Chapter III
Reading edition
THE GODS OF GAUL AND THE CONTINENTAL CELTS.
Several local gods, of agriculture, commerce, and culture, were thus identified with Mercury, and the Celtic Mercury was sometimes worshipped on hilltops, one of the epithets of the god, Dumias, being connected with the Celtic word for hill or mound. Irish gods were also associated with mounds.
Three divinities have claims to be the god whom Cæsar calls Dispater—a god with a hammer, a crouching god called Cernunnos, and a god called Esus or Silvanus. Possibly the native Dispater was differently envisaged in different districts, so that these would be local forms of one god.
Cernunnos may thus have been regarded as a three-headed, horned, squatting god, with a torque and ram's-headed serpent. But a horned god is sometimes a member of a triad, perhaps representing myths in which Cernunnos was associated with other gods. The three-headed god may be the same as the horned god, though on the Beaune altar they are distinct. The various representations are linked together, but it is not certain that all are varying types of one god. Horns, torque, horned snake, or even the triple head may have been symbols pertaining to more than one god, though generally associated with Cernunnos.
Notes in this chapter
Note 1 · Footnote 53: (return) Cæsar, de Bell. Gall. vi. 17, 18.Note 2 · Footnote 54: (return) Bloch (Lavisse), Hist, de France, i. 2, 419; Reinaoh, BF 13, 23.Note 3 · Footnote 55: (return) Trans. Gaelic Soc. of Inverness, xxvi. p. 411 f.Note 4 · Footnote 56: (return) Vallentin, Les Dieux de la cité des Allobroges, 15; Pliny, HN xxxiv. 7.Note 5 · Footnote 57: (return) These names are Alaunius, Arcecius, Artaius, Arvernorix, Arvernus, Adsmerius, Canetonensis, Clavariatis, Cissonius, CiNote 6 · Footnote 58: (return) Rh[^y]s, HL 6.Note 7 · Footnote 59: (return) Hübner, vii. 271; CIL iii. 5773.Note 8 · Footnote 60: (return) Lucian, Heracles, 1 f. Some Gaulish coins figure a head to which are bound smaller heads. In one case the cords issue Note 9 · Footnote 61: (return) The epithets and names are Anextiomarus, Belenos, Bormo, Borvo, or Bormanus, Cobledulitavus, Cosmis (?), Grannos, LiviNote 10 · Footnote 62: (return) Pommerol, Ball. de Soc. d'ant. de Paris, ii. fasc. 4.Note 11 · Footnote 63: (return) See Holder, s.v. Many place-names are derived from Borvo, e.g. Bourbon l'Archambaut, which gave its name to the BourboNote 12 · Footnote 64: (return) See p. 102, infra.Note 13 · Footnote 65: (return) Jul. Cap. Maxim. 22; Herodian, viii. 3; Tert. Apol. xxiv. 70; Auson. Prof. xi. 24.Note 14 · Footnote 66: (return) Stokes derives belinuntia from beljo-, a tree or leaf, Irish bile, US 174.Note 15 · Footnote 67: (return) Holder, s.v.; Stokes, US 197; Rh[^y]s, HL 23; see p. 180, infra.Note 16 · Footnote 68: (return) Diod. Sic. ii. 47.Note 17 · Footnote 69: (return) Apoll. Rhod. iv. 609.Note 18 · Footnote 70: (return) Albiorix, Alator, Arixo, Beladonnis, Barrex, Belatucadros, Bolvinnus, Braciaca, Britovis, Buxenus, Cabetius, Camulus, Note 19 · Footnote 71: (return) D'Arbois, ii. 215; Rh[^y]s, HL 37.Note 20 · Footnote 72: (return) So Rh[^y]s, HL 42.Note 21 · Footnote 73: (return) Hübner, 61.Note 22 · Footnote 74: (return) Holder, s.v.; Lucan, i. 444 f. The opinions of writers who take this view are collected by Reinach, RC xviii. 137.Note 23 · Footnote 75: (return) Holder, s.v. The Gaulish name Camulogenus, "born of Cumel," represents the same idea as in Fionn's surname, MacCumall.Note 24 · Footnote 76: (return) Athen. iv. 36; Dioscorides, ii. 110; Joyce, SH ii. 116, 120; IT i. 437, 697.Note 25 · Footnote 77: (return) Pliny, HN xviii. 7.Note 26 · Footnote 78: (return) Gaidoz, Le Dieu Gaulois de Soleil; Reinach, CS 98, BF 35; Blanchet, i. 27.Note 27 · Footnote 79: (return) Lucan, Phar. i. 444. Another form, Tanaros, may be simply the German Donar.Note 28 · Footnote 80: (return) Loth, i. 270.Note 29 · Footnote 81: (return) Gaidoz, RC vi. 457; Reinach, OS 65, 138; Blanchet, i. 160. The hammer is also associated with another Celtic Dispater,Note 30 · Footnote 82: (return) Reinach, BF 137 f.; Courcelle-Seneuil, 115 f.Note 31 · Footnote 83: (return) Barthelemy, RC i. l f.Note 32 · Footnote 84: (return) See Flouest, Rev. Arch. v. 17.Note 33 · Footnote 85: (return) Reinach, RC xvii. 45.Note 34 · Footnote 86: (return) D'Arbois, ii. 126. He explains Nantosvelta as meaning "She who is brilliant in war." The goddess, however, has none ofNote 35 · Footnote 87: (return) RC xviii. 254. Cernunnos may be the Juppiter Cernenos of an inscription from Pesth, Holder, s.v.Note 36 · Footnote 88: (return) Reinach, BF 186, fig. 177.Note 37 · Footnote 89: (return) Rev. Arch. xix. 322, pl. 9.Note 38 · Footnote 90: (return) Bertrand, Rev. Arch. xv. 339, xvi. pl. 12.Note 39 · Footnote 91: (return) Ibid. xv. pl. 9, 10.Note 40 · Footnote 92: (return) Ibid. xvi. 9.Note 41 · Footnote 93: (return) Ibid. pl. 12 bis.Note 42 · Footnote 94: (return) Bertrand, Rev. Arch. xvi. 8.Note 43 · Footnote 95: (return) Ibid. xvi. 10 f.Note 44 · Footnote 96: (return) Ibid. xv., xvi.; Reinach, BF 17, 191.Note 45 · Footnote 97: (return) Bull. Epig. i. 116; Strabo, iv. 3; Diod. Sic. v. 28.Note 46 · Footnote 98: (return) Diod. Sic. v. 30; Reinach, BF 193.Note 47 · Footnote 99: (return) See p. 212, infra.Note 48 · Footnote 100: (return) See p. 166, infra.Note 49 · Footnote 101: (return) See, e.g., Mowat, Bull. Epig. i. 29; de Witte, Rev. Arch. ii. 387, xvi. 7; Bertrand, ibid. xvi. 3.Note 50 · Footnote 102: (return) See pp. 102, 242, infra; Joyce, SH ii. 554; Curtin, 182; RC xxii. 123, xxiv. 18.Note 51 · Footnote 103: (return) Dom Martin, ii. 185; Reinach, BF 192, 199.Note 52 · Footnote 104: (return) See, however, p. 136, infra; and for another interpretation of this god as equivalent of the Irish Lug slaying Balor,Note 53 · Footnote 105: (return) See p. 229, infra.Note 54 · Footnote 106: (return) Reinach, BF 162, 184; Mowat, Bull. Epig. i. 62, Rev. Epig. 1887, 319, 1891, 84.Note 55 · Footnote 107: (return) Reinach, BF 141, 153, 175, 176, 181; see p. 218, infra. Flouest, Rev. Arch. 1885, i. 21, thinks that the identificatiNote 56 · Footnote 108: (return) Stokes, US 302; MacBain, 274; RC xxvi. 282.Note 57 · Footnote 109: (return) Gaidoz, Rev. Arch. ii. 1898; Mowat, Bull. Epig. i. 119; Courcelle-Seneuil, 80 f.; Pauly-Wissowa, Real. Lex. i. 667; DNote 58 · Footnote 110: (return) Lucan, i. 444; RC xviii. 254, 258.Note 59 · Footnote 111: (return) See p. 127, infra.Note 60 · Footnote 112: (return) For a supposed connection between this bas-relief and the myth of Geryon, see Reinach, BF 120; RC xviii. 258 f.Note 61 · Footnote 113: (return) Coins of the Ancient Britons, 386; Holder, i. 1475, 1478.Note 62 · Footnote 114: (return) For these theories see Dom Martin, ii. 2; Bertrand, 335 f.Note 63 · Footnote 115: (return) Cf. Reinach, RC xviii. 149.Note 64 · Footnote 116: (return) Orelli, 2107, 2072; Monnier, 532; Tacitus, xxi. 38.Note 65 · Footnote 117: (return) Holder, i. 824; Reinach, Rev. Arch. xx. 262; D'Arbois, Les Celtes, 20. Other grouped gods are the Bacucei, Castoeci, Note 66 · Footnote 118: (return) For all these see Holder, s.v.Note 67 · Footnote 119: (return) Professor Anwyl gives the following statistics: There are 35 goddesses mentioned once, 2 twice, 3 thrice, 1 four timeNote 68 · Footnote 120: (return) Cæsar, vi. 17.Note 69 · Footnote 121: (return) D'Arbois, Les Celtes, 54; Rev. Arch. i. 201. See Holder, s.v.Note 70 · Footnote 122: (return) Solinus, xxii. 10; Holder, s.v.Note 71 · Footnote 123: (return) Ptolemy, ii. 2.Note 72 · Footnote 124: (return) See p. 71, infra.Note 73 · Footnote 125: (return) Dio Cass. lxii. 7; Amm. Mare, xxvii. 4. 4.Note 74 · Footnote 126: (return) Plutarch, de Vir. Mul. 20; Arrian, Cyneg. xxxiv. 1.Note 75 · Footnote 127: (return) S. Greg. Hist. viii. 15.Note 76 · Footnote 128: (return) Grimm, Teut. Myth. 283, 933; Reinach, RC xvi. 261.Note 77 · Footnote 129: (return) Reinach, BF 50.Note 78 · Footnote 130: (return) Holder, i. 1286; Robert, RC iv. 133.Note 79 · Footnote 131: (return) Rh[^y]s, HL 27.Note 80 · Footnote 132: (return) Anwyl, Celt. Rev. 1906, 43.Note 81 · Footnote 133: (return) Holder, s.v.; Bulliot, RC ii. 22.Note 82 · Footnote 134: (return) Holder, i. 10, 89.Note 83 · Footnote 135: (return) Holder, s.v.; see p. 213, infra.Note 84 · Footnote 136: (return) Holder, ii. 463. They are very numerous in South-East Gaul, where also three-headed gods are found.Note 85 · Footnote 137: (return) See pp. 274-5, infra.Note 86 · Footnote 138: (return) Courcelle-Seneuil, 80-81.Note 87 · Footnote 139: (return) See my article "Calendar" in Hastings' Encyclop. of Religion and Ethics, iii. 80.Note 88 · Footnote 140: (return) CIL v. 4208, 5771, vii. 927; Holder, ii. 89.Note 89 · Footnote 141: (return) For all these titles see Holder, s.v.Note 90 · Footnote 142: (return) There is a large literature devoted to the Matres. See De Wal, Die Mæder Gottinem; Vallentin, Le Culte des Matræ; DarNote 91 · Footnote 143: (return) See Maury, Fées du Moyen Age; Sébillot, i. 262; Monnier, 439 f.; Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 286 f.; Vallentin, RNote 92 · Footnote 144: (return) Anwyl, Celt. Rev. 1906, 28. Cf. Y Foel Famau, "the hill of the Mothers," in the Clwydian range.Note 93 · Footnote 145: (return) See p. 73, infra.Note 94 · Footnote 146: (return) Vallentin, op. cit. iv. 29; Maury, Croyances du Moyen Age, 382.Note 95 · Footnote 147: (return) Holder, s.v.Note 96 · Footnote 148: (return) See pp. 69, 317, infra.Note 97 · Footnote 149: (return) For all these see Holder, s.v.; Rh[^y]s, HL 103; RC iv. 34.Note 98 · Footnote 150: (return) Florus, ii. 4.Note 99 · Footnote 151: (return) See the table of identifications, p. 125, infra.Note 100 · Footnote 152: (return) We need not assume with Jullian, 18, that there was one supreme god, now a war-god, now a god of peace. Any prominentNote 101 · The passage in which Cæsar sums up the Gaulish pantheon runs: "They worship chiefly the god Mercury; of him there are many symbols, and theyNote 102 · As will be seen in this chapter, the Gauls had many other gods than these, while the Roman gods, by whose names Cæsar calls the Celtic divinNote 103 · There were probably in Gaul many local gods, tribal or otherwise, of roads and commerce, of the arts, of healing, etc., who, bearing differeNote 104 · The god or gods identified with Mercury were very popular in Gaul, as Cæsar's words and the witness of place-names derived from the Roman naNote 105 · Commerce, much developed among the settled Gauls, gave rise to a god or gods who guarded roads over which merchants travelled, and boundarieNote 106 · Another god, Ogmíos, a native god of speech, who draws men by chains fastened to the tip of his tongue, is identified in Lucian with HeracleNote 107 · Many local gods were identified with Apollo both in his capacity of god of healing and also that of god of light.61 The two functions are noNote 108 · The name Belenos found over a wide area, but mainly in Aquileia, comes from belo-s, bright, and probably means "the shining one." It is thusNote 109 · A god with the name Maponos, connected with words denoting "youthfulness," is found in England and Gaul, equated with Apollo, who himself isNote 110 · The Celtic Apollo is referred to by classical writers. Diodorus speaks of his circular temple in an island of the Hyperboreans, adorned withNote 111 · Some sixty names or titles of Celtic war-gods are known, generally equated with Mars.70 These were probably local tribal divinities regardedNote 112 · Toutatis, Totatis, and Tutatis are found in inscriptions from Seckau, York, and Old Carlisle, and may be identified with Lucan's Teutates, wNote 113 · Neton, a war-god of the Accetani, has a name connected with Irish nia, "warrior," and may be equated with the Irish war-god Nét. Another godNote 114 · Another god equated with Mars is the Gaulish Braciaca, god of malt. According to classical writers, the Celts were drunken race, and besidesNote 115 · Cæsar says that the Celtic Juppiter governed heaven. A god who carries a wheel, probably a sun-god, and another, a god of thunder, called TaNote 116 · 1. The god Taranis mentioned by Lucan is probably the Taranoos and Taranucnos of inscriptions, sometimes equated with Juppiter.79 These nameNote 117 · Primitive men, whose only weapon and tool was a stone axe or hammer, must have regarded it as a symbol of force, then of supernatural force,Note 118 · The god with the hammer is a gracious bearded figure, clad in Gaulish dress, and he carries also a cup. His plastic type is derived from thaNote 119 · 2. A bearded god, probably squatting, with horns from each of which hangs a torque, is represented on an altar found at Paris.87 He is calleNote 120 · (a) A bronze statuette from Autun represents a similar figure, probably horned, who presents a torque to two ram's-headed serpents. Fixed abNote 121 · (b) Another squatting horned figure with a torque occurs on an altar from Reims. He presses a bag, from which grain escapes, and on it an oxNote 122 · (c) Another image represents a three-faced god, holding a serpent with a ram's head.94Note 123 · (d) Above a seated god and goddess on an altar from Malmaison is a block carved to represent three faces. To be compared with these are seveNote 124 · The squatting attitude of the god has been differently explained, and its affinities regarded now as Buddhist, now as Greco-Egyptian.96 But Note 125 · Though many attempts have been made to prove the non-Celtic origin of the three-headed divinities or of their images,101 there is no reason Note 126 · The significance of the triad on these monuments is uncertain but since the supporting divinities are now male, now female, now male and femNote 127 · On a Paris altar and on certain steles a god attacks a serpent with a club. The serpent is a chthonian animal, and the god, called SmertulloNote 128 · Dispater was a god of growth and fertility, and besides being lord of the underworld of the dead, not necessarily a dark region or the abodeNote 129 · 3. The hammer and the cup are also the symbols of a god called Silvanus, identified by M. Mowat with Esus,106 a god represented cutting downNote 130 · Thus the Celtic Dispater had various names and forms in different regions, and could be assimilated to different foreign gods. Since Earth aNote 131 · Lucan mentions a god Esus, who is represented on a Paris altar as a woodman cutting down a tree, the branches of which are carried round to Note 132 · The insular Celts believed that some of their gods lived on or in hills. We do not know whether such a belief was entertained by the Gauls, Note 133 · Certain grouped gods, Dii Casses, were worshipped by Celts on the right bank of the Rhine, but nothing is known regarding their functions, uNote 134 · Many local tutelar divinities were also worshipped. When a new settlement was founded, it was placed under the protection of a tribal god, oNote 135 · The Celtic cult of goddesses took two forms, that of individual and that of grouped goddesses, the latter much more numerous than the groupeNote 136 · The Celtic Minerva, or the goddesses equated with her, "taught the elements of industry and the arts,"120 and is thus the equivalent of the Note 137 · Some war-goddesses are associated with Mars—Nemetona (in Britain and Germany), perhaps the same as the Irish Nemon, and Cathubodua, identicaNote 138 · A goddess of the chase was identified with Artemis in Galatia, where she had a priestess Camma, and also in the west. At the feast of the GaNote 139 · Goddesses, the earlier spirits of the waters, protected rivers and springs, or were associated with gods of healing wells. Dirona or Sirona Note 140 · In some cases forests were ruled by goddesses—that of the Ardennes by Dea Arduinna, and the Black Forest, perhaps because of the many watersNote 141 · Of these the Deoe Matres, whose name has taken a Latin form and whose cult extended to the Teutons, are mentioned in many inscriptions all oNote 142 · In the Matres, primarily goddesses of fertility and plenty, we have one of the most popular and also primitive aspects of Celtic religion. TNote 143 · Popular superstition has preserved the memory of these goddesses in the three bonnes dames, dames blanches, and White Women, met by wayfarerNote 144 · In inscriptions from Eastern and Cisalpine Gaul, and from the Rhine and Danube region, the Matronæ are mentioned, and this name is probably Note 145 · Akin also to the Matres are the Suleviæ, guardian goddesses called Matres in a few inscriptions; the Comedovæ, whose name perhaps denotes guNote 146 · Some Roman gods are found on inscriptions without being equated with native deities. They may have been accepted by the Gauls as new gods, oNote 147 · The pantheon of the continental Celts was a varied one. Traces of the primitive agricultural rites, and of the priority of goddesses to gods