkian (e.g. Jones’s Fox Texts, 1908), Athabaskan (e.g. Goddard’s Hupa Texts, 1904, Matthews’s Navaho Legends, 1897, &c.), Caddoan (e.g. Miss A. C. Fletcher’s Hako Ceremony, 1900), Chinookan (Boas’s Chinook Texts, 1904, and Kathlamet Texts, 1901), Eskimoan (texts in Boas’s Eskimo of Baffin Land, &c., 1901, 1908: and Thalbitzer’s Eskimo Language, 1904, Barnum’s Innuit Grammar, 1901), Haidan (Swanton’s Haida Texts, 1905, &c.), Iroquoian (texts in Hale’s Iroquois Book of Rites, 1883, and Hewitt’s Iroquoian Cosmology, 1899), Lutuamian (texts in Gatschet’s Klamath Indians, 1890), Muskogian (texts in Gatschet’s Migration Legend of the Creeks, 1884-1888), Salishan (texts in various publications of Boas and Hill-Tout), Siouan (Riggs and Dorsey in various publications), Tsimshian (Boas’s Tsimshian Texts, 1902), Wakashan (Boas’s Kwakiutl Texts, 1902-1905), &c.

The question of the direction of migration of the principal aboriginal stocks north of Mexico has been reopened of late years. Not long ago there seemed to be practical agreement as to the following views. The Eskimo Migrations of Indian stocks. stock had reached its present habitats from a primitive home somewhere in the interior of north-western Canada or Alaska; the general trend of the Athabaskan migrations, and those of the Shoshonian tribes had been south and south-east, the first from somewhere in the interior of north-western Canada, the second from about the latitude of southern British Columbia; the Algonkian tribes had moved south, east and west from a point somewhere between the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay; the Iroquoian stock had passed southward and westward from some spot to the north-east of the Great Lakes; the Siouan tribes, from their primitive home in the Carolinas, had migrated westward beyond the Mississippi; some stocks, like the Kitunahan, now found west of the Rocky Mountains, had dwelt formerly in the plains region to the east. Professor Cyrus Thomas, however, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, discussing primary Indian migrations in North America (Congr. intern. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906, i. 189-204), rejects the theory that the Siouan stock originated in the Carolinas, and adopts for them an origin in the region north of Lake Superior, whence he also derives the Iroquoian stock, whose primitive home Dr David Boyle (Ann. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 154), the Canadian ethnologist, would place in Kentucky and southern Ohio. Another interesting contribution to this subject is made by Mr P. E. Goddard (Congr. intern. des. Amér., Quebec, 1906, i. 337-358). Contemplating the distribution of the tribes belonging to the Athabaskan stock in three divisions, viz. a northern (continuous and very extensive), a Pacific coast division (scattered through Washington, Oregon, California), and a southern division which occupies a large area in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, Texas and Mexico, Mr Goddard suggests that the intrusion of non-Athabaskan peoples into a region once completely in the possession of the Athabaskan stock is the best explanation for the facts as now existing not explicable from assimilation to environment, which has here played a great rôle. It is possible also that a like explanation may hold for the conditions apparent in some other linguistic stocks. Many Indian tribes have been forcibly removed from their own habitats to reservations, or induced to move by missionary efforts, &c. Thus, in the state of Oklahoma are to be found representatives of the following tribes: Apache, Arapaho, Caddo, Cherokee, Cheyenne, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Comanche, Creek, Iowa, Kansa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Miami, Missouri, Modoc, Osage, Oto, Ottawa, Pawnee, Peoria, Ponca, Potawatomi, Quapaw, Sac and Fox, Seminole, Seneca, Shawnee, Tonkawa, Wichita, Wyandot, &c.; these belong to 10 different linguistic stocks, whose original habitats were widely distant from one another in many cases.

Some of the American-Indian linguistic stocks (those of California especially) hardly know real tribal divisions, but local groups or settlements only; others have many large and important tribes.

The tabular alphabetical list given in the following pages contains the names of the more important and more interesting tribes of American aborigines north of Mexico, and of the stocks to which they belong, their situation and population in 1909, the degree of intermixture with whites or negroes, their social, moral and religious condition, state of progress, &c., and also references to the best or the most recent literature concerning them.

Up to the date of their publication references to the literature concerning the tribes of the stocks treated will be found in Pilling’s bibliographies: Algonquian (1891), Athabascan (1892), Chinookan (1893), Eskimoan (1887), Iroquoian (1888), Muskhogean (1889), Salishan (1893), Siouan (1887) and Wakashan (1894). See also the Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (Washington, 1907-1910); and the sumptuous monograph of E. S. Curtis, The North American Indian (N.Y., vols. i.-xx., 1908), with its remarkable reproduction of Indian types.

Tribe. Stock. Situation, Population, &c. Degree of Intermixture. Condition, Progress, &c. Authorities.

Abnaki. Algonkian. At Becancour, Quebec, 27; at St François du Lac and Pierreville, 330. Decreasing. Probably no pure blood left. As civilized as the neighbouring whites. All Catholics. Maurault, Hist. des Abénaquis (Quebec, 1866); Jack, Trans. Canad. Inst., 1892-1893.

Acnomawi (Pit river Indians). Shastan. N.E. California. About 1100 in the Pit river region; also 50 or 60 on the Klamath Reservation, Oregon. Little. Progress very slow; influence of schools felt. Klamath Achomawi under Methodist influence. Powers, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. iii., 1877; various writings of Dr R. B. Dixon, American Anthropologist, 1905-1908, &c.

Aleuts. Eskimoan. Aleutian Islands and part of Alaska. About 1600. Decreasing. About 50% are mixed bloods. “Decaying.” Once converted to Greek Orthodox church. Methodist mission at Unalaska. Works (in Russian) of Veniaminov, 1840-1848; Golder, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1905-1907; Chamberlain, Dict. Relig. and Ethics (Hastings, vol. i., 1908).

Amalecites (Maliseets). Algonkian. 106 at Viger (Cacouna, Quebec); 702 in various parts of W. New Brunswick. Apparently increasing. Probably few pure bloods. Fairly good. At Viger industrially unsettled. Catholics. Writings of S. T. Rand; Chamberlain (M.), Maliseet Vocabulary (Cambridge, 1899).

Apache. Athabaskan. In Arizona, 4879; New Mexico, 1244; Oklahoma, 453. Not rapidly decreasing as formerly thought. Considerable Spanish blood due to captives, &c. Marked improvement here and there. Catholic and Lutheran missions. Cremony, Life among the Apaches (1868); Bourke, 9th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1887-1888, and Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890; Hrdlička, American Anthropologist, 1905.

Arapaho. Algonkian. 358 at Ft. Belknap Reservation, Montana; 873 at Wind river Reservation, Wyoming; 885 in Oklahoma. Holding their own. Some Spanish (Mexican) blood in places. Oklahoma Arapaho American citizens; progress elsewhere. Mennonite missions chiefly; also Dutch Reformed. Writings of Kroeber and Dorsey, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900-1907, and Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1903; Scott, Amer. Anthrop., 1907.

Assiniboin. Siouan. In Montana, 1248; Alberta, 971; Saskatchewan, 420. Some little. In Canada “steady advance,” elsewhere good. Alberta Assiniboins are Methodists; in Montana Catholic and Presbyterian missions on reservations. Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk (Toronto, 1890); McGee, 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894.

Babines. Athabaskan. 530 on Babine Lake, Bulkley river, &c., in central British Columbia. Little, if any. Conservative. Little progress. Reached by Catholic mission of Stuart Lake, B.C. Morice, Anthropos, 1906-1907, and Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and other writings.

Bannock. Shoshonian. About 500 at Ft. Hall, and 78 at Lemhi Agency, Idaho. Little. Considerable improvement morally and industrially. Hoffman, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886; Mooney, 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; Lowie, Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1909.

Beaver. Athabaskan. About 700 on Peace river, a western affluent of Lake Athabaska. Very little. Rather stationary. See Babines.

Bilqula (Bellacoola). Salishan. 287 on Dean Inlet, Bentinck Arm, Bellacoola river, &c., coast of central British Columbia. Decreasing. Little. Not very encouraging. Mission influence not yet strongly felt. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1891, and Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1898.

Blackfeet (Siksika). Algonkian. About 824 in Alberta, Canada. Decreasing. Little. Steadily improving morally and financially. Anglicans, 237; Catholics, 260; pagans, 327. Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk (Toronto, 1890), and other writings; Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge - Tales (N.Y., 1903), and other writings; Wissler, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Schultz, My Life as an Indian (N.Y., 1907); Wissler, Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1908.

Bloods. Algonkian. 1168 near Ft. Macleod, Alberta. Probably decreasing somewhat. Little. All able-bodied Indians will soon be self-supporting. Presbyterians, 150; Catholics, 150; the rest pagan. See Blackfeet.

Caddo. Caddoan. 550 in Oklahoma. Increasing slightly. Considerable French blood. Citizens of United States. Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian missions. Mooney, 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; writings of Fletcher, Dorsey, &c.

Cariboo-Eaters. Athabaskan. 1700 in the region E. of Lake Athabaska, N.W. Canada. Little, if any. Little progress. See Babines.

Carriers. Athabaskan. 970 between Tatla Lake and Ft. Alexandria, central British Columbia. Little. Semi-sedentary and naturally progressive as Indians; improvements beginning to be marked. Under influence of Catholic mission at Stuart Lake, B.C. Morice, Proc. Canad. Inst., 1889, Trans. Canad. Inst., 1894, Hist. of Northern Inter. of British Columbia (Toronto, 1904), and other writings. See Babines.

Catawba. Siouan. About 100 on the Catawba river, York county, South Carolina. Decreasing. Much mixed with white blood. Slowly adopting white man’s ways. Chiefly farmers. Mooney, Siouan Tribes of the East (Washington, 1894); Gatschet, American Anthropologist, 1900; Harrington, ibid., 1908.

Cayuga. Iroquoian. 179 on the Iroquois Reservations in New York State; 1044 with the Six Nations in Ontario; also some with the Seneca in Oklahoma and with Oneida in Wisconsin. Some English admixture. Canadian Cayuga steadily improving; they are “pagan.” See Six Nations.

Cayuse. Wailatpuan. 405 on Umatilla Reservation, Oregon. About ¼ are of mixed blood, chiefly French. Conditions improving, Good work of Catholic and Presbyterian missions. Mowry, Marcus Whitman (1991): Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc. 1906.

Chehalis. Salishan. 182 on Puyallup Reservation, Washington. Perhaps increasing slightly. No data. Gradually improving and generally prosperous. Congregational mission. Gibbs, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. iii., 1877; Eells, Hist. of Ind. Missions on the Pacific Coast (N.Y., 1882), and other writings.

Chemehuevi. Shoshonian. About 300 on the Colorado Reservation; a few elsewhere in Arizona and California. No data. Some improvement. Missions of the Presbyterians and of the Church of the Nazarene. See Ute.

Cherokee. Iroquoian. About 28,000, of which 1489 are in North Carolina and the rest in Oklahoma. Not more than ¼ are of approximately pure blood. Oklahoma Cherokee citizens of the United States, and making excellent progress. Various religious faiths. Royce, 5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1883-1884; Mooney, 7th Rep., 1885-1886, and especially 19th Rep., 1897-1898.

Cheyenne. Algonkian. 1440 northern Cheyenne in Montana, 1894 southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Former increasing, latter decreasing. Some white blood, from captives, &c. Southern Cheyenne citizens of United States; Mennonite mission doing good work. Northern Cheyenne making progress as labourers, &c.; Mennonite and Catholic missions. Mooney, 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; Dorsey, Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1905; Grinnell, Intern. Congr. Americanists, 1902-1906; Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907-1908; Amer. Anthrop., 1902-1906; Mooney and Petter, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1907.

Chickahominy. Algonkian. Some 220 on Chickahominy river, Virginia. No pure bloods left. Considerable negro admixture. Fishers and Farmers. Tooker, Algonquian Series (N.Y., 1900); Mooney, Amer. Anthrop., 1907.

Chickasaw. Muskogian. 5558 in Oklahoma. Large admixture of white blood. American citizens and progressing well. Various religious faiths. Speck, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907, and Amer. Anthrop., 1907.

Chilcotin. Athabaskan. About 450 on Chilcotin river, in S. central British Columbia. Little. Fairly laborious, but clinging to native customs, though making progress. Catholic mission influence. Writings of Morice (see Carriers); Farrand, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900.

Chilkat. Koluschan. About 700 at head of Lynn Canal, Alaska. Decreasing. No data. Little progress. Emmons and Boas, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1908.

Chinook. Chinookan. About 300 in Oregon. Decreasing. Some little. Stationary or “worse.” Boas, Chinook Texts (Washington, 1894), and other writings; Sapir, Amer. Anthrop., 1907.

Chipewyan. Athabaskan. About 3000 in the region S. of Lake Athabaska, N.W. Canada. Some Canadian-French admixture. Coming to be more influenced by the whites. Reached by Catholic missions. Writings of Petitot, Legoff, Morice (see Babines), &c.; Morice, Anthropos, 1900-1907, and Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905.

Chippewa (Ojibwa). Algonkian. About 18,000 in Ontario, Manitoba, &c.; nearly the same number in the United States (Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, N. Dakota). Much French and English admixture in various regions. Good progress. Many Indians quite equal to average whites of neighbourhood. Among the Canadian Chippewa the Methodists, Catholics and Anglicans are well represented; among those in the United States the Catholics and Episcopalians chiefly, also Methodists, Lutherans, &c. A number of native ministers. Warren, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1885; Blackbird, Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (1887); W. Jones, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Hugolin, Congr. int. d. Amér. (Quebec, 1906); P. Jones, Hist. Ojebway Inds. (1861).

Choctaw. Muskogian. 17,529 in Oklahoma; 1356 in Mississippi and Louisiana. Large element of white and some negro blood. Citizens of United States, making good progress. Various religious faiths. Gatschet, Migration Legend of Creeks (1884-1888); Speck, Amer. Anthrop., 1907.

Clayoquot. Wakashan. 224 in the region of Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island. Decreasing. No data. Rather stationary, but beginning to improve. Influence of Catholic mission and industrial school. See Nootka.

Clallam. Salishan. 354 on Puyallup Reservation, Washington. Little. Improving, but suffering from white contact. Congregationalist mission. Eells in Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1887, and other writings.

Colville. Salishan. 316 at Colville Agency, Washington. Decreasing slightly. Some Canadian-French, &c. Improving. See Chehalis.

Comanche. Shoshonian. 1408 in Oklahoma. Now holding their own. Some due to Spanish (Mexican) captives, &c. Good progress, in spite of white impositions. Mooney, 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893.

Cowichan. Salishan. About 1000 on E. coast of Vancouver Island, and on islands in Gulf of Georgia. Little. Industrious; steady progress. Catholic and Methodist missions, chiefly former. Hill-Tout, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1902, and Trans. R, Anthrop. Inst., 1907; Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889.

Cree. Algonkian. About 12,000 in Manitoba, and some 5000 in Saskatchewan, Alberta, Keewatin, &c. Large element of French, Scottish and English blood. Slow but steady progress (except with a few bands). Catholics, Methodists and Anglicans strongly represented by missions and church members; many Presbyterians also. Writings of Petitot, Lacombe, Horden, Bell, Watkins, Evans, Young, &c.; Lacombe. Dict. de la langue des Cris (1876); Russell. Explor. in the Far North (1898); Stewart, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Maclean, Canad. Sav. Folk (1890).

Creek. Muskogian. 11,000 in Oklahoma. Large element of white blood; some negro. American citizens, making good progress. Various religious faiths. Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks (1884-1888); Speck, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1907.

Crows (Absaroka). Siouan. 1804 at Crow Agency, Montana. Little. Improving industrially and financially. Morals still bad. Simms, Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1903; Schultz, My Life as an Indian (N.Y., 1907).

Dakota (Santee, Yankton, Teton—Sioux). Siouan. About 18,000 in South and 4400 in North Dakota; 3200 in Montana; 900 in Minnesota. Seemingly decreasing. Considerable white blood, varying with different sections. Capable of and making good progress. Episcopal, Catholic, Congregational missions with good results. Writings of Dorsey, Riggs, Eastman, &c. Riggs, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. vii., 1890, and vol. ix., 1893; Wissler, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907; Eastman, Indian Boyhood (1902).

Delaware. Algonkian. In Oklahoma, 800 with Cherokee and 90 with Wichita; 164 with Six Nations in Ontario. Considerable. Oklahoma, Delaware, U.S. citizens, and progressing; Canadians making also good progress. Brinton, Lenápé and their Legends (Phila., 1885), and Essays of an Americanist (1890); Nelson, Indians of New Jersey (1894).

Dog-Ribs. Athabaskan. About 1000 in the region E. of the Hares, to Back river, N. W. Canada. Little. “Wild and indolent,” not yet much under white influence. See Chipewyans, Carriers.

Eskimo (Greenland). Eskimoan. West coast, 10,500; East coast, 500. Slowly increasing. Large element of white blood, estimated already in 1855 at 30%. More or less “civilized” and “Christian” as result of Moravian missions. Writings of Rink, Holm, Nansen, Peary. Rink, Tales and Trad. of the Eskimo (Lond., 1875) and Eskimo Tribes (1887); Nansen, Eskimo Life (1893); Thalbitzer, Eskimo Language (1904).

Eskimo (Labrador). Eskimoan. About 1300. Considerable on S.E. coast. Much improvement due to Moravian and (later) other Protestant missions. Packard, Amer. Naturalist, 1885; Turner, 11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890.

Eskimo (central regions). Eskimoan. About 2500. Little. Not much improvement except here and there. Some reached by Episcopalian mission. Boas, 6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnct., 1884-1885, and Bull. Amer. Nat. Hist., 1901 and 1908.

Eskimo (Mackenzie, &c.). Eskimoan. About 1500. Little. Not much improvement. Reached by Catholic missions. Petitot, Les Grands Esquimaux (1887), Monographie des Esquimaux Tchiglit (Paris, 1876) and other writings; Stefánsson, Harper’s Magazine, 1908-1909.

Eskimo (Alaska). Eskimoan. About 12,000, exclusive of Aleuts. Considerable on certain parts of coast. Much improvement in parts since introduction of reindeer in 1892. Presbyterian, Methodist, Catholic, Moravian, Baptist, Swedish Evangelical, Quaker, Congregational, Lutheran missions now at work. Dall, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. i., 1877; Murdoch, 9th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1887-1888; and Nelson, 18th Rep., 1896-1897; Barnum, Innuit Gramm, and Dict. (1901).

Eskimo (N.E. Asia). Eskimoan. About 1200. Little. Little improvement. Hooper, Tents of the Tuski (1853); Dali, Amer. Naturalist (1881). See Eskimo (Alaska).

Flatheads. Salishan. 615 at Flathead Agency, Montana. Considerable. Continued Improvement. Catholic missions. McDermott, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901; Ronan, Flathead Indians (1890).

Gosiute. Shoshonian. About 200 in Utah. Little. Some improvement in last few years. Chamberlin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908. See Paiute, Ute.

Grosventres (Atsina). Algonkian. 558 at Ft. Belknap Agency, Montana. Little. Law-abiding, industrious and fast becoming more moral. Catholic, chief mission influence, also Presbyterian. Kroeber, Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1907-1908.

Haida. Haidan. About 600 on Queen Charlotte Is., and 300 in Alaska. Decreasing. Some little. Now “gradually advancing along the lines of civilization.” Mission influences Methodists and Anglican, with much success, especially former. Swanton, Contrib. to Ethnol. of the Haida (1905) and other writings; Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889; Newcombe, Congr. intern. des Amér. (Quebec, 1906).

Hankut’qin. Athabaskan. About 400 on the Yukon, above the Kotlo, in Alaska. Little, if any. Not yet much under white or missionary influence. See Babines.

Hares. Athabaskan. About 600 W. of Gt. Bear Lake to Eskimo country, in N.W. Canada. Little. “Wild and indolent,” with little improvement. Reached by Catholic missions. See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.

Havasupai. Yuman. 166 N. of Prescott in N.W. Arizona. Decreasing. Little. “Good workers”; not yet distinctly under mission influence. James, Indians of the Painted Desert Region (Boston, 1903); Dorsey, Indians of the South-west (1903).

Hidatsa. Siouan. 467 near Ft. Berthold, N. Dakota. Little. Making good progress. Congregational and Catholic missions. Matthews, Ethnogr. and Philol. of the Hidatsa (1877); McGee, 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894; Pepper and Wilson, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1908.

Hupa. Athabaskan. 420 in Hoopa Valley, N.E. California. Little. Self-supporting by agriculture and stock-raising, Presbyterian and Episcopal missions with good results. Goddard, Life and Culture of the Hupa (1903), Hupa Texts (1904), and other writings.

Hurons of Lorette. Iroquoian. 466 at Lorette, near the city of Quebec. Increasing, but losing somewhat by emigration. No pure-bloods left. Practically civilized. All Catholics, except one Anglican and six Presbyterians. Gérin, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1900.

Iowa. Siouan. 246 in Kansas; 88 in Oklahoma. Holding their own. Considerable. In 1906 “accomplished more on their allotments than at any time heretofore.” One regular missionary. Dorsey, Trans. Anthrop. Soc. Wash., 1883, and 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894; also 11th Rep.

Iroquois (of Caughnawaga). Iroquoian. 2075 at Caughnawaga, in S.W. Quebec (largely Mohawk). Increasing. Few, if any, pure-bloods left. Practically civilized and making fair progress. Chiefly Catholics, but there is a Methodist school. Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.

Iroquois (of Lake of Two Mountains). Iroquoian. 395 at Lake of Two Mountains, Quebec. Few, if any, pure-bloods left. Practically civilized and making fair progress. Catholics and Methodists represented. Cuoq, Lexique de la langue iroquoise (1882), and other writings.

Iroquois (of St Régis). Iroquoian. 1449 at St Régis, Quebec; 1208 at St Regis, New York. Few pure-bloods left. Practically all civilized and making fair progress. Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.

Iroquois (of Watha). Iroquoian. About 65 at Watha (formerly Gibson), near the southern end of Lake Muskoka, Ontario. Considerable. Industrious and progressive. Influence of Methodist mission. Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.

Iroquois (of St Albert). Iroquoian. 94 near St Albert, Alberta (“Michel’s band”). “Indians only in name,” no pure-bloods left. Practically civilized; outlook promising. Catholics. Chamberlain, Amer. Anthrop., 1904.

Jicarilla (Apache). Athabaskan. 784 in New Mexico. Decreasing. Little. Improvement during past few years. Mooney, Amer. Anthrop. 1898. See Apache.

Kaibab. Shoshonian. About 100 in S.W. Utah. Decreasing. Little. “Destitute,” but gaining somewhat. See Paiute, Ute.

Kaigani. Haidan. About 300 in S. Alaska. See Haida. See Haida. See Haida.

Kaiyuhkho’tenne Athabaskan. About 1500 on the Yukon (between the Anvik and Koyukuk) in W. Alaska. Little. Up to the present influenced more by the Eskimo than by the whites. See Babines, Carriers. Also Chapman, Congr. inter, d. Amér. (Quebec, 1906).

Kalapooia. Kalapuyan. About 125 at Grande Ronde, Oregon, and a few also on the Siletz Reservation. Not much. Continued improvement. Powell, 7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1885-1886; Gatschet, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1899; Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1906.

Kalispel (Pend d’Oreille). Salishan. 826 on the Flathead Reservation, Montana; 98 at Colville Agency, Washington. Considerable. Continued improvement. Catholic missions. Giorda, Kalispel Dictionary (1877-1879). See Chehalis.

Kansa (Kaw). Siouan. 207 in Oklahoma. About half are mixed blood. American citizens, making fair progress. Dorsey, 11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890, and 15th Rep., 1893-1894; Hay, Trans. Kans. State Hist. Soc., 1906.

Kickapoo. Algonkian. 188 in Kansas; 204 in Oklahoma; about 400 in Mexico. Considerable. Progress hampered by liquor, &c. Mooney, 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; Lutz, Trans. Kansas Hist. Soc. 1906.

Kawia (Cahuilla). Shoshonian. About 150 in southern California. Little. Progress good. Nominally Catholics, result of Californian missions. Barrows, Ethnobotany of the Coahuilla Indians (1900); Kroeber, Ethnography of the Cahuilla (1908).

Kiowa. Kiowan. 1219 in Oklahoma. Some white blood from captives, &c. Citizens of the U.S., making fair progress. Catholic, Methodist, Presbyterian. &c. mission influences. Mooney. 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893, and 17th Rep., 1895-1896.

Kitksan. Tsimshian. About 1100 on upper Skeena river in central British Columbia. Little. Making good progress. See Tsimshian.

Klamath. Lutuamian. 761 at Klamath Agency, Oregon. Little. Mostly self-supporting. Methodist mission, but poor work done. Gatschet, The Klamath Indians (Washington, 1890); Dorsey, Amer. Anthrop., 1901.

Klekatat. Sahaptian. About 300 merged with Yakima and other tribes on Yakima Reservation, Washington. Considerable. Late reports indicate much bad influence of whites. Lyman, Proc Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1904; Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Soc., 1906.

Konkau (Concow). Pujunan. 171 at Round Valley, California. Little. Gradually improving. See Maidu.

Kootenay. Kitunahan. In S.E. British Columbia; 220 at St Mary’s; 59 al Tobacco Plains; 82 at Columbia Lakes; 170, lower Kootenay. At Flathead Agency, Montana, 565. Holding their own, or increasing. A little French and English. Good, especially upper Kootenay; continued progress. Kootenay in U.S. not so progressive. Catholic missions with good results. Boas. Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889; Chamberlain, ibid., 1892 (and other writings), Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Schultz, My Life as an Indian (N.Y., 1907).

Koyukukho’tenne. Athabaskan. About 500 on the Koyukuk and Yukon, above the ’Kaiyuhkho’tenne in Alaska. Little, if any. Little progress noted. See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.

Kwakiute. Wakashan. About 2000 in Vancouver Island and British Columbia. Decreasing. Considerable in places. Improvement recently. Anglican and Methodist missions—former counting 469; latter, 19 members; rest, “pagans.” Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889, 1890, 1896. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1895, and other writings; Boas and Hunt, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902.

Lillooet (Statliumh). Salishan. About 900 in S.W. British Columbia, on Fraser river, Douglas and Lillooet Lakes, &c. Considerable in places. Getting along well generally. Catholic and Anglican missions. Boas, Ethnogr. Album (N.Y., 1890); Hill-Tout, Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1905; Teit, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1906.

Lummi. Salishan. 418 at Tulalip Agency, Washington. Considerable. Suffering from white contact. See Chehalis.

Maidu. Pujunan. In N.E. California. About 250 full-bloods. Not much. Few and scattered. Dixon, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902-1905; Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1900-1907.

Makah. Wakashan. 400 on Makah, 25 on Ozette Reservation, Washington. Considerable. Progress good. Swan. The Indians of Cape Flattery (Washington, 1870); Dorsey, Amer. Antiquarian, 1901.

Mandan. Siouan. 264 at Ft. Berthold. N. Dakota. Beginning to increase again. Considerable. Making some progress. Catholic and Protestant mission influences. Will and Spindle. The Mandans (1906); Dorsey in 11th and 15th Reps. Bur. Ethnol.

Maricopa. Yuman. 344 at Pima Agency Arizona. Decreasing slightly. No data. Progress in 1906 excellent. Catholic mission school. See Yuma.

Maskegon (Swampy Cree). Algonkian. About 2500 in Manitoba, Keewatin, Saskatchewan. Considerable in certain regions. Generally law-abiding, but improvident; some making good progress. Simms in Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1906; Stewart in Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905.

Masset. Haidan. 360 at Masset, Q. Charlotte Is. See Haida. See Haida. See Haida.

Menominee. Algonkian. About 1600, of which 1364 under superintendency of Green Bay, Wisconsin. Considerable. Making gradual progress, with noticeable improvement in many respects. Catholic church has many members. Hoffman in 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893.

Miami. Algonkian. 129 in Oklahoma. 240 in Indiana, a few elsewhere; total about 400. Considerable French blood, about 50%. American citizens; intelligent, thrifty and progressive. Pilling, Bibl. of Algon. Lang. (1891).

Micmac. Algonkian. 2114 in Nova Scotia, 288 in Prince Edward Island, 1000 in New Brunswick, 591 in Quebec. Large element of French; some Scottish and English blood. Progress good; not degenerating nor decreasing. All Catholics. Writings of Dr S. T. Rand, especially Micmac Legends (1894); Pacifique and Prince, Congr. intern. des Amér. Quebec, 1906; Leland Algonquin Legends (1885); Leland and Prince, Kuloskap (1902).

Mission Indians. Yuman; Shoshonian. About 3000 in S. California. Considerable in some sections. Self-supporting; some individuals remarkably able and industrious. Catholics nominally. Writings of Miss C. G. du Bois, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore and Amer. Anthrop., 1900-1908, &c. See Kawia.

Mississagua. Algonkian. At Alnwick, 249; at the river Credit, 267; Rice Lake, 90; Mud Lake, 190; Scugog, 35. Increasing slightly. Considerable. Fairly good generally; some at the Credit very successful farmers, competing with whites. Methodists chiefly. Chamberlain, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1888, and Language of the Mississagas of Skugog (Phila., 1892); Burnham, Ont. Hist. Soc. Pap. and Rec., 1905.

Modoc. Lutuamian. 52 in Oklahoma, 229 on Klamath Reservation, Oregon. Apparently decreasing slowly, or holding their own. Little. Generally industrious and moral. Methodist mission. Miller, My Life Among the Modocs (1873); Gatschet, Amer. Anthrop., 1894. See Klamath.

Mohave. Yuman. About 1600 in Arizona. Little. Good; industrious but restless. Presbyterian and Church of the Nazarene missions. Bourke, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore. 1889; Kroeber, Amer. Anthrop., 1902. See Yuman.

Mohawk. Iroquoian. 1762 with Six Nations, Grand river, Ont., 1320, Bay of Quinte, Ont., slight increase. The “Iroquois” at Caughnawaga, &c., are largely Mohawks. Considerable English and French. See Six Nations. Forbes, Congr. intern. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906; Brant-Sero, Man (London, 1901). See Six Nations.

Montagnais. Algonkian. About 2000 in N.E. Quebec, N. shore of St Lawrence and St John, &c. Large element of French blood. At St John, “energetic, hard working and provident”; others suffering from liquor, &c. Catholic missions. Chambers, The Ouananiche (1896); Chamberlain, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; David, Congr. int. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906.

Moqui (Hopi). Shoshonian. About 2000 in N.E. Arizona. Little. Still “pagan,” but “dry-farming” experts. At Oraibi two factions, progressives and conservatives. Mennonite mission. Bourke, Snake Dance Among the Moquis (1884); Hough, Amer. Anthrop., 1898; Dersey and Voth, Field Columb. Mus. Publ., 1901-1902. Also the numerous monographs of Dr. J. W. Fewkes in Rep. Bur. Ethnol. Amer. Anthrop., Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1894-1908.

“Moravians.” Algonkian. 329 on river Thames, Ontario, Canada. Considerable. Generally industrious and very law-abiding. All Methodists. Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.

Munsee. Algonkian. 118 on river Thames, Ontario, Canada; also a few with the Stockbridges in Wisconsin and the Chippewa in Kansas. Considerable. Fairly industrious; progress slow. Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.

Nahané. Athabaskan. About 1000 in N.W. British Columbia, N. and S. of Stikeen river, and E. to beyond the Rockies. Not much. Have suffered much from white contact. Reached by Catholic missions from Stuart Lake. Writings of Petitot, Morice, &c., especially the latter in Trans. Canad. Inst., 1894, Proc. Canad. Inst., 1889. See Carriers.

Nascapee. Algonkian. Some 2500 in N.E. Quebec, Labrador, &c. Not very much. Improvement not marked. Catholic mission influence. Turner, 11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890; Chamberlain, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905.

Navaho. Athabaskan. About 29,000 in Arizona and New Mexico, about 8000 in the latter state. Increasing in number. Much Spanish (Mexican) blood. Have made remarkable progress racially and individually. Catholic, Presbyterian, &c., missions. Writings of Dr. W. Matthews, especially Navaho Legends (Boston, 1897), The Night Chant (N.Y., 1902).

Nespelim. Salishan. 191 at Colville Agency, Washington. Considerable. Suffering from liquor and white contact. See Chehalis.

Nez Percés. Sahaptian. 83 at Colville Agency, Washington, 1534 under Ft. Lapwai superintendency, Idaho. Decreasing. Amount uncertain. Of a high intellectual type (seen in children); suffering much from disease and white contact. About 60% Catholics and 15% Presbyterians. Packard, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1891; McBeth, The Nez Percés since Lewis and Clark (New York, 1908); Spinden, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1908.

Nipissing. Algonkian. 239 on Lake Nipissing, Ontario. Increasing. Little. Improving. Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.

Niska (Nasqa). Tsimshian. About 800 in Nass river region in W. British Columbia. Decreasing. Little. Making good progress. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1895, 1896, and Indianische Sagen (Berlin, 1895). See Tsimshian.

Nisqualli. Salishan. 146 in W. Washington. Considerable. Suffering from white contact, liquor, &c. Gibbs, Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. i., 1877, and Niskwalli Dictionary, ibid.

Nootka. Wakashan. 2133 (including Clayoquot) on Vancouver Island, B.C. Decreasing slowly. Considerable in places. Industrious and law-abiding; evil from white contact increasing. Catholic and Presbyterian missions. Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage Life (1868); Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1890, and Indianische Sagen (1895).

Okanagan. Salishan. 824 in the Kamloops-Okanagan Agency, British Columbia; 527 on Colville Reservation, Washington. Considerable in places. Industrious and law-abiding. Catholic, and in Canada Catholic and Anglican churches largely represented. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1889; Teit, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900.

Omaha. Siouan. 1128 in Nebraska. Much white blood. Good progress in many respects; improvidence, &c., still causing trouble. Presbyterian mission. Dorsey, 3rd Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1881-1882, and 13th Rep., 1891-1892, and other writings. Also writings of Miss A. C. Fletcher. See Ponca.

Oneida. Iroquoian. 777 on river Thames, Ontario, and 350 with Six Nations in Ontario; 2151 in Wisconsin; 286 in New York. Increasing. Large element of white blood. Canadian Oneidas at Delaware full citizens. All progressing excellently and self-supporting. U.S. Oneidas citizens. Bloomfield, The Oneidas (N.Y., 1907). See Six Nations.

Onondaga. Iroquoian. 350 with the Six Nations, Ontario; 553 in New York. Large element of white blood. Not so advanced in U.S. as Tuscarora. Clark, Onondaga (Syracuse, 1849); writings of Beauchamp, de Cost Smith, M. R. Harrington, &c. See Six Nations.

Osage. Siouan. 1994 in Oklahoma. Very much white blood; half are mixed-bloods. U.S. citizens and making good progress. Baptists and Catholics represented. Dorsey (J. O.), 6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1884-1885; Brewster, Trans. Kans. State Hist. Soc., 1906; Dorsey (G. A.), Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1904; Speck, Trans. Arch. Dept. Univ. of Penn. (Phila., 1907).

Oto. Siouan. About 390 with the Missouri in Oklahoma. Considerable. Making good progress. See Osage.

Ottawa. Algonkian. About 750 on Manitoulin and Coburn Islands, Ontario; 2750 in Michigan; 197 in Oklahoma. Considerable French and English blood. Canadian Ottawa industrious and law-abiding, and many in the U.S. as civilized as average whites about them. Catholic and Protestant missions. Blackbird, Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (1887). See Pilling’s Bibliography of the Algonkian Languages, 1891.

Paiute. Shoshonian. 6500 to 7000 chiefly in Nevada (about 600 in Utah; 350 in Arizona). No data. Peaceable, moral and industrious; “have steadily resisted the vices of civilization.” Catholic and Protestant missions. Mooney in 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893. See Ute.

Pamunkey. Algonkian. About 140 in King William county, Virginia. All mixed-bloods; some negro mixture. Fishermen and small farmers. Pollard, The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia (Washington, 1894).

Panamint. Shoshonian. About 100 in the Panamint Valley, S.E. California. No data. Stationary. Coville, Amer. Anthrop., 1892.

Papago. Piman. 4991 in Arizona; about 1000 in Mexico. Little. Making very good progress recently. Catholic mission. McGee in Coville and Macdougal, Des. bot. lab., 1903; Bandelier, Arch. Inst. Papers, 1890. See Pima.

Passamaquoddy. Algonkian. About 350 in Maine. Considerable French and English. With Penobscots have representative in Maine legislature. Leland, Algonq. Leg. of New England (Boston, 1885); Brown, Trans. R. Soc. Canada, 1889; Prince, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1897; Leland and Prince, Kuloskap (Boston, 1902).

Pawnee. Caddoan. 649 in Oklahoma. Decreasing. Considerable. Citizens of U.S. Special progress recently in agriculture. Methodist mission. Writings of Dunbar, Grinnell, Dorsey, Fletcher, &c.; Grinnell, Pawnee Hero-Stories (1889); Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee (Boston, 1904), and Pawnee Mythology (1906); Fletcher, 22nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Etnnol., 1900-1901.

Penobscot. Algonkian. About 410 in Maine. Considerable. See Passamaquoddy. See Passamaquoddy.

Peoria. Algonkian. 192 with Kaskaskia, Wea and Piankaskaw in Oklahoma. No pure-bloods left. American citizens and progressing well. See Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages (1891).

Piegan. Algonkian. 482 near Macleod, Alberta; 2072 at Blackfoot Agency, Montana. Considerable. Improvement slow in Montana; in Alberta, “noticeable advance along all lines.” Methodist and Anglican missions in Alberta. See Blackfeet.

Pima. Shoshonian. 3936 in Arizona; more in Mexico. Increasing slightly. Considerable. Making good progress recently. Catholic and Protestant missions. Russel, Amer. Anthrop., 1903, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901, and 26th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1904-1905; Dorsey, Indians of the South-west (1903); Hrdlicka, Amer. Anthrop., 1904; Kroeber, Univ. Calif. Publ., 1907.

Pomo. Kulanapan. About 1000 in N.E. California. Little. Progress good. Barrett, Ethnography of the Pomo (1908).

Ponca. Siouan. 570 in Oklahoma. Considerable. U.S. citizens, making good progress. Dorsey (J. O.), Cegiha Language (1890), Omaha and Ponka Letters (1891), &c.; Dorsey (G. A.), Field Columb. Mus. Publ., 1905; Boas, Congr. int. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906.

Potawatomi. Algonkian. 179 on Walpole Island, Ontario; 1740 in Oklahoma. Considerable. Canadian Potawatomi are law-abiding and industrious. American Potawatomi citizens making progress. See Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages (1891).

Pueblos. Keresan. 3990 in 6 pueblos in N. central New Mexico. Larger element of white blood than other Pueblos Indians, but not great. Majority nominally Catholics. Writings of Bandelier, Hodge, Lummis, Stevenson, &c. Stevenson, 11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890; Dorsey, Indians of the South-west (1903); Bandelier, Archaeol. Inst. Papers, 1881, 1883, 1892.

Pueblos. Shoshonian. See Moqui. See Moqui. See Moqui. See Moqui.

Pueblos. Tanoan. About 4200 in 12 pueblos in New Mexico. Have not favoured intermixture. Amount little. Nominally Catholics for most part. At San Juan notable evidences of thrift, less elsewhere. Writings of Bandelier, Lummis, Fewkes, &c. See Pueblos (Keresan) and Moqui.

Pueblos. Zuñian. 1500 in Western New Mexico. Have not favoured white intermixture. Practically all are “pagans.” Substantial progress lately in several ways. Bandelier, Journ. Amer. Ethnol. and Archaeol., 1892; Fewkes, ibid., 1891; Stevenson, 5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1883-1884, and 23rd Rep., 1901-1902; Cushing, 2nd Rep., 1880-1881, 4th Rep., 1882-1883, 13th Rep., 1891-1892, and Zuñi Folk-Tales (N.Y., 1901), and other writings.

Puyallup. Salishan. 486 at the Puyallup Agency, Washington. Considerable. Suffering from white contact; future not bright. See Chehalis.

Quapaw. Siouan. 292 in Oklahoma. Considerable. Majority are intelligent, thrifty and progressive. Catholic missions. Dorsey (J. O.), 11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890, 13th Rep. 1891-1892, and other writings.

Quileute. Chemakuan. 232 at Neah Bay Agency, N.W. Washington. Considerable. Progress good. See Clallam.

Quinaielt. Salishan. 142 at Puyallup Agency in N.W. Washington. Considerable. See Nisqualli. Farrand, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902; Conard, Open Court, 1905.

Sacs and Foxes (Sauk, &c.). Algonkian. 343 in Iowa; 630 in Oklahoma; 90 in Kansas. Considerable. Continued improvement; conservative opposition less. Catholic missions. Lasley, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1902; Jones, ibid., 1901, and Fox Texts (1907); Owen, Folk-Lore of the Musquaki (1904).

Sanspoil. Salishan. 126 at Colville Agency, Washington. Considerable. Improving. See Chehalis.

Sarcee. Athabaskan. 205 S.W. of Calgary, Alberta. More than many other tribes of this stock. Making good material progress lately. Anglican mission. Maclean, Canad. Savage Folk (1890); Goddard, Congr. int. d. Amér., 1906; Morice, ibid. and Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Simms, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1904.

Sekané (Sikani). Athabaskan. About 450 on Finlay and Parsnip rivers and W. to forks of Tatla Lake in N. central British Columbia. Little. Not so progressive as Carriers &c. Reached by Catholic mission from Stuart Lake. Morice, Anthropos, 1906, 1907, and Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and other writings. See Babines, Carriers.

Seminole. Muskogian. 2132 in Oklahoma; 350 in Florida. Much white and some negro blood. Oklahoma Seminoles American citizens. MacCauley, 5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1887; Coe, Red Patriots (1898). See Creek.

Seneca. Iroquoian. 383 in Oklahoma; 2742 in New York; 215 with Six Nations, on Grand river, Ontario. Considerable. See Six Nations. Sanborn, Seneca Indians (1862); Hubbard, An Account of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, or Red Jacket and his People (Albany, 1886). See Six Nations.

Shawnee. Algonkian. 574 in Oklahoma. Considerable. Progress good. Catholic and Protestant missions. See Pilling, Bibl. of Algon. Lang. (1891). Also Harvey, Shawnee Indians (1855).

Shoshonee. Shoshonian. About 1000 in Idaho; 242 in Nevada; 793 in Wyoming. Amount of admixture not large. Progress good in the last few years. Catholic and Protestant Episcopal missions. Culin, Bull. Free Mus. Sci. and Art (Phila., 1901); Dorsey, Indians of the South-west (1903). See Ute.

Shuswap (Sequapamuq). Salishan. About 1000 in the S. interior of British Columbia; also 52 within the Kootenay area at the Columbia Lakes. Considerable in places. Industrious and law-abiding. Catholic and Protestant missions. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1890, and Ethnogr. Album (N.Y., 1900); Dawson, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1891; Boas, Indianische Sagen (1895).

Siletz. Indians of several stocks. 483 on Siletz Reservation, Oregon. Considerable. Progress good. Dorsey, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890, and Amer. Anthrop., 1889.

Six Nations (Canada). Iroquoian. On Grand River Reservation, Ontario; Cayuga, 1044; Mohawk, 1762; Oneida, 350; Onondaga, 350; Seneca, 215; Tuscarora, 397. Total, 4118. Large admixture of white blood. Generally capable and industrious, and steadily improving; many, both in U.S. and Canada, equal to whites. The Canadian Cayuga and Onondaga are “pagans.” Many Christian faiths represented. Boyle, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1898 and 1905, and Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1900; Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites (Phila., 1883); Wilson, Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 1885. See also under tribal names.

Six Nations (New York). Iroquoian. In New York State; Cayuga, 179; Oneida, 286; Onondaga, 553; Seneca, 2742; Tuscarora, 356. Total, 4116. Large admixture of white blood. Improvement varying with tribes; Tuscarora said to be best. Various religious faiths. Beauchamp, Bull. N.Y. State Mus., 1897-1907, The Iroquois Trail (1892), and other writings; Smith, 2nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1880-1881; Hewitt, 21st Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1899-1900, and other writings. See also under tribal names.

Skiqomic. Salishan. About 150 in the Howe Sd. and Burrard Inlet region of British Columbia. Some Canadian-French admixture. “Probably the most industrious and orderly band of Indians in the province.” Catholic mission. Hill-Tout, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1900; Boas, ibid., 1894.

Slavé. Athabaskan. About 1100 in the region W. of Gt. Bear Lake, from Ft. Simpson to Ft. Norman in N.W. Canada. No certain data; but some admixture now going on. No marked progress, but white influence being felt. Catholics and Episcopal missions. Various writings of Petitot and Morice; the latter in Anthropos, 1906-1907; Bompas, Mackenzie River (London, 1888); Bell, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901.

Snaimuq (Nanaimo). Salishan. About 160 on reserve near Nanaimo Harbour, B.C. No data. Making good progress recently. Catholic mission. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889, and Amer. Anthrop., 1889.

Songish (Lkungen). Salishan. About 200 in S.E. Vancouver Island, B.C. No data. Industrious and mostly well-off. Catholic mission. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1890; Hill-Tout, Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 1907.

Spokan. Salishan. 91 in Idaho; 133 in Montana; 434 in Washington. Considerable. Improving. Writings of Rev. M. Eells. See Chehalis.

Tahltan. Athabaskan. 220 in the N. Interior of British Columbia, at mouth of Tahltan river. Little. Making good progress. Teit, Boas Anniv. Vol. (N.Y., 1906).

Ten’a. Athabaskan. About 2000 on the Yukon, between Tanara and Koserefsky in Alaska. Little. Not yet much influenced by whites. Catholic mission. Jetté, Congr. int. des Amér. 1906; Man, 1907; Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1907.

Thompson Indian (Ntlakapamuk). Salishan. About 1770 in the Thompson river region, S. central British Columbia. Not very much. Making good progress. Catholic and Protestant missions. Teit and Boas, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900; Teit, Trad. of Thompson Inds. (Boston, 1898); Hill-Tout, Salish and Déné (London, 1907).

Tlingit. Koluschan. About 2000 in S. Alaska. Considerable in places. Not marked generally. Greek Orthodox and other missions. Krause, Die Tlinkit Indianer (Berlin, 1885); Boas, Indianische Sagen (Berlin, 1905); Bogoras, Amer. Anthrop., 1902; Swanton, 26th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1904-1905; Emmons, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1903.

Tonkawa. Tonkawan. 47 in Oklahoma. No data. “Contented and enjoying life.” Mooney, Globus, 1902.

Tsimshian (Proper). Tsimshian. About 2000 in northern British Columbia. Not large. Making good progress. Anglican and other missions. Boas, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889, and Indianische Sagen (Berlin, 1895); von der Schulenburg, Die Sprache der Zimshian-Indianer (1894); Wellcome, Metlakatla (1887).

Tuscarora. Iroquoian. 397 on Six Nation Reservation, Ontario; 356 with Six Nations, New York. Considerable. Making good progress in both Canada and New York. See Six Nations.

Tutchonekut’qin. Athabaskan. About 1000 on the Yukon from Deer river to Ft. Selkirk, in Alaska. Little. Little progress. See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.

Uinta Ute. Shoshonian. 435 in Utah. Little. See Ute. See Ute.

Umatilla. Sahaptian. 207 in Oregon. Some. Making progress. Catholic and Presbyterian missions. See Nez Percés.

Uncompaghre Ute. Shoshonian. 493 in Utah. Little. See Ute. See Ute.

Ute. Shoshonian. 845 in Colorado; 1245 in Utah. Not much. Some progress recently. Catholic and Protestant missions. Culin, Bull. Free Mus. Sci. and Art (Phila., 1901); Kroeber, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901, and Amer. Anthrop., 1906.

Walapai. Yuman. 513 in Arizona. Decreasing. Little. Self-supporting, but poor morally. James, Indians of the Painted Desert Region (Boston, 1903).

Wallawalla. Sahaptian. 579 in Oregon. Some. Not so satisfactory recently, but progressing. See Nez Percés.

Wichita. Caddoan. 441 in Oklahoma. Probably considerable. Citizens of U.S., making good progress. Catholic and Protestant missions. Dorsey, Mythology of the Wichita (Washington, 1904) and other writings.

Winnebago. Siouan. 1070 in Nebraska; 1285 in Wisconsin. Considerable. Many good citizens of U.S. and progressing. Suffering from liquor and the mescal bean to some extent. Thwaites, Coll. State Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, 1892; Fletcher, Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890; McGee. 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894.

Wyandot. Iroquoian. 385 in Oklahoma; 1 at Anderdon, Ontario, Canada. No pure-bloods left, hardly a half-blood. More white than Indian. Powell, 1st Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1879-1880; Connelley, Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and Wyandott Folk-Lore (Topeka, 1899); Merwin, Trans. Kansas State Hist. Soc., 1906.

Yakima. Sahaptian. About 1500 in Washington. Considerable. Late reports indicate bad influence of whites. Pandosy, Gramm. and Dict. of Yakima (1862); Lewis, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1906.

Yellowknives. Athabaskan. About 500 N.E. of Great Slave Lake in N.W. Canada. Not much. No practical advance as yet. Writings of Petitot, Morice, &c. Petitot, Autour du Grand Lac des Esclaves (1891), and Monographie des Déné-Dindjié (1876). See Carriers, Chipewyan.

Yuma. Yuman. 807 at Fort Yuma Agency, California, and a few at San Carlos, Arizona. Some Spanish (Mexican) blood. Progress good. Catholic and Protestant missions. Gatschet, Ztschr. v. Ethnologie (1893); Trippell, Overland Monthly, 1889; Dorsey, Indians of the South-west (1903). See Mission Indians.

Zuñi. Zuñian. See Pueblos. Zuñian. See Pueblos. See Pueblos (Zuñian).

From the tables it will be seen that the American Indians in some parts of North America are not decreasing, but either holding their own or even increasing; also that thousands of them are now to all intents and purposes Population, &c. the equals in wealth, thrift, industry and intelligence of the average white man and citizens with him in the same society. In certain regions of the continent small tribes have been annihilated in the course of wars with other Indians or with the whites, and others have been decimated by disease, famine, &c.; and over large areas the aboriginal population, according to some authorities, has vastly diminished. Thus Morice estimates that the Athabaskan population at present in Canada (about 20,000) is less than one-seventh of what it was a century or more ago; Hill-Tout thinks the Salishan tribes (c. 15,000) number not one-fifth of their population a hundred years ago, and equally great reductions are claimed for some other peoples of the North Pacific region; Kroeber thinks probable an Indian population in California of 150,000 before the arrival of the whites, as compared with but 15,000 now; by some the arid regions of the south-west are supposed to have sustained a very large population in earlier times; certain of the Plains tribes are known to have lost much in population since contact with the whites. But under better care and more favourable conditions generally some tribes seem to be taking on a new lease of life and are apparently beginning to thrive again. A considerable portion of the “disappearance” of the Indian is through amalgamation with the whites. Undoubtedly, in some parts of the country, exaggerated ideas prevalent in the early colonial period as to the numbers of the native population have interfered with a correct estimate of the aborigines past and present. Mooney thinks that the Cherokee “are probably about as numerous now as at any period in their history” (Hndb. Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 247), and this is perhaps true also of some other tribes east of the Mississippi. Major J. W. Powell was of opinion that the Indian population north of Mexico is as large to-day as it was at the time of the discovery. This, however, is not the view of the majority of authorities. The total number of Indians in Canada (Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff., 1907) for 1907 is given as 110,345, as compared with 109,394 for the previous year, not including the Micmac in Newfoundland and the Indians and Eskimo in that part of Labrador belonging to Newfoundland. In 1903 the figures were 108,233. The gain may be largely due to more careful enumeration of Indians in the less well-known parts of the country, but there is evidently no marked decrease going on, but rather a slight increase in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, &c. In the United States (exclusive of Alaska, which counts about 30,000) the Indian population (Ann. Rep. Ind. Aff., 1906) is estimated at 197,289, no including the “Five Civilized Tribes,” of whose numbers (94,292) some 65,000 can be reckoned as Indians—a total of 382,000. The figures of 197,289, according to the report, show an increase in population “due mainly to increase in number of Indians reported from California.”

The financial condition of the Indians of the Dominion of Canada for the year ending March 31, 1907, is indicated in the following table:—

Total Amount of Real and Personal Property. Total Income for the Year.

Ontario $7,566,125 $1,426,690

Quebec 1,781,330 915,783

N. Brunswick 189,701 109,892

N. Scotia 151,949 76,603

P. E. I. 6,370 15,374

Manitoba 2,102,044 348,966

B. Columbia 7,475,719 1,501,456

Sask 7,721,532 548,533

Alberta 5,154,789 211,839

Total $30,129,659 $5,155,052

The total amounts earned during the year were: from agriculture, $1,337,948; wages and miscellaneous industries, $714,125; fishing, $544,487; hunting and trapping, $630,633. Of these hunting and trapping show a decided decrease over 1906. The Indian Trust Fund amounts to $5,157,566.59. The total appropriation in connexion with the Indians of the Dominion for all purposes for the year 1906-1907 was $1,055,010 and the actual expenditure some $114,000 less. The total amount of sales of lands for the benefit of Indian tribes was $422,086.13. The balance to the credit of the Indian savings account for the funding of the annuities and earnings of pupils at industrial schools, together with collections from Indians for purchase of cattle and for ranching expenses, was $51,708.92.

According to the Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs the total amount of trust funds held by the United States government for the Indians, in lieu of investment, amounted to $36,352,950.97, yielding for 1906 interest at 4 and 5% of $1,788,237.23. The total incomes of the various tribes from all sources for the year ending June 30, 1906, was $6,557,554.39, including interest on trust funds, treaty agreement and obligations, gratuities, Indian money, proceeds of labour, &c.

While the general constitution of the American aborigines north of Mexico is such as to justify their designation as one “American race,” whose nearest congener is to be found in the “Mongolian race” of eastern Asia, &c., there is a wide Physical characteristics. range in variation within the American tribes with respect to particular physical characteristics. Some authorities, like Dr Hrdlička (Handb. Amer. Inds. N. of Mex., 1907, pt. i. p. 53), separate the Eskimo from the “Indians,” regarding them as “a distinct sub-race of the Mongolo-Malay,” but this is hardly necessary if, with Boas (Ann. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 85), we “consider the inhabitants of north-eastern Asia and of America as a unit divided into a great many distinct types but belonging to one and the same of the large divisions of mankind.” Upon the basis of differences in stature and general bodily conformation, colour of skin, texture and form of hair, shape of nose, face and head, &c., some twenty-one different physical “types” north of Mexico have been recognized.

Although the variation in stature, from the short people of Harrison Lake (average 1611 mm.) to the tall Sioux (average 1726 mm.), Eastern Chippewa (average 1723 mm.), Iroquois (average 1727 mm.), Omaha and Winnebago (average 1733 mm.) and other tribes of the Plains and the regions farther east, is considerable, the North American Indian, on the whole, may be termed a tall race. The stature of women averages among the tall tribes about 92%, and among the short tribes about 94% of that of the men.

The proportion of statures (adult males) above 1730 mm. in certain Indian tribes (Boas) is as follows: Apache and Navaho, 25.3; Arapaho, 45.9; Arikara, 15.2; British Columbia (coast), 28.8; British Columbia (interior), 16.4; California (south), 32.7; Cherokee (eastern), 21.0; Cherokee (western), 40.7; Cheyenne, 72.2; Chickasaw, 23.8; Chinook, 36.2; Choctaw, 32.6; Coahuila, 14.2; Comanche, 27.1; Cree, 33.4; Creek, 53.6; Crow, 51.3; Delaware, 41.1; Eskimo (Alaska), 5.9; Eskimo (Labrador), 0.0; Flathead, 18.9; Harrison Lake, B.C., 1.0; Hupa, 18.7; Iroquois, 52.1; Kiowa, 41.3; Klamath, 20.0; Kootenay, 26.0; Micmac and Abnaki, 45.7; Ojibwa (eastern), 42.7; Ojibwa (western), 427; Omaha and Winnebago, 54.9; Oregon (south), 5.1; Ottawa and Menominee, 30.6; Paiute, 22.1; Pawnee, 39.0; Puget Sound and Makah, 6.5; Round Valley, Cal., 3.3; Sahaptin, 28.2; Shuswap, 15.9; Sioux, 50.8; Taos, 18.5: Ute, 124; Zuñi and Moqui, 1.9.

Very notable is the percentage of tall statures among the Cheyenne, Creek, Crow, Iroquois, &c. The form of the head (skull) varies considerably among the Indian tribes north of Mexico, running from the dolichocephalic eastern Eskimo with a cephalic index of 71.3 on the skull to the brachycephalic Aleuts with 84.8. Several tribes practising deformation of the skull (mound-builders, Klamath, &c.) show much higher brachycephaly.

The percentage of cephalic indices above 84 (on the heads of living individuals) among certain Indian tribes (Boas) is as follows: Apache, 87.6; Arapaho, 5.0; Arikara, 24.6; Blackfeet, 6.2; Caddo, 47.2; Cherokee, 20.0; Cheyenne, 10.4; Chickasaw, 14.4; Comanche, 65.3; Cree, 4.9; Creek, 25.0; Crow, 12.0; Delaware 12.0; Eskimo, (Alaska), 10.6; Harrison Lake, B.C., 88.8; Iroquois, 15.4; Kiowa, 25.0; Kootenay, 19.1; Mandan, 4.5; Micmac and Abnaki, 7.0; Mohave, 86.5: Montagnais, 21.7; Moqui, 54.3; Navaho, 49.4; Ojibwa (eastern), 26.6; Ojibwa (western), 10.2; Omaha, 23.0; Oregon (south), 50.9; Osage, 79.1; Ottawa and Menominee, 24.7; Pawnee, 4.8; Pima, 9.6; Round Valley, Cal., 4.8; Sahaptin, 57.4; Shuswap, 59.9; Sioux, 9.6; Taos, 6.0; Ute, 8.9; Wichita, 96.0; Winnebago, 66.8; Zuñi, 41.4.

The Apache, Mohave, Navaho, Osage, Sahaptin, Wichita and Winnebago practised skull-deformation, which accounts in part for their high figures. The brachycephalic tendency of the Caddo, Moqui, Shuswap and Zuñi is marked; the Comanche, with an average cephalic index of 84.6 and the Harrison Lake people with one of 88.8, are noteworthy in this respect. As in the case of stature, so in the case of head-form, there seems to have been much mingling of types, especially in the Huron-Algonkian region, the Great Plains and the North Pacific coast.

The North American Indian may be described in general as brown-skinned (of various shades, with reddish tinge, sometimes dark and chocolate or almost black in colour) with black hair and eyes varying from hazel brown to dark brown. Under good conditions of food, &c., the Indian tends to be tall and mesocephalic as to head-form, and well-proportioned and symmetrical in body. The ideal Indian type can be met with among the youth of several different tribes (Plains Indians, Algonkians, Iroquoians, Muskogians and some of the tribes of the south-western United States). Beauty among the aborigines of America north of Mexico has been the subject of brief studies by Dr R. W. Shufeldt and Dr A. Hrdlička (Boas Anniv. Vol., New York, 1906, pp. 38-42).

The extent to which the red and white races have mixed their blood in various parts of North America is greater than is generally thought. The Eskimo of Greenland have intermarried with the Danes, and their kinsmen Race mixture. of Labrador with the English settlers and “summerers.” The eastern Algonkian Indians in New England and Acadia have now considerable French, English and Scottish blood. Many of the Canadian Iroquois are more than half French, many of the Iroquois of New York half English. The Cherokee, an Iroquoian people of the Carolinas, have some admixture of Scottish and German blood, to which Mooney would attribute some, at least, of their remarkable progress. In the state of Oklahoma, which has absorbed the old “Indian Territory,” the results of race-amalgamation are apparent in the large number of mixed bloods of all shades. In spite of the romance of Pocahontas, the intermarriages of the two races in the Virginian region seem not to have been very common or very important. Nor does there appear to have been much intermarriage between Spaniards and Indians in the south Atlantic region, though in Texas, &c., there was a good deal. In New France, in spite of the efforts of some recent Canadian-French writers to minimize the fact, intermixture between whites, and Indians began early and continued to be extensive. In parts of New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, some of the northern American states and regions of the Canadian north-west, there are Indian villages and white settlements where hardly a single individual of absolutely pure blood can now be found. In the veins of some of the “Iroquois” of Caughnawaga and New York state to-day flows blood of the best colonial stock (Rice, Hill, Williams, Stacey, &c., captives adopted and married within the tribe). In the great Canadian north-west, and to a large extent also in the tier of American states to the south, the blood of the Indian, through the mingling of French, Scottish and English traders, trappers, employees of the great fur companies, pioneer settlers, &c., has entered largely and significantly into the life of the nation, the half-breed element playing a most important rôle in social, commercial and industrial development.

In 1879, besides those whose mixed blood had not been remembered and those who wished to forget it, there were, according to Dr Havard (Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1879), at least 22,000 métis in the United States and 18,000 in Canada (i.e. in the north-west in each case). When the province of Manitoba entered the Canadian Confederation it numbered within the borders some 10,000 mixed-bloods, one of whom, John Norquay, afterwards became its premier. In the Columbia river region and British Columbia some intermixture has taken place, originating in the conditions due to the establishment of trading-posts, the circumstances of the early settlement of the country, &c.—this has been both French and English and Scottish. Farther north in Alaska the Russian occupation led to not a little intermixture, both with the Aleuts, &c., and the coast Indians. In some parts of the far north intermixture of the whites with the Athabaskans is just beginning. In Canada no prohibition of marriage between whites and Indians exists, but such unions are forbidden by law in the states of Arizona, Oregon, North Carolina and South Carolina.

A considerable number of the chiefs and able men of the various Indian tribes of certain regions in recent times have had more or less white blood—Iroquois, Algonkian, Siouan, &c.—who have sometimes worked with and sometimes against the whites. In the case of some tribes there have been “pure blood” and “mixed blood” factions. Some tribes have frowned upon miscegenation; even the Pueblos (except Laguna, which is Keresan) have never intermarried with the whites. Both in Canada and the United States strains of Indian blood run in the veins of prominent families. Some of the “first families of Virginia” are proud to descend from Pocahontas, the Algonkian “Princess,” who married the Englishman Rolfe. In Maine may still be discovered perhaps those whose line of life goes back to the Baron de St Casteins and his Abnaki bride, while in Ontario and New York are to be met those who trace their ancestry back to the famous Iroquois Joseph Brant and his half-English wife. In the early history of Pennsylvania and Ohio were noted the Montours, descendants of a French nobleman who about 1665 had a son and two daughters by a Huron woman in Canada. In 1817 Captain John S. Pierce, U.S.A., brother of President Franklin Pierce, married the fair Josette la Framboise, who had at least a quarter Indian (Ottawa) blood. In the latter part of the 18th century a young Irish gentleman married Neengai, daughter of the Michigan Ojibwa chief Waubojeeg, and of the daughters born to them one married a Canadian Frenchman of reputation in the early development of the province of Ontario, another the Rev. Mr McMurray, afterwards Episcopal archdeacon of Niagara, and a third Henry R. Schoolcraft, the ethnologist.

Several Indians, some full-blood, others with more or less white blood in their veins, have rendered signal service to ethnological science. These deserve special mention: Francis la Flesche, an Omaha, a graduate of the National University Law School. D.C., holding a position in the Office of Indian Affairs; Dr William Jones, a Sac and Fox, in the service of the Field Museum, Chicago, a graduate of Harvard and of Columbia (Ph.D.); and J. N. B. Hewitt, a Tuscarora, ethnologist in the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D.C. In some regions considerable intermixture between negroes and Indians (Science, New York, vol. xvii., 1891, pp. 85-90) has occurred, e.g. among the Mashpee and Gay Head Indians of Massachusetts, the remnants of the Pequots in Connecticut, the Shinnecocks and the Montauks, &c., of Long Island; the Pamunkeys, Mattaponies and some other small Virginian and Carolinian tribes. In earlier times some admixture of negro blood took place among the Seminoles, although now the remnants of that people still in Florida are much averse to miscegenation. Of the tribes of the Muskogian stock who kept large numbers of negro slaves the Creeks are said to have about one-third of their number of mixed Indian-negro blood. Sporadic intermixture of this sort is reported from the Shawnee, the Minnesota Chippewa, the Canadian Tuscarora, the Caddo, &c., in the case of the last the admixture may be considerable. It is also thought probable that many of the negroes of the whole lower Atlantic coast and Gulf region may have strains of Indian blood. The mythology and folk-lore of the negroes of this region may have borrowed not a little from the Indian, for as Mooney notes (19th Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1900, pp. 232-234), “in all the southern colonies Indian slaves were bought and sold and kept in servitude and worked in the fields side by side with negroes up to the time of the Revolution.” When Dr John R. Swanton visited the Haida recently the richest man among the Skidegate tribe was a negro. Some of the Plains tribes and some Indians of the far west, however, have taken a dislike to the negro.

The leader in the “Boston Massacre” of March 5, 1770, was Crispus Attucks, of Framingham, Mass., the son of a negro father and a Natick Indian mother. The physical anthropology of the white-Indian half-blood has been studied by Dr Franz Boas (Pop. Sci. Monthly, New York, 1894).

The culture, arts and industries of the American aborigines exhibit marked correspondence to and dependence upon environment, varying with the natural conditions of land and water, wealth or poverty of the soil, abundance Culture, arts, industries, &c. or scarcity of plant and animal life subsidiary to human existence, &c. Professor O. T. Mason (Handb. of Amer. Inds. N. of Mexico, 1907, pt. i. pp. 427-430; also Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1895, and Pop. Sci. Monthly, 1902) recognizes north of Mexico twelve “ethnic environments,” in each of which there is “an ensemble of qualities that impressed themselves on their inhabitants and differentiated them.”

These twelve “ethnic environments” are:—

(1) Arctic (Eskimo); (2) Yukon-Mackenzie (practically Athabaskan); (3) Great Lakes and St Lawrence (Algonkian-Iroquoian); (4) Atlantic Slope (Algonkian, Iroquoian, Siouan, &c.); (5) Gulf Coast, embracing region from Georgia to Texas (Muskogian and a number of smaller stocks); (6) Mississippi Valley (largely Algonkian and “mound-builders”); (7) Plains, including the country from the neighbourhood of the Rio Grande to beyond the Saskatchewan on the north, and from the Rocky Mountains to the fertile lands west of the Mississippi (Algonkian, Siouan, Shoshonian, Kiowan, Caddoan); (8) North Pacific Coast, from Mount St Elias to the mouth of the Columbia river (Koluschan, Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Salishan); (9) Columbia-Fraser region (Salishan, Sahaptian, Chinookan, &c.); (10) Interior Basin between Rocky Mountains and Sierras (Shoshonian); (11) California-Oregon (“the Caucasus of North America,” occupied by more than twenty-five linguistic stocks); (12) Pueblos region, basin of Rio Grande, Pecos, San Juan and Colorado (Pueblos-Keresan, Tanoan, Zuñian, &c.; on the outskirts predatory Shoshonian, Athabaskan tribes; to the south-west, Yuman, &c.).

In the Arctic environment the Eskimo have conquered a severe and thankless climate by the invention and perfection of the snow-house, the dog-sled, the oil-lamp (creating and sustaining social life and making extensive migrations possible), the harpoon and the kayak or skin-boat (the acme of adaptation of individual skill to environmental demands). In the region of the Mackenzie especially the older and simpler culture of the Athabaskan stock has been much influenced by the European “civilization” of the Hudson’s Bay Company, &c., and elsewhere also by contact with Indian tribes of other stocks, for the Athabaskans everywhere have shown themselves very receptive and ready to adopt foreign elements of culture. The culture-type of the North Pacific coast, besides being unique in some respects, stands in certain relations to the culture of the Palaeo-Asiatic tribes of north-eastern Asia who belong properly with the American race. The culture of the Great Plains, which has been studied by Drs Wissler (Congr. intern. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906, vol. ii. pp. 39-52) and Kroeber (ibid. pp. 53-63), is marked by the presence of a decided uniformity in spite of the existence within this area of several physical types and a number of distinct linguistic stocks. Here the tipi and the camp-circle figure largely in material culture; innumerable ceremonies and religious practices (e.g. the “sun-dance”) occur and many societies and ceremonial organizations exist. The buffalo and later the horse have profoundly influenced the culture of this area, in which Athabaskan (Sarcee), Kitunahan, Algonkian, Siouan, Shoshonian, Kiowan tribes have shared. In some respects the Plains culture is quite recent and the result of “giving and taking” among the various peoples concerned. Some of them merely abandoned an earlier more sedentary life to hunt the buffalo on the great prairies.

The culture of the Mississippi valley region (including the Ohio, &c.) is noteworthy in pre-Columbian and immediately post-Columbian times for the development of “mound-building,” with apparently sedentary life to a large extent. In this Algonkian, Iroquoian and Siouan tribes have participated. In the region of the Great Lakes and on the Atlantic slope occurred the greatest development of the Algonkian and Iroquoian stocks, particularly in social and political activities, expressed both generally, as in the leagues and alliances (especially the famous “Iroquois League”), and individually in the appearance of great men like Hiawatha, Tecumseh, &c. The Gulf region is remarkable for the development in the southern United States of the Muskogian stock (Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, &c.), to which belonged the “civilized tribes” now part of the state of Oklahoma. In this area also, toward the west, are to be met religious ideas and institutions (e.g. among the Natchez) suggestive of an early participation in or connexion with the beginnings of a culture common to the Pueblos tribes and perhaps also to the ancestors of the civilized peoples of ancient Mexico. In some other respects the culture of this area is noteworthy. In the east also there are evidences of the influence of Arawakan culture from the West Indies. The Pueblos region has been the scene of the development of sedentary “village” life on the largest scale known in North America north of Mexico, and of arts, industries and religious ideas (rain-cult especially) corresponding, as Professor J. W. Fewkes (Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1895, pp. 683-700) has shown, most remarkably to their environment. The arid interior basin is the characteristic area of the great Shoshonian stock, here seen at its lowest level, but advancing with the Piman and other Sonoran and Nahuatlan tribes till in ancient Mexico it attained the civilization of the Aztecs. The California-Oregon area is remarkable for the multiplicity of its linguistic stocks and also for the development of many local culture-types. Within the limits of California alone Dr Kroeber (Univ. of Calif. Publ. Amer. Arch. and Ethnol. vol. ii., 1904, pp. 81-103) distinguishes at least four types of native culture.

On account of climatic conditions, in part at least, the development of agriculture in North America has not reached with many Indian tribes a high state of development, although its diffusion is much greater than is generally believed. In the south-eastern part of the United States beans, squashes, pumpkins and some other gourds and melons, potatoes, Indian corn, tobacco, a variety of the sunflower, &c., were cultivated, the growing of beans, squashes and pumpkins extending as far north as Massachusetts and the Iroquois country, in which latter also tobacco was cultivated, as the tribal name (“Tobacco Nation”) of the Tionontati indicates. The cultivation of Indian corn extended from Florida to beyond 50° N. and from the Atlantic to far beyond the Mississippi, and, to judge from the varieties found in existence, must have been known to the Indians for a very long period. In the arid region of Arizona and New Mexico a special development of agriculture occurred, made possible by the extensive use of irrigation in pre-Columbian and in more recent times. Here Indian corn, melons, beans, cotton, &c., were cultivated before the arrival of the Spaniards. For religious purposes the Zuñi appear to have selectively produced a great variety of colours in the ears of corn. Where women had much to do with agricultural operations they greatly influenced society and religious and mythological ideas. Hunting and fishing, as might be expected in an extensive and varied environment like the North American continent, exhibit a great range from simple individual hand-capture to combined efforts with traps and nets, such as the communal nets of the Eskimo, the buffalo and deer “drives” of the Plains and other Indians, with which were often associated brush-fences, corrals, “pounds,” pitfalls, &c., advantage taken of a natural cul-de-sac, &c. A great variety of traps, snares, &c., was used (see Mason in Amer. Anthrop., 1899) and the dog was also of great service with certain tribes, although no special variety of hunting-dogs (except in a few cases) appears to have been developed. The accessory implements for the chase (spear, bow and arrow, harpoon, club, &c.) underwent great variation and specialization. The throwing-stick appears in the north among the Eskimo and in the south-west among the Pueblos. In the Muskogian area the blow-gun is found, and its use extended also to some of the Iroquoian tribes (Cherokee, &c.). In part of this area vegetable poisons were used to capture fish. In the New England region torch-fishing at night was in vogue. With the tribes of the Great Plains in particular the hunt developed into a great social event, and often into a more or less marked ceremonial or religious institution, with its own appropriate preliminary and subsequential rites, songs, formulae, taboos and fetishes, &c., as seen e.g. among certain tribes of the Caddoan stock in very interesting fashion.

The art of transportation and navigation among the American aborigines north of Mexico has received special treatment from Mason (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1894) and Friederici, in his recent monograph Die Schiffahrt der Indianer (Stuttgart, 1907). On land some of the Indian tribes made use of the dog-sled and the toboggan in winter, while the dog-travois was early met with in the region of the Great Plains. The Eskimo made special use of the dog-sled, but never developed snow-shoes to the same extent as did the Athabaskan and Algonkian tribes; with the last and with the Iroquoian tribes came the perfection of the skin-shoe or moccasin. In the south and south-west appear sandals. In North America the cradle, as pointed out by Professor Mason (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1894), has undergone great variation in response to environmental suggestion. No wheeled vehicle and no use of an animal other than the dog for means of transportation is known among the aborigines north of Mexico, men, women and children, women especially, having been the chief burden-bearers. Among the types of boats in use are the seal-skin kayak and umiak (woman’s boat) of the Eskimo; the bull-boat or coracle (raw-hide over willow frame) of the Missouri and the buffalo-region; the dug-out of various forms and degrees of ornamentation in divers regions from Florida to the North Pacific coast; bark-canoes (birch, elm, pine, &c.) in the Algonkian, Iroquoian and Athabaskan areas, reaching a high development in the region of the Great Lakes; the peculiar bark-canoe of the Beothuks in the form of two half ellipses; the bark-canoe of the Kootenay (a similar type occurs on the Amur in north-eastern Asia), noteworthy as having both ends pointed under water; the plank-canoes of the Santa Barbara region; the basketry-boats (coritas) of the lower Colorado and in south central California; the balsas of tule rushes, &c., in use on the lakes and streams of California and Nevada. In various parts of the country log-rafts of a more or less crude sort were in use. No regular sail is reported from North America, although from time to time skins, blankets, &c., were used by several tribes for such purposes.

Since the appearance of Morgan’s monograph on the Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines (Washington, 1881) our knowledge of the subject has been materially increased by the studies and researches of Boas, Fewkes, Mindeleff, Dorsey, Matthews, Murdoch, Willoughby and others. The dwellings in use among the aborigines north of Mexico varied from the rude brush huts of the primitive Shoshonian tribes, and the still earlier caves, to the communal dwellings of the Iroquois and the Pueblos stocks of New Mexico and Arizona. The principal types are as follows:

Crude brush shelters and huts of the lowest Shoshonian tribes, the Apache (more elaborate), &c.; the hogan or earth-lodge of the Navaho, and the earth-lodges of certain Caddoan and Siouan tribes farther north, with similar structures even among the Aleuts of Alaska; the grass-lodge of the Caddoan tribes, still in use among the Wichita; the semi-subterranean earth-covered lodges of parts of California, &c.; the roofed pits of various styles in use in the colder north, &c.; the Eskimo snow-house and wooden karmak; the elaborately carved and painted wooden houses of Pacific coast region (Tlingit, Haida, Nootka, &c.), some of which were originally built on platforms and entered by log-ladders; the simple wooden house of northern California; the dome-shaped bark wigwams of the Winnebago and the conical ones of many of the Algonkian tribes; the skin tents or tipis of many of the Plains peoples; the mat tents of the Nez Percé, Kootenay, &c., and the mat houses of the South Atlantic region; the circular wigwam of bark or mats banked up at the base, of the Ohio-Mississippi valley; the palmetto-house of certain Louisiana Indians; the pile-dwellings of the ancient Floridians. Communal houses of divers types were found among the Mohegans, Iroquois, &c., but are especially illustrated by the so-called pueblos of the south-western United States, out of which grew probably the elaborate structures of ancient Mexico. Some tribes appear to have had simple and ruder summer dwellings and more elaborate or better constructed winter houses. The Eskimo have sometimes temporary hunting-lodges; the Comanches brush-shelters for summer and lodges of buffalo-skin for winter; with some tribes temporary dwellings were erected for the use of those cultivating the land. Many tribes had their “village-houses” for social purposes, like the kashim of the Eskimo. Special tipis or houses for shamans, “medicine-men,” &c., were common in many parts of North America. Secret societies had their own lodges and the so-called “men’s-house.” The houses of the North American Indians are the subject of a monograph by E. Sarfert (Arch. f. Anthr., 1908, pp. 119-215).

The art of fire-making was known to all the aborigines north of Mexico, two methods being widespread, that with flint and pyrites and that by reciprocating motion of wood on wood. For the latter several varieties of apparatus were in use, the simple two-stick apparatus was very common; the Eskimo have a four-part fire-drill and the Iroquois a weighted drill with spindle whorl. The skill displayed in fire-making by some Indians is very great, and the individual parts of the apparatus have in certain regions been highly specialized. The subject of fire-making apparatus and the kindred topic of illumination have been specially treated by Dr Walter Hough (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1890, pp. 531-587; Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1901-1902). The camp-fire, the torch and the Eskimo lamp represent the employment of fire for artificial light among the aborigines. Fire and smoke were used for signalling by the Plains tribes, &c., and fire-ceremonies form an important part (“new-fire,” “fire-dance”) of the ritual observances of not a few peoples, especially in the region from Florida to the Rio Grande. In metal-working there is up to the present no convincing evidence of the use of fire (heat only being employed to facilitate the cold-hammering processes by which the metals, copper, silver, gold and iron were manufactured into weapons, implements and ornaments) in metallurgy north of Mexico. The tools used were few and the processes simple, as Cushing (Amer. Anthrop., vol. vii., 1894) has proved by actual experiment. The only metal actually mined in large quantities was copper in the region of Lake Superior, whence came most of that employed in the east and south. In Alaska was a source of copper for the North Pacific coast. No special process of hardening copper other than by hammering was known to the Indians. The gold objects of most interest come from mounds in Florida and a few also from those in the Ohio valley. Galena was used to make simple ceremonial objects by the Indians of the Mississippi valley and the “mound-builders.”

The art of sculpture in wood, stone, bone and ivory is best represented by the wooden masks, utensils, house-carvings and totem-poles of the Indians of the North Pacific coast, the stone pipes, ornaments and images of various sorts of the “mound-builders” and other Indians of the Mississippi valley, the carvings of the people of the Floridian pile-dwellings, and the remarkable ivory carvings, sometimes minute, of the Eskimo. Noteworthy also are the slate-sculpture of the Haida, and the work in bone, ivory and deer and mountain goat horn of the British Columbian Indians. The Indians of the region south of the Great Lakes were expert in the manufacture of tobacco-pipes of great variety, among the most interesting being the Catlinite pipes of the Sioux of Minnesota, &c. Soapstone served some of the Eskimo to make lamps and some Indian tribes for other purposes. Pottery appears to have been unknown in certain regions, but flourished remarkably in the Mississippi valley and the Pueblos region of the south-west, where specialization in form and decoration occurred, and ceramic objects of all sorts were manufactured in abundance. The pottery of the Iroquoian and Algonkian tribes of the north-east was, as a rule, rather crude and undeveloped. In many places the relation of ceramic art to basketry is in evidence. Basketry, of which Professor O. T. Mason has recently made a detailed study in his Aboriginal American Basketry (Washington and New York, 1902, 1904), and related arts were carried on (especially by women) with great variety of form, decoration, material, &c., over a large portion of the continent. In North America basketry is “the primitive art,” and here “the Indian women have left the best witness of what they could do in handiwork and expression.” The most exquisite and artistic basketry in the world comes from an utterly uncivilized tribe in California. The relation of basketry to symbolism and religion is best observable among the Hopi or Moqui of Arizona. The appreciation of white men for the products of Indian skill and genius in basketry finds full expression in G. W. James’s Indian Basketry (1900). Weaving is exemplified in the goat’s hair blanket of the Chilkat Indians (Koluschan) of Alaska, and similar products; also in the manufactures of buffalo-hair, &c., of the Indians of the Great Plains and Mississippi valley and the textile art of a higher type known to the Pueblos tribes and by some of them taught to the Navaho. Famous are the “Navaho blankets,” less so the “Chilkat.”

Feather-work and the utilization of bird-skins and feathers for dresses, hats, ornaments, &c., are known from many parts of the continent. In the Arctic regions bird-skins with the feathers on were used to make dresses; the Algonkian tribes of Virginia, &c., had their bird-skin “blankets” and “turkey robes”; the tribes of the North Pacific coast used feathers for decorative purposes of many kinds, as did Indians in other regions also; feather head-dresses and ornaments were much in use among the Plains tribes, &c.; with the Pueblos Indians eagle and turkey feathers were important in ritual and ceremony; some of the tribes of the south-east made fans of turkey feathers. Beads made from various sorts of shell, rolled copper (“mound-builders,” &c.), seeds, ivory (Eskimo) and the teeth of various animals are pre-Columbian, like the turquoise-beads of the Pueblos, and they were put to a great variety of uses. Wampum was manufactured by many Algonkian and Iroquoian tribes, who also later produced fine specimens of work with the glass beads introduced by the whites. These glass beads made their way over most of the continent, soon driving out in many sections the older art in shell, &c. European-made wampum-beads affected native art in the 17th century. In the regions where the porcupine abounded its quills were used for purposes of ornamentation on articles of dress, objects of bark, &c., some of the Algonkian and Iroquoian tribes producing beautiful work of this sort.

Besides face and body painting, employed for various purposes and widespread over the continent, particularly in ceremonial observances, during war-time, in courting, mourning, &c., painting found expression among the North American aborigines most fully in the products of the wood art of the Indians of the North Pacific coast (masks, utensils, houses, totem-poles, furniture, &c.), in the more or less ceremonial and symbolic paintings on skins, tipi-covers and the like of some of the Plains tribes (e.g. Kiowa, Sioux) and in ceramic art, notably in the remarkable polychrome pottery of the Pueblos tribes. Among several Pueblos tribes of Arizona and New Mexico (also the Navaho and Apache and of a ruder sort among some of the Plains tribes, e.g. Cheyenne, Arapaho, Blackfeet) “dry-painting,” most highly developed in the sacred ceremonies of the Navaho, is practised and is evidently of great antiquity. The pictures of deities, natural phenomena, animals and plants are made of powdered sandstone of various colours, &c.

Pictography among the aborigines north of Mexico varied from the rude petroglyphs of some of the Shoshonian tribes to the incised work on ivory, &c., of the Eskimo and the paintings on buffalo and other animal skins by some of the Plains tribes, the work of the Pueblos Indians, &c., the nearest approach to hieroglyphics in North America outside of Mexico. Some Indian tribes (e.g. the Kootenay) seem not at all given to pictography, while many others have practised it to an almost limitless extent. The pictography and picture-writing of the North American Indians have been the subject of two detailed monographs by Mallery (4th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1882-1883, pp. 3-256; 10th Rep., 1888-1889, pp. 1-1290), and the graphic art of the Eskimo has received special treatment by Hoffman (Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1895). Some have argued that this ivory pictography of the Eskimo is of recent origin and due practically to the introduction of iron by the whites, but Boas thinks such a theory refuted by the resemblance of the Eskimo graphic art in question to the birch-bark art of the neighbouring Indian tribes. No real “hieroglyphs,” much less any system of writing of an alphabetic nature, have been discovered north of Mexico; the alleged specimens of such, turning up from time to time, are frauds of one sort or another.

The music and song of the American Indians north of Mexico have been studied since the time of Baker (Über die Musik der Nordamerikanischen Wilden, Leipzig, 1882) by Boas, Fillmore, Curtis, Fletcher, Stumpf, Cringan (Ann. Arch. Rep. Ont., 1902, 1905), &c. According to Miss Fletcher (Indian Story and Song, 1900; also Publ. Peab. Mus., 1893), “among the Indians music envelops like an atmosphere every religious tribal and social ceremony, as well as every personal experience,” and “there is not a phase of life that does not find expression in song”; music, too, is “the medium through which man holds communion with his soul and with the unseen powers which control his destiny.” Music, in fact, “is coextensive with tribal life,” and “every public ceremony as well as each important act in the career of an individual has its accompaniment of song.” Moreover, “The music of each ceremony has its peculiar rhythm, so also have the classes of songs which pertain to individual acts: fasting and prayer, setting of traps, hunting, courtship, playing of games, facing and defying death.” In structure the Indian song “follows the outline of the form which obtains in our own music,” and “the compass of songs varies from 1 to 3 octaves.” Among some of the tribes with highly developed ceremonial observances “men and women, having clear resonant voices and good musical intonation, compose the choirs which lead the singing in ceremonies and are paid for the services.” A peculiar development of music among the Eskimo is seen in the “nith-songs,” by which controversies are settled, the parties to the dispute “singing at” each other till the public laughter, &c., proclaim one the victor. Among the American Indians songs belonging to individuals, societies, clans, &c., are met with, which have to be purchased by others from the owners, and even slight mistakes in the rendition of singing, dancing, &c., are heavily penalized. Musical contests were also known (e.g. among the Indians of the Pacific coast). The development of the “tribal song” among the Iroquoian peoples is seen in Hale’s Iroquois Book of Rites (1881). Songs having no words, but merely changeless vocables, are common. As Dr Boas has pointed out, the genius of the American Indian has been devoted more to the production of songs than to the invention of musical instruments. The musical instruments known to the aborigines north of Mexico, before contact with the whites, according to Miss Fletcher (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 960), were drums of great variety in size and form, from the plank or box of some of the tribes of the North Pacific coast to the shaman’s drums of the Algonkian and Iroquoian peoples; whistles of bone, wood, pottery, &c. (often employed in ceremonies to imitate the voices of birds, animals and spirits); flageolet or flute (widely distributed and used by young men in courtship among the Siouan tribes); the musical bow (found among the Maidu of California and important in religion and sorcery). Rattles of gourd, skin, shell, wood, &., are universal, and among some of the tribes of the south-west “notched sticks are rasped together or on gourds, bones or baskets to accentuate rhythm.” From the rattle in the Pueblos region developed a sort of ball of clay or metal.

So far as is known, the primitive culture of the aborigines of North America is fundamentally indigenous, being the reactions of the Indian to his environment, added to whatever rude equipment of body and of mind was Culture of Indians essentially indigenous. possessed by the human beings who at some remote epoch reached the new world from the old, if, indeed, America was not, as Ameghino, on the basis of the discoveries of fossil anthropoids and fossil man in southern South America, maintains, the scene of origin of man himself.

Professor A. H. Keane (Internat. Monthly, vol. v., 1902, pp. 338-357), Stewart Culin (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. vol. lii., 1903, pp. 495-500) and Dr Richard Andree (Stzgsb. d. anthrop. Ges. in Wien, 1906, pp. 87-98) all agree as to the general autochthony of aboriginal American culture. The day of the argument for borrowing on the ground of mere resemblances in beliefs, institutions, implements, inventions, &c., is past. An admirable instance of the results of exact scientific research in this respect is to be found in Dr Franz Boas’s discussion (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1908, pp. 321-344) of the needle-cases of the Alaskan Eskimo, which were at first supposed to be of foreign (Polynesian) origin. Other examples occur in Mr Culin’s study of American Indian games, where, for the first time, the relation of certain of them in their origin and development, and sometimes also in their degeneration and decay, is made clear. The independent origin in America of many things which other races have again and again invented and re-invented in other parts of the world must now be conceded.

The extreme north-western region of North America has recently been shown to be of great importance to the ethnologists. The investigations in this part of America and among the more or less primitive peoples of north-eastern Asia, carried on by the Jesup North Pacific expedition in 1897-1902, have resulted in showing that within what may be called the “Bering Sea culture-area” transmissions of culture have taken place from north-eastern Siberia to north-western America and vice versa. The only known example, however, of the migration of any people one way or the other is the case of the Asiatic Eskimo, who are undoubtedly of American origin, and it seems probable, in the language of Dr Boas, the organizer of the Jesup expedition and the editor of its publications, that “the Chukchee, Koryak, Kamchadal and Yukaghir must be classed with the American race rather than with the Asiatic race,” and possibly also some of the other isolated Siberian tribes; also that, “in a broad classification of languages, the languages of north-eastern Siberia should be classed with the languages of America” (Proc. Intern. Congr. Amer., New York, 1902, pp. 91-102). It appears, further, that the arrival of the Eskimo on the Pacific coast (this, although not recent, is comparatively late) from their home in the interior, near or east of the Mackenzie, “interrupted at an early period the communication between the Siberian and Indian tribes, which left its trace in many cultural traits common to the peoples on both sides of the Bering Sea.”

This establishment of the essential unity of the culture-type (language, mythology, certain arts, customs, beliefs, &c.) of the “Palaeo-Asiatic” peoples of north-eastern Siberia and that of the American Indians of the North Pacific coast, as demonstrated especially by the investigations of Jochelson, Bogoras, &c., is one of the most notable results of recent organized ethnological research. No such clear proof has been afforded of the theory of Polynesian influence farther south on the Pacific coast of America, believed in, more or less, by certain ethnologists (Ratzel, Mason, &c.). This theory rests largely upon resemblances in arts (clubs, masks and the like in particular), tattooing, mythic motifs, &c. But several things here involved, if not really American in origin, are so recent that they may perhaps be accounted for by such Hawaiian and other Polynesian contact as resulted from the establishment of the whale and seal-fisheries in the 18th century.

Between the Indians of North America and those of South America few instances of contact and intercommunication, or even of transference of material products and ideas, have been substantiated. It is by way of the Antilles and the Bahamas that such contact as actually occurred took place. In 1894 (Amer. Anthrop. vol. vii. p. 71-79) Professor W. H. Holmes pointed out traces of Caribbean influences in the ceramic art of the Florida-Georgia region belonging to the period just before the Columbian discovery. The decorative designs in question, paddle-stamp patterns, &c., akin to the motives on the wooden and stone stools from the Caribbean areas in the West Indies, have been found as far north as 36° in North Carolina and as far west as 84° in Tennessee and 89° in south-eastern Alabama. But the evidence does not prove the existence of Carib colonies at any time in any part of this region, but simply the migration from the West Indies to the North American coast of certain art features adopted by the Indians of the Timuquan and Muskogian Indians and (later) in part by the Cherokee. More recently (1907) Dr F. G. Speck, in a discussion of the aboriginal culture of the south-eastern states (Amer. Anthrop. vol. ix., n.s., pp. 287-295), cites as proof of Antillean or Caribbean influence in addition to that indicated by Holmes, the following: employment of the blow-gun in hunting, use of hammock as baby-cradle, peculiar storage-scaffold in one corner of house, plastering houses with clay, poisoning fish with vegetable juices. It is possible also that the North American coast may have been visited from time to time by small bodies of natives from the West Indies in search of the mythic fountain of youth (Bimini), the position of which had shifted from the Bahamas to Florida in its movement westward. Indeed, just about the time of the advent of the Europeans in this part of the world a number of Indians from Cuba, on such a quest, landed on the south-western shore of Florida, where they were captured by the Calusas, among whom they seem to have maintained a separate existence down to 1570 or later. This Arawakan colony, indicated on the map of linguistic stocks of American Indians north of Mexico, published by the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1907, is the only one demonstrated to have existed, but there may have been others of a more temporary character. In the languages of this region there are to be detected perhaps a few loan-words from Arawakan or Cariban dialects. The exaggerated ideas entertained by some authorities concerning the “mound-builders” of the valley of the Ohio and Mississippi and their alleged “civilization” have led them to assume, without adequate proof, long-continued relations of the tribes inhabiting this part of the country in the past with the ancient peoples of Yucatan and Mexico, or even an origin of their culture from beyond the Gulf. But since these mounds were in all probability wholly the work of the modern Indians of this area or their immediate ancestors, and the greater part, if not all, of the art and industry represented therein lies easily within the capacity of the aborigines of North America, the “Mexican” theory in this form appears unnecessary to explain the facts. In its support stress has been laid upon the nature of some of the copper implements and ornaments, particularly the types of elaborate repoussé work from Etowah, Georgia, &c. That the repoussé work was not beyond the skill of the Indian was shown by Cushing in his study of “Primitive Copper Working” (Amer. Anthrop. vol. vii. pp. 93-117), who did not consider the resemblance of these mound-specimens to the art of Mexico proof of extra-North American origin. Holmes (Handb. of Inds. N. of Mex., 1907, pt. i. p. 343) points out that the great mass of the copper of mounds came from the region of Lake Superior, and that had extensive intercourse between Mexico or Central America and the mound-country existed, or colonies from those southern parts been present in the area in question, artifacts of undoubtedly Mexican origin would have been found in the mounds in considerable abundance, and methods of manipulation peculiar to the south would have been much in evidence. The facts indicate at most some exotic influence from Mexico, &c., but nothing far-reaching in its effects.