Book 2 — A BRIEF RÉSUMÉ OF SPANISH HISTORY (711-1902 A.D.)

THE KINGDOM OF ASTURIAS; AFTERWARDS CALLED OF OVIEDO, AND THEN OF LEON (711-1037 A.D.)

711 Battle of the Guadalete and downfall of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. The Moors spread over the peninsula.

718 Pelayo (Pelagius) elected king by Spanish fugitives who had taken refuge in the mountains of Asturias. The Moors invade the district but are defeated at the cave of Covadonga and driven back. The Christians are left in peace to found the kingdom of Asturias.

722 Leon taken by Pelayo.

737 Favila, son of Pelayo, succeeds him.

739 Alfonso I, the Catholic, son-in-law of Pelayo, greatly extends his territory; acquires towns in Galicia, Lusitania, Leon, and Castile, and rules over Biscay and Navarre.

757 Fruela I makes Oviedo his capital. The harshness of his rule rouses his subjects to revolt and they put him to death.

768 Aurelio or Aurelius, nephew of Alfonso I, succeeds, and is followed by

774 Silo, his brother, who removes his court to Pravia.

778 Battle of Roncesvalles, in which the Spaniards ascribe the defeat of Charlemagne to Bernardo del Carpio, nephew of Alfonso II.

784 Mauregato the Usurper, to whom was ascribed the promise to pay the Moors a tribute of one hundred damsels.

788 Bermudo (Veremundo) I the Deacon is persuaded to accept the crown, but after three years resigns it.

791 Alfonso (II) the Chaste establishes his court at Oviedo, and firmly establishes his kingdom. The stories of the exploits of his nephew, Bernardo del Carpio, are probably mere fables with a slight foundation of truth.

842 Ramiro I. Revolts of the counts Nepotiano and Aldrete suppressed. The Northmen land at Corunna and ravage the district. Ramiro defeats them and burns seventy of their ships.

844 Supposed battle of Clavigo or Clavijo, in which Ramiro was said to have defeated the Moors with great slaughter by the aid of Santiago, who appeared in person on a white horse.

850 Ordoño I fortifies his frontier cities and defeats the Moors in several conflicts, notably at Albelda, and successfully asserts his authority over his own nobles. Northmen defeated in Galicia.

866 Alfonso (III) the Great. The beginning of his reign is disturbed by pretenders and other rebels.

873 Navarre, which had maintained towards Asturias a fitful allegiance constantly disturbed by Frankish intrigue, is conferred on Count Sancho Iñigo. Mohammedans frequently defeated by Alfonso, who advances his borders to the Guadiana. Leon becomes the capital. Battle of Zamora and defeat of the Mohammedans.

907 Rebellion of Alfonso’s son Garcia Nuño Fernandez, count of Castile, and other nobles. The prince is imprisoned. Revolt in his favour. Alfonso abdicates and divides his territories amongst his three sons, Ordoño receiving Galicia, Fruela Oviedo, and

910 Garcia the kingdom of Asturias. Alfonso successfully invades Mohammedan territory. He dies soon after. Garcia makes Leon his capital and assumes the title of king of Leon.

914 Ordoño II reunites Galicia with Leon.

917 Alhange stormed and the garrison massacred by Ordoño. Merida purchases peace. Further victories won by Ordoño over the Mohammedans.

918 Abd ar-Rahman III defeated at San Pedro de Gormaz.

921 Battle of Val de Junquera. Ordoño and his Navarrese allies are defeated by Abd ar-Rahman, owing to the defection of the counts of Castile. They are seized and put to death. Ordoño suppresses the rebellion to avenge them and defeats the Moors at Rioja.

923 Fruela II, brother of Ordoño, elected to the throne.

925 Alfonso IV.

930 Abdication of Alfonso. He retires to a monastery.

931 Attempting soon after to recover the throne, he is taken and blinded by his brother, Ramiro II.

939 Battle of Simancas. Ramiro defeats Abd ar-Rahman III. Fernan Gonsalez and Diego Nuñez, counts of Castile, revolt. They are subdued and imprisoned, but then restored to office. Fernan’s daughter Urracais married to Ramiro’s son, who succeeds his father as

950 Ordoño III. His brother Sancho and Fernan Gonsalez revolt, and are aided by the Navarrese. Ordoño triumphs over them and quells a Galician revolt.

955 Ordoño IV makes himself king by gaining over the troops of

956 Sancho (I) the Fat, who recovers his rights with the help of Cordovan troops.

967 Ramiro III.

968 The Northmen under Gundered invade and waste Galicia and great part of Leon during two years, till they are finally overthrown and destroyed by the count of Galicia and their vessels are burned.

979 Almansor, regent of Cordova, collects an army against Leon and defeats

981 Ramiro at Zamora and Simancas.

982 Indecisive battle of Monterroso between Ramiro and the pretender Bermudo who, on the death of Ramiro, succeeds as Bermudo or Veremundo (II) the Gouty. His reign is occupied by continuous rebellions under Rodrigo Velasquez, Conancio, Gonzalo Bermudez, and others, while Almansor constantly increases his territory, taking city after city, including Coimbra, which he destroyed, Leon, whose fortifications he razed, Compostella, whence he carried off the gates and bells of the shrine of St. James.

999 Alfonso V (under the regency of Gonsalvo).

1002 Death of Almansor after his defeat at the perhaps fabulous battle of Calatanazar. Order restored in the kingdom of Leon. The capital is rebuilt. Beneficial laws proclaimed. Sancho Garces, count of Castile, rebels.

1021 Garcia succeeds Sancho as count of Castile.

1026 Murder of Garcia at his marriage with the princess of Leon. The northern part of Castile annexed to Navarre. Alfonso invades Portugal and is killed at the siege of Viseu.

1027 Bermudo III. Sancho the Great of Navarre conquers part of Leon. Bermudo wins several fortresses from the Mohammedans.

1037 Battle of Carrion. Bermudo slain in battle with Ferdinand I, king of Castile, who is recognised as king of Leon, Galicia, and Asturias, in right of his wife, Bermudo’s sister.

RISE OF CASTILE (739-1037 A.D.)

739-757 Alfonso I of Leon erects fortresses (castella) in the ancient province of Cantabria, called in the eighth century Bardulia, and then Castile.

860 Rodrigo, count of Castile.

866 Diego Rodriguez, Porcellos, count.

882 Burgos founded.

Gonzalo Fernandez.

Nuño Fernandez.

932 Fernan Gonsalez revolts against Ramiro II of Leon and is defeated and captured by him, but is restored to office. His daughter Urraca marries Ramiro’s son Ordoño (III).

950 Revolt of Fernan against Ordoño III with whose brother Sancho he invades Leon, but is repulsed. Ordoño repudiates Urraca. She marries the son of Alfonso IV of Leon, afterwards Ordoño IV. Fernan Gonsalez is credited by the older writers with great achievements in the struggle with the Moors.

970 Garcia Fernandez, count. His son Sancho Garces rebels against him. The story of the infantes De Lara, their betrayal to the Moors, their murder and the vengeance taken by their half-brother Mudarra, belongs to this reign.

995 The Cordovans defeat and capture Garcia. He dies of his wounds. Sancho Garces, count.

1021 Garcia, count.

1026 Birth of Ruy, or Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, called el Cid Campeador (the Lord Champion). Garcia betrothed to the daughter of Alfonso V of Leon with the promise of the title of king. Garcia murdered at the wedding. Sancho the Great of Navarre annexes the northern part of Castile and assumes the sovereignty of the whole in right of his wife, Muña Elvira, Garcia’s sister; and on his death his son

1035 Ferdinand (I) the Great becomes king of Castile with the district between the Pisuerga and the Cea, which had been conquered from Leon by Sancho the Great and which Bermudo III attempts to recover, but is slain in the

1037 Battle of Carrion. Ferdinand, as the husband of Bermudo’s sister, succeeds to the kingdom of Leon, after a slight resistance from the population.

KINGDOMS OF CASTILE AND LEON (1037-1156 A.D.)

1037 Ferdinand (I) the Great, king of Leon and Castile. He establishes his capital at Leon; confirms and adds to the laws of Alfonso V; subdues the rebellious barons, and engages in a war with his brother Garcia III of Navarre, who at the

1054 battle of Atapuerca is defeated and slain.

1055 Ferdinand takes Cea and other fortresses from the Mohammedans. Viseu and Lamego taken (1057), and

1064 Coimbra. The king of Toledo becomes a vassal of Leon. Valencia and Andalusia invaded by Ferdinand. On his death

1065 Sancho II becomes king of Castile. Alfonso VI king of Leon and Garcia king of Galicia. Ferdinand’s daughters, Urraca and Elvira, receive Zamora and Toro.

1068 Battle of Golpejara on the Pisuerga. Alfonso defeats Sancho, but on the arrival of the Cid is in his turn defeated by Sancho.

1071 At the battle of Valpellage Sancho defeats Alfonso VI and imprisons him in a monastery, whence he escapes to Toledo. Garcia then seizes the lands of Urraca,

1072 but is attacked at Santarem by Sancho, who is at first defeated and taken prisoner, but afterwards released by the Cid. The Castilians in their turn defeat and capture Garcia, who is either held prisoner or made tributary. Sancho now besieges his sister Urraca in Zamora, but is assassinated before the walls.

1073 Alfonso VI returns, is elected at Burgos, and acknowledged by Leonnese, Castilians, and Galicians, but an oath is exacted of his innocence of Sancho’s death. The oath is administered by the Cid, who incurs Alfonso’s lasting enmity. Garcia kept prisoner.

1074 Expedition of Alfonso to aid the king of Toledo in resisting the king of Cordova. Alfonso invades Portugal, and makes several Mohammedan governors tributary. Marriage of the Cid and Ximena.

1077 The Council of Burgos declines to accept the Roman ritual, but the supremacy of Rome is acknowledged by Alfonso.

1081 The Cid banished for waging independent war against the king of Granada. He takes service with the Mohammedan ruler of Saragossa.

1084 Toledo is taken by Alfonso from Yahya ben Ismail after a siege of two years, and becomes the capital of the kingdom. Alfonso in return for its surrender promised to maintain Yahya in possession of Valencia, but failed to do so.

1086 Battle of Zallaka. Yusuf, king of the Almoravids, comes to the aid of the Spanish Moors, and defeats the forces of Castile, Aragon, and Barcelona. Alfonso resumes the offensive. The Cid is said to have been active in all these wars: after being banished by Alfonso he carried on hostilities on his own account, and after his restoration to favour was foremost in the great siege of Toledo, after which he again waged war on his own account, subduing many Moorish chiefs, including the kings of Saragossa and Valencia. The latter being deposed and slain by a rival,

1094 the Cid laid siege to the city and took it after a long and famous siege. He was in

1100 his turn twice besieged there, and after his death (1099) the Moors regained possession.

1108 Yusuf’s successor Ali inflicted a severe defeat on Alfonso in the battle of Ucles or Urcesia.

1109 Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VI, succeeds to Castile and Leon. Her second husband Alfonso I of Aragon, el Batallador, is recognised as Alfonso VII of Castile and Leon, and assumes the title of emperor of Spain. Alfonso Raymond, Urraca’s son by her first marriage, inherits Galicia. Domestic quarrels and war between Urraca and her husband. A party declares for Alfonso Raymond, and after a long period of civil war and anarchy he is recognised on Urraca’s death as

1126 Alfonso (VII) Raymond (also called Alfonso VIII). Peace arranged between him and his stepfather.

1134 On the latter’s death at Fraga the king of Castile protects Aragon from the Moors, and occupies several Aragonese fortresses, which he only restores to Aragon as fiefs.

1135 The rulers of Navarre, Barcelona, and Toulouse do Alfonso homage. He assumes the title of emperor of all Spain. War with Navarre and the count of Portugal.

1140 Tourney of Valdevez. The Castilian knights defeated by the Portuguese. Alfonso Henriques of Portugal assumes the title of king. Alliance between Castile and Aragon for the partition of Navarre fails.

1143 A formal treaty between Alfonso Raymond and Alfonso Henriques of Portugal recognises the latter as king of Portugal.

1146 Castile and Aragon come to the aid of the Almoravids against the Almohads and

1147 aided by the fleets of Pisa and Genoa take Almeria. The Christian frontiers are advanced to the Sierra Morena.

1156 The knightly order of San Julian del Pereyro, afterwards called of Alcantara, founded to resist the Moors.

TEMPORARY SEPARATION OF CASTILE AND LEON (1157-1230 A.D.)

1157 Sancho III inherits Castile, and Ferdinand II Leon.

1158 Alfonso (VIII) (III of Castile) the Noble succeeds Sancho III at the age of three. His minority is occupied by quarrels for the regency leading to civil war between the noble houses of Lara and Castro. Ferdinand of Leon also claims the chief power and invades the country, while the Navarrese seize several border fortresses.

1169 Cortes of Burgos. The cities send representatives.

1170 Anarchy finally ended by Alfonso’s assuming the government himself when he concludes an alliance with Raymond, regent of Aragon, and marries Eleanor, daughter of Henry II of England.

1175 Order of the knights of Santiago founded.

1188 Alfonso IX of Leon succeeds Ferdinand II. Disputes and hostilities between him and the king of Castile.

1195 The two Alfonsos make an alliance against the Moors, but are severely defeated at Alarcon, whereupon they make war on each other.

1197 Peace between Leon and Castile consolidated by the marriage of Berengaria, daughter of Alfonso of Castile, to Alfonso of Leon. Pope Innocent III, who had already dissolved the king of Leon’s marriage with Teresa of Portugal, excommunicates the sovereign of Leon, and lays the kingdom under an interdict. After a struggle of six years the king and queen separate, but their children are recognised as legitimate. War between the two Alfonsos.

1212 Innocent III, aided by Alfonso of Castile, brings about an alliance of the Christian states in the peninsula and, in the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, they unite and inflict a crushing defeat on the Mohammedans. On this occasion the Spanish Christians were reinforced by large numbers of crusaders from abroad.

1214 Henry I, a minor, succeeds Alfonso VIII of Castile. Berengaria is appointed regent, but Alvaro Nuñez de Lara contrives to supplant her, and rules in tyrannical fashion till the death of Henry in 1217, when Berengaria succeeds, but immediately abdicates in favour of her son, the heir of Leon.

1217 Ferdinand (III) the Saint. His father, Alfonso of Leon, supported by Alvaro Nuñez, invades Castile. The nobles rally round Ferdinand; Alvaro is taken, and peace made with Alfonso.

CASTILE AND LEON FROM THEIR PERMANENT REUNION TO THE ACCESSION OF FERDINAND THE CATHOLIC (1230-1479 A.D.)

1230 Murcia is invaded by Ferdinand, who is besieging Jaen when he hears of his father’s death. Berengaria persuades his half-sisters to waive their pretensions, and Ferdinand reunites the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. He continues his victorious career against the Moors, takes Cordova, occupies Murcia and part of Andalusia (1235), and

1248 takes Seville.

1252 Alfonso (X) el Sabio (the Learned). Xeres de la Frontera, Medina Sidonia, and Cadiz pass into his hands.

1254 Eleanor, the king’s daughter, marries Prince Edward (Edward I) of England.

1257 The king claims the duchy of Swabia, and having wasted large sums in fruitless endeavours to secure election to the German Empire, he replenishes his coffers by debasing the coinage, persecuting the Jews, and other arbitrary measures.

1263 The Castilian rights over Algarve ceded to Portugal on the marriage of the Portuguese king with Beatrice, daughter of Alfonso el Sabio. Certain Castilian nobles make this an excuse to revolt, and demand redress of grievances and extraordinary privileges, which Alfonso weakly concedes.

1275 Death of the king’s eldest son, the infante Ferdinand de la Cerda. The cortes declare Ferdinand’s brother Sancho the next heir, to the exclusion of Ferdinand’s sons, the infantes de la Cerda, whose cause is espoused by their uncle, the king of France.

1281 War between Alfonso and Sancho. The nobles rally round Sancho, who makes alliance with the kings of Aragon and Portugal, and declares himself king. The war is only concluded by the defeat of Sancho a few months before Alfonso’s death. Alfonso is best known for the encouragement he gave to learning, and the important literary productions which bear his name—some of his own work, and others compiled by his order. They include the code of laws called Las Siete Partidas (promulgated in 1258); the astronomical work called the Alfonsine Tables (drawn up in 1253); the Crónica General de España, a translation of the Holy Bible, and some poems.

1284 Sancho the Great and the Brave (or Bravo). The reign is disturbed by the constant rebellions of the Laras and the king’s brother Don Juan, and the infantes de la Cerda, aided by Aragon, and supported by France.

1292 Alonzo Perez de Guzman the Good takes Tarifa from the Moors, and maintains it against the emperor of Morocco and Don Juan, refusing to surrender even to save his son whom Juan murders before the walls.

1295 The accession of Ferdinand (IV) el Emplazado (the Summoned) at the age of nine, gives fresh impulse to anarchy. The Hermandad or brotherhood of citizens is formed to resist the lawless depredations of the nobles. The queen-mother, Maria de Molina, recognizes it, and opposes a bold resistance to rival pretenders and domestic and foreign enemies.

1301 She obtains the papal recognition of her marriage, and of the legitimacy of Ferdinand IV, but nevertheless the struggles with turbulent barons continue during the remainder of the reign.

1305 Treaty of Campillo puts an end to the struggle for the succession. Ferdinand begins to reign in his own name.

1310 Trial of the Templars at Salamanca. Their solemn acquittal does not prevent the suppression of their order in Castile as elsewhere.

1312 Mysterious death of Ferdinand, as was said, by the judgment of God. Alfonso XI, an infant, succeeds. Return of anarchy in the struggle for the regency.

1315 The regency divided between the infantes Pedro and Juan, the king’s uncles.

1319 Both regents slain in battle with the Moors.

1320 Don Juan Manuel assumes the regency. Civil wars with rival claimants.

1324 The king assumes the government, but fails to restore order. He murders his cousin, Juan el Tuerto, and by repudiating his own wife, daughter of Don Juan Manuel, provokes the latter to rebellion.

1328 Right of the cortes to a voice in important affairs of state recognised by the king. He undertakes for himself and successors to impose no tax without the consent of the cortes.

1339 Abul Hakam, emir of Fez, arrives in Spain with a large army. Alfonso aided by troops from Aragon and Portugal defeats him in the great

1340 Battle of Salado. Abul Hakam flees to Africa.

1344 Algeciras taken by Alfonso after a long siege.

1350 Death of Alfonso by the Black Death at the siege of Gibraltar. It was to pay for this war that the alcavala, a tax of one-twentieth on all sales of real property, was first granted. Alfonso XI patronised letters, and ordered the continuation of the Crónica of Alfonso X which was intrusted to a royal chronicler. The code of Alfonso X was also brought into use in this reign. Pedro the Cruel. Leonora de Guzman, the late king’s mistress, imprisoned and her sons driven into exile.

1351 Murder of Leonora de Guzman and of Garcilasso de la Vega, adelantado of Castile.

1352 Henry of Trastamara and Don Tello, Leonora’s sons, revolt and form a league against

1353 Pedro. The king marries Blanche de Bourbon, a French princess, but immediately forsakes her for Maria de Padilla, retaining Blanche a prisoner.

1354 Ferdinand Perez de Castro revolts in revenge for the king’s false marriage with his sister Juana. The citizens of Toledo take arms for Blanche. Meeting at Toro between Pedro and his barons. Pedro consents to reinstate Blanche.

1355 Pedro takes Toledo, imprisons Blanche at Siguenza, executes several rebels, and massacres the Jewish merchants. The kingdom laid under an interdict.

1356 Toro taken by Pedro from his mother. He massacres her partisans before her eyes. Pedro engages in a war with Portugal, in which many Castilian nobles join the foreigner.

1358 Don Fadrique, grand-master of Santiago and son of Leonora de Guzman, slain by Pedro’s own hand and his partisans murdered. Murder of Don Juan, infante of Aragon.

1361 Portuguese refugees delivered up to Pedro I of Portugal in exchange for Castilians who had fled to Portugal, and execution of the persons surrendered. Blanche de Bourbon poisoned.

1362 Maria de Padilla dies. Pedro declares her son his lawful heir. Abu Saïd, king of Granada, comes to ask Pedro’s assistance and is robbed and murdered by him.

1363 The Black Prince (of Wales) concludes an alliance with Pedro the Cruel to meet a threatened invasion of Castile from France. The French, under Du Guesclin, unite with the party of Henry of Trastamara, who, supported by Aragon, claims Pedro’s throne.

1366 Battle of Borja. Sir Hugh Calverley, commanding the English Free Company under Du Guesclin, defeats the Castilians, and Henry is proclaimed at Calahorra. Flight of Pedro. Henry takes peaceful possession of Burgos and is crowned. Edward the Black Prince receives Pedro at Bordeaux and makes a treaty with him which includes Charles the Bad of Navarre. Edward engages to restore Pedro in return for the surrender of certain seaports. Charles promises the army a free passage through Navarre. The English advance guard cut to pieces at Ariñez.

1367 Battle of Navarrete, or Najera, and complete triumph of the English. Henry escapes to Aragon. Pedro celebrates his restoration by a series of murders. He evades his engagements with the Black Prince, and the latter withdraws his troops much reduced by famine and disease.

1369 Henry returns, is welcomed by some cities and reduces others. Pedro makes alliance with Muhammed V of Granada. The united troops fail to retake Cordova, and Muhammed retreats. Pedro on his way to relieve Toledo is invested in Montiel by Henry. In an interview between the brothers, a struggle ensues in which Henry stabs Pedro to death. Henry II. The king of Portugal claims the throne of Castile, which is also threatened by Navarre, Aragon, and Granada.

1371 A new Ordinance concerning the Administration of Justice regulates criminal procedure. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, claims the throne in right of his wife, Constanza, daughter of Pedro the Cruel.

1372 Battle off La Rochelle. Henry wins a naval victory over the English.

1373 Lisbon besieged by Henry, and the king of Portugal forced to make peace.

1379 Juan I makes alliance with France.

1380 The Castilians sail up the Thames and destroy the English shipping. Ferdinand of Portugal offers John of Gaunt his alliance.

1381 The earl of Cambridge arrives in Portugal with a few followers, but after some fighting in Castile returns to England.

1382 Beatrice, heiress of Portugal, marries Juan of Castile, but on the death of her father Ferdinand, her uncle João I usurps the Portuguese throne

1385 and defeats Juan of Castile in a great battle at Aljubarrota, where the Castilians lose ten thousand men.

1386 John of Gaunt lands in Galicia, is proclaimed king at Santiago, and with the

1387 help of the king of Portugal takes several fortresses, but is driven to retreat by an outbreak of plague in his army. John of Gaunt resigns his claims in return for fiefs and money and the marriage of his daughter with Juan’s eldest son, who receives the title of prince of Asturias, now first assigned to the heir of Castile.

1390 Henry (III) the Sickly succeeds at the age of eleven. Disputes for the regency.

1392 Persecution of the Jews.

1393 Henry assumes the government himself. He has some success in restoring order, and ranges himself on the side of the people against the nobles.

1401 The cortes of Tordesillas passes measures for reform of the judicial system. Embassy to Tamerlane or Timur.

1404 Conquest of the Canaries by Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman adventurer, with assistance from Henry, who grants him the title of king.

1406 Juan II, one year old, succeeds under the guardianship of his uncle Ferdinand the Just. Ferdinand restrains the turbulence of the nobles.

1408 Alvaro de Luna comes to court as a page and begins to exercise his influence over Juan.

1412 Ferdinand accepts the crown of Aragon, but maintains his influence in Castile till his death (1416).

1420 Henry, brother of Alfonso V of Aragon and Juan II of Navarre, desiring to marry Juan’s sister Catalina, seizes the king and keeps him prisoner till he consents to the marriage.

1425 Alvaro de Luna, the king’s favourite, made constable of Castile.

1427 The nobles, jealous of his unbounded influence, league against him. He is exiled, but soon recalled.

1429 New league against Alvaro. The kings of Navarre and Aragon invade Castile.

1431 Battle of Higueruela and the defeat of the Moors by De Luna. His vigorous rule brings prosperity to Castile.

1439 New league against De Luna, and civil war in which the kings of Aragon and Navarre join,

1445 but are defeated by Juan in the battle of Olmedo.

1453 The king, prompted by his second wife Isabella of Portugal, resolves on De Luna’s death. He is seized, tried, and executed.

1454 Henry (IV) the Impotent. His extravagance and neglect provoke the barons to unite against him and, after several unsuccessful attempts, compel him to set aside the infanta Juana, called La Beltraneja, and recognise his brother Alfonso as his heir.

1465 Not content with this, at a solemn ceremony on the plain of Avila, they declare Henry deposed and set up Alfonso as king.

1468 A destructive civil war continues till Alfonso’s death (1468), when his sister Isabella (the Catholic) refuses to take his place, and contents herself with recognition as Henry’s heiress.

1469 Isabella refuses to marry the heir of Portugal, and marries Ferdinand prince of Aragon. Henry’s endeavours to secure Juana’s succession produce further bloodshed. He bequeaths Castile to her in his will.

1474 Henry IV dies, and Isabella (I) the Catholic has herself proclaimed queen of Castile. Ferdinand endeavours to assert his own claims as representative of the male line, but is induced to accept a carefully defined share in the government. The cause of Juana la Beltraneja is espoused by many Castilian nobles and by her uncle Alfonso V of Portugal, who proposes to marry her and invades Castile.

1476 Battle of Toro and complete victory of Ferdinand and Isabella. The rebels submit.

1479 Treaty with Portugal. Alfonso renounces Juana and she retires to a convent. Death of Juan II of Aragon. Ferdinand succeeds him as Ferdinand II.

THE KINGDOM OF NAVARRE (711-1515 A.D.)

Garcia Ximenes, first legendary king. Elected after the battle of Guadalete (711) to defend the country against the Moors, from whom he recovers considerable territory. From him the Navarrese writers derive a series of kings who reigned during the eighth and ninth centuries, but they seem, like Garcia Ximenes himself, to be purely fictitious personages. During this period the district seems to have been subjected either to Asturias or the Frankish empire, probably the latter.

778 Charlemagne invades Navarre and seizes Pamplona. On his return to France, after failing before Saragossa, his rearguard under Roland is attacked by troops from Spanish Gascony, including Navarre and other Spanish states, both Christian and Moor, and totally destroyed in the pass of Roncesvalles.

806 Pepin, son of Charlemagne, receives the submission of the Navarrese and organises the government of the country.

836 Sancho Iñigo, count (called by some, king) of Navarre.

885 Garcia I.

891 Moorish invasion. Garcia I is slain. Fortuño Garces rules during the minority of Garcia’s son, Sancho Garces Abarca.

905 Sancho (I) Garces Abarca.

907 Pamplona besieged by the Moors during Sancho’s absence in Gascony. Sancho relieves it after a rapid winter march across the Pyrenees and wins a great victory. Many victories won by Sancho over the Moors and the kingdom extended southwards.

920 Sancho retires to a monastery.

921 Abd ar-Rahman III invades Navarre and routs the combined forces of Navarre and Leon at the Val-de-Junquera. The Navarrese under Sancho defeat Abd ar-Rahman’s forces on their return from a raid into Gascony.

925 Garcia (II), El Tembloso (the Trembler).

951 The king of Navarre in alliance with Fernan Gonsalez, count of Castile, unsuccessfully supports Sancho, prince of Leon, against the latter’s brother, Ordoño III of Leon.

956 Castile invaded by Garcia, and Fernan taken prisoner.

970 Sancho (II), El Mayor (The Great). This king was the most powerful sovereign of Christian Spain at this period. Besides being master of Navarre, Sobrarbe, and

1026 Aragon he conquered Castile after the murder of his brother-in-law, the Count Garcia

1034 and won the eastern portion of Leon as far as the river Cea from Bermudo III. His second son Ferdinand married Bermudo’s sister and heiress, and eventually became sovereign of Leon and Castile (1037). The lordship of Ribagorza was also among Sancho’s acquisitions.

1035 Garcia III inherits Navarre and a small district on the south bank of the Ebro, while the rest of the dominions of Sancho the Great are divided among the latter’s other sons. Ramiro, to whom Aragon had fallen, invades Navarre as Garcia is on a pilgrimage to Rome, but is driven back. Garcia then aids Ferdinand, who has succeeded

1037 to Castile, to triumph over Bermudo III of Leon. But when the latter’s defeat and death give Ferdinand the kingdom of Leon, Garcia turns against his brother and allies himself with the emirs of Saragossa and Tudela.

1054 Battle of Atapuerca. Garcia and his allies defeated and Garcia slain by Ferdinand, who annexes the Navarrese possessions south of the Ebro. Sancho III.

1076 Murder of Sancho by his brother Raymond and his sister Ermesinda. The murderers expelled from the kingdom. The kings of Aragon and Leon dispute for the crown of Navarre. The king of Leon annexes Rioja. The king of Aragon becomes king of Navarre under the name of Sancho (IV) Ramirez.

1094 Pedro (Pedro I of Aragon).

1104 Alfonso (Alfonso I of Aragon). On his death without issue the Navarrese refuse to recognise his will bequeathing his kingdom to the knightly orders of St. John and the Temple, and elect

1134 Garcia (IV) Ramirez, a member of the old royal house of Navarre, while the Aragonese prefer Alfonso’s brother, Ramiro (I) the Monk. Alfonso (VII) Raymond of Castile and Leon, who assumes the title of emperor of all Spain, receives the homage of Garcia and Ramiro. Garcia becomes a feudatory of Ramiro. Alliance between Garcia and Alfonso, count of Portugal, against Alfonso Raymond. Alfonso Raymond invades Navarre. Garcia acknowledges his supremacy.

1140 Alfonso Raymond makes alliance with Aragon for the partition of Navarre and again invades it, while Garcia invades Aragon. After both have won successes, Alfonso and Garcia make peace.

1150 Sancho (V) the Wise. This king’s reign is occupied with obscure and frequent hostilities with the neighbouring states of Aragon, Barcelona, and Castile.

1176 The kings of Castile and Navarre refer their differences to Henry II of England. His

1179 decision is not acted upon, but a later peace between them embraces the same terms.

1191 Berengaria, daughter of Sancho V, marries Richard I of England.

1194 Sancho (VI) the Infirm. He makes alliance with Castile and Leon against the Moors.

1195 Battle of Alarcon. Alfonso VIII of Castile defeated by Yakub Al-mansur. Quarrels amongst the allies. Sancho concludes an alliance with the Almohads. Alfonso of Leon takes Guipuzcoa, Alava, and Biscay. Alliance of Navarre, Leon, Aragon, Castile, and Portugal against the Moors, which leads to the defeat of a Moorish army under Muhammed an-Nasir in the

1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

1234 Thibaut I (Theobald or Teobaldo), count of Champagne, elected king.

1239 Seventh Crusade led by Thibaut to Syria. On the defeat of a portion of the army he and the other French princes desert their comrades and return to Spain.

1253 Thibaut II.

1270 Eighth Crusade. Thibaut accompanies St. Louis to the Holy Land and dies on his way home. Henry Crassus.

1274 Joan or Jeanne I succeeds at the age of four. The country reduced to anarchy by disputes between native factions and foreign princes respecting the disposal of her hand.

1284 Joan marries Philip IV of France.

1305 Louis Hutin (Louis X of France) succeeds Joan.

1316 Philip I (V of France) succeeds, to the prejudice of the daughter of Louis Hutin.

1322 Charles I (IV of France), brother of Philip I. The Navarrese protest against this reassertion of the Salic law and on Charles’ death the crown passes to Louis Hutin’s daughter,

1328 Joan II, with her husband, Philip II (count of Évreux), who at their coronation sign a convention securing the independence of Navarre. Massacre of the Jews.

1334 War with Castile.

1343 Philip joins Alfonso XI of Castile in besieging Algeciras and dies during the siege.

1349 Charles (II) the Bad. His endeavours to recover the lordships of Brie and Champagne and his murder of the constable of France lead to his imprisonment by the French king. He escapes and is subsequently pardoned.

1361 Return of Charles to Navarre. He promises to aid Pedro the Cruel of Castile against Aragon.

1366 Alliance of Charles with Edward the Black Prince of Wales to restore Pedro the Cruel. Charles plays fast and loose with the rival kings of Castile and seizes Salvatierra and Logroño for himself.

1370 On the accession of Henry II Charles invades Castile.

1371 Claims of Navarre to Champagne, Brie, etc., ceded to France in exchange for Montpellier. Charles makes peace with Henry II.

1377 Charles accused of plotting to acquire domains in Gascony. His French possessions declared forfeited. The Castilians invade Navarre and besiege Pamplona. Charles makes alliance with the English and on their approach the Castilians retreat.

1385 Charles accused of plotting to poison the French royal family. The last remains of his French possessions are seized.

1387 Charles (III) the Noble.

1403 Dukedom of Nemours granted to the king of Navarre.

1425 Blanche, daughter of Charles the Noble, succeeds with her husband Juan of Aragon. He interferes constantly in the internal troubles of Castile, while Blanche governs peaceably during his absence.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon in the absence of Alfonso V.

1442 Charles of Viana succeeds to Navarre as regent on the death of his mother Blanche. The kingdom is distracted by two parties, the Beaumonts, partisans of Charles, and the Agramonts, partisans of his father Juan.

1447 Juan marries Juana Henriquez and appoints his wife co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles.

1452 Revolt of Charles. Birth of his half-brother Ferdinand (the Catholic). Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles. Charles is released and returns to Navarre, but finding his enemies too strong for him he withdraws to Naples.

1458 Juan succeeds to the throne of Aragon as Juan II. Misunderstanding between father and son continues till

1460 Charles negotiates for the hand of Isabella of Castile which was desired for his half-brother Ferdinand of Aragon. Charles is arrested by his father when Catalonia revolts in his favour, and Juan is obliged to

1461 recognise him as his heir. The prince dies immediately afterwards.

1464 Blanche, Charles’ eldest sister, dies, probably poisoned at the instigation of her father by her sister Eleanor, countess of Foix. The country continues to be distracted by the wars of the Beaumonts and Agramonts.

1479 Eleanor de Foix becomes queen on the death of Juan and dying immediately afterwards is succeeded by her grandson, Francis Phœbus de Foix.

1483 Catherine de Foix. Ferdinand and Isabella endeavour to secure her hand and kingdom for their eldest son, but she marries Jean d’Albret.

1512 Ferdinand the Catholic demands the cession of six Navarrese fortresses and a free passage through Navarre to facilitate his invasion of Guienne. Treaty of alliance between France and Navarre signed at Blois. Ferdinand’s general, the duke of Alva, takes Pamplona and occupies the whole of upper Navarre. Ferdinand’s English allies refuse to co-operate with him for the reduction of the rest of the country, and on their withdrawal Jean d’Albret with a French army besieges Alva in Pamplona, but for lack of provisions is compelled to retreat.

1513 Treaty between Ferdinand and Louis XII of France by which the latter abandons Navarre. Ferdinand restores order and conciliates the Navarrese towns by confirming their privileges.

1515 The cortes of Burgos formally incorporates Navarre into the kingdom of Castile.

CATALONIA (470-1150 A.D.)

470 Gothalania (Catalonia) was the name bestowed on the northeastern section of Hispania Tarraconensis in consequence of its occupation by the Goths and Alans (470).

712 Berbers take possession of the whole Catalonian territory. At the end of the eighth century Charlemagne’s troops, under command of Louis le Débonnaire, invade Catalonia, and conquer a district including Barcelona, Lerida, Tarragona, and Tortosa which they call the Marca Hispanica or Spanish Mark. Bera, a native of Gothic Gaul, becomes count of Barcelona and the Mark, and tyrannises over the country. Counts of Rosello, Ampurias, Besalu, Cerdagne, Pallars, and Urgel appointed. Frequent conflicts with the Moors in which the Frankish armies join and waste the southern districts.

814 Death of Charlemagne. Septimania becomes united with the Spanish Mark.

826 Bera, being deposed for treasonable dealings with Al Hakim of Cordova, is succeeded as duke of Septimania, by Bernhard, son of William of Toulouse, who plays an important rôle in Frankish history.

832 Bernhard aids Pepin, king of Aquitaine, in rebellion against Louis le Débonnaire and is deprived of his dignities.

836 Bernhard reinstated in his duchy.

840 Charles the Bald succeeds to Catalonia on the death of Louis le Débonnaire. Bernhard at first refuses and then offers his allegiance; but afterwards aiming at independence is murdered by Charles. William, Bernhard’s son, seeks refuge with Abd ar-Rahman.

846 Aledran made count of Barcelona by Charles. William wages successful war against him, but is finally murdered. Frankish dominion restored. Narbonensian Gaul is taken from the Spanish Mark and added to Toulouse.

852 Barcelona retaken by the Moors. They retain possession during twelve years.

858 Wilfrid I (Wilfredo or Hunfrido I) count of Barcelona. He takes possession of Toulouse, etc. Summoned to Narbonne to justify himself, he is there slain in a petty fray and is succeeded by

872 Salomon, who is murdered in revenge for Wilfrid’s death by the latter’s son.

874 Wilfred (II) the Hairy, who successfully repels the Moors, makes himself independent of France and leaves his territory to his son

907 Miro, who bequeaths it to his three sons, Seniofredo, Oliva, and Miro, under the regency of their uncle Suniario, count of Urgel.

950 Seniofredo.

967 Borello, son of Suniario.

984 Almansor takes Barcelona, slaughters the inhabitants, and burns a great part of the city. Borello recovers Barcelona and expels the invaders.

993 Raymond I repels a Moorish invasion and wins a battle against Suleiman of Cordova

1009 which places the usurper Muhammed I on the throne. The Catalans take the lead in an unsuccessful crusade against the Moorish pirates of the Balearic Islands.

1017 Berengar I organises the country and grants privileges to Barcelona and other towns.

1035 Raymond II wins victories over the Moors of Saragossa and becomes sovereign of all Catalonia. He abolishes the old Gothic laws, substituting the

1068 Usages of Catalonia, and institutes the Peace of God in an assembly of the Estates which is the earliest occasion in European history on which deputies are summoned from the towns. By marriage and purchase he acquires Conflans, Carcassonne, Narbonne, Toulouse, and other French possessions. Bequeaths his dominions to his two sons as joint rulers.

1076 Raymond (III) the Hairy quarrels with his brother Berengar. The nobles effect a settlement whereby each is to reign alternately for six months. Raymond is murdered, probably at Berengar’s instigation. Berengar governs alone as guardian for Raymond III’s son.

1082 Raymond IV. Bernard Atto, vicomte de Béziers, usurps the lordship of Carcassonne. The people appeal to Raymond from his oppressions. He becomes a vassal of Raymond. By marriage and inheritance Raymond acquires Besalu (1111), Provence, and Cerdagne (1117), and conquers Majorca. Provence passes on his death to his son Berengar.

1131 Raymond V.

1137 On Raymond’s betrothal to Petronilla, daughter of Ramiro the Monk, king of Aragon, he is declared heir to the throne of Aragon and assumes the administration of that kingdom.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla confirms union of Catalonia and Aragon.

KINGDOM OF ARAGON FROM ITS RISE TILL ITS UNION WITH CASTILE (1035-1479 A.D.)

1035 On the death of Sancho el Mayor of Navarre his territories are divided among his sons, and Ramiro I succeeds to a small Pyrenean district called Aragon in the northwestern corner of the modern province in the territory of the ancient Vascones. Ramiro by his wars with the Moors extends his borders, absorbing Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, and reducing several Moorish governors to the condition of tributaries. He consents to adopt the Roman ritual and to send tribute to the pope.

1067 Sancho Ramirez.

1076 On the murder of Sancho III of Navarre, Sancho Ramirez and Alfonso VI of Castile invade Navarre, and Sancho becomes king of Navarre as Sancho IV. He conquers several cities from the Moors, commences a war with the emir of Saragossa, and dies while besieging Huesca.

1094 Pedro I.

1096 Battle of Alcoraz. Pedro wins a decisive victory over the Moors of Saragossa and their Castilian allies, and takes Huesca.

1104 Alfonso (I), el Batallador (the Fighter), and the Emperor.

1109 Death of Alfonso VI of Castile. His daughter Urraca, the wife of Alfonso I, el Batallador, succeeds, and her husband is acknowledged as Alfonso VII of Leon and Castile. He quarrels with his wife, and constant civil war is the result to Castile.

1118 Saragossa taken by el Batallador after a five years’ siege. It becomes the capital of Aragon.

1120 Battle of Daroca. El Batallador defeats an Almoravid army, takes Tarragona and Calatayud, and invades Andalusia.

1126 Death of Urraca. Castile is definitely separated from Aragon under Alfonso VII (Raymond) of Castile and Leon, Urraca’s son by her first husband.

1130 Bordeaux besieged and taken by Alfonso I. He resumes his war against the Moors.

1133 Representatives of the cities summoned to the cortes.

1134 Alfonso is defeated at Fraga and dies soon after, bequeathing his dominions to the knights of the Temple and St. John. His subjects refuse to recognise his will and his brother, Ramiro (II) the Monk, is persuaded to leave his monastery and accept the crown of Aragon, while the Navarrese choose Garcia (IV) Ramirez as king.

1137 Petronilla, Ramiro’s infant daughter, betrothed to Raymond, count of Catalonia, who is appointed regent of Aragon. Catalonia thus becomes absorbed in Aragon, and Ramiro retires to a cloister.

1140 Navarre invaded by Raymond in conjunction with Alfonso VII of Castile, but without success, and on the conclusion of peace the three sovereigns make alliance against the Moors and capture various cities, Raymond acquiring Fraga, Lerida, and Tortosa.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla.

1162 Death of Raymond. Petronilla abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso II, who acquires Roussillon by inheritance and wins Teruel and other fortresses from the Moors. In this reign cortes were held and attended by the four estates of the realm (1163, 1164).

1196 Pedro II.

1203 Coronation of Pedro by the pope. Aragon is constituted a papal fief, and Pedro promises to pay tribute to the holy see, but

1205 the estates of Saragossa repudiate the transaction.

1208 The Albigensian crusade. Pedro refuses to declare for either party, but turns his arms against the Moors and shares the glory at the great Christian victory of

1212 Las Navas de Tolosa.

1213 He endeavours to mediate between the Albigensians and the crusaders, but fails and lays siege to the latter’s city of Muret, when he is slain in a battle with Simon de Montfort. James (I) the Conqueror, known as Don Jayme of Aragon (in Catalonian En Jacme, lo Conqueridor), succeeds at the age of six. The usual civil wars occupy his minority, but finally he triumphs over all rebels.

1228 Balearic Islands, the haunt of Moorish pirates, attacked and subdued after a four years’ war.

1232 Valencia invaded.

1238 Conquest of Valencia completed. The Moors are guaranteed security and religious liberty.

1264-1266 Murcia reconquered by James for his son-in-law, Alfonso X of Castile.

1268 By the execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, Constanza, wife of James’ son, Pedro (III), and daughter of Manfred, king of Sicily, becomes heiress of Sicily, now in the hands of the usurper, Charles of Anjou.

1269 Preparations for a crusade to the Holy Land headed by James. The king is turned back by a storm, but his son, Fernan Sanchez, proceeds to Acre. Like Alfonso X of Castile, James left a chronicle or commentary of his reign (afterwards continued by Raymond Muntaner), as well as a book of aphorisms called the Libre de Saviesa, both written in the Catalan language.

1276 Pedro (III) the Great. The Balearic Islands with Roussillon. Montpellier, etc., are converted by the will of James I into a separate kingdom of Majorca for his younger son, James I of Majorca. Pedro prepares to invade Sicily.

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, in which the native population massacre twenty-eight thousand Frenchmen. Charles of Anjou lays siege to Messina. Pedro of Aragon comes to its relief and is proclaimed king of Sicily. Roger de Lauria, Pedro’s admiral, with a few ships destroys the French fleet.

1283 The Aragonese cortes protest against the king’s wars and exact the General Privilege, the Magna Charta of Aragon, confirming their liberties. The pope excommunicates

1284 Pedro. De Lauria takes Malta and destroys the fleet in the Bay of Naples. The pope, Martin IV, proclaims a crusade against Aragon and bestows the kingdom on the French prince, Charles of Valois. The Aragonese are reluctant to oppose Rome.

1285 The crusaders invade the kingdom, but after taking and sacking several cities the army breaks up. Charles of Anjou dies, leaving his claims to his son Charles II. Pedro dies, leaving Sicily to his younger son James and Aragon to Alfonso III. Majorca subdued by Alfonso.

1287 The “Privilege of Union” granted, authorising armed rebellion against the sovereign who shall infringe his subjects’ liberties.

1291 As a result of negotiations conducted by Edward I of England, Alfonso is reconciled to the pope and Sicily is abandoned by James, who immediately after, on the death of Alfonso, succeeds to Aragon as James II. He makes his brother Frederick (Fadrique) his lieutenant in Sicily.

1295 Alliance between James and Charles of Anjou.

1296 The pope invests James with Sardinia and Corsica, occupied at the time by the Genoese and Pisans. The deserted Sicilians give the crown to Frederick. The king of Aragon assists Charles in his attempts to recover Sicily, but abandons the enterprise after several successes.

1302 Peace between Frederick and Charles by which the former retains Sicily, the latter Naples.

1303 The Catalan Grand Company is formed by Roger di Flor from the disbanded mercenaries (chiefly Aragonese and Catalan) of Frederick and takes service with the Greek emperor Andronicus II.

1319 Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia declared inseparable.

1324 Sardinia invaded by James. With the aid of the grand justice of Arborea, Marian IV, the Pisans are expelled. The grand justice turns his arms against the Aragonese and the war is continued under

1327 Alfonso IV, when the Genoese assist the islanders and ravage the coasts of Catalonia.

1336 Pedro IV refuses to recognise the claims of his stepmother, Leonora of Castile, and her sons, Juan and Ferdinand, to the appanages assigned them under Alfonso’s will, and thus involves himself in civil disputes and a war with Castile. He offends the clergy by crowning himself instead of being crowned by the archbishop of Saragossa.

1343 Invasion of Majorca by Pedro. The islanders welcome him, deserting James II of Majorca. Pedro conquers James’ French possessions.

1344 Balearic Islands formally annexed to Aragon.

1347 Attempt of Pedro to secure the succession to his daughter Constanza in preference to his brother James, in defiance of the Salic law as established by James I. League of nobles and cities in a union in favor of James. The Sardinians backed by the Genoese and Pisans seize the occasion to revolt. A second union formed in Valencia under the infante Ferdinand. At the cortes of Saragossa Pedro is compelled to promise to hold annual meetings of the estates, to select his advisers with their approval, and to recognise James as his heir. Death of James. Pedro wins over the Catalans and at the

1348 battle of Epila defeats the union. He annuls the “Privilege of Union” of 1287, but enlarges the powers of the justiciar. Leonora and her son Juan take refuge in Castile, where both are subsequently murdered by Pedro the Cruel.

1349 James of Majorca attempts to recover the Balearic Islands, but fails and dies soon after. Pedro defeats the Sardinian rebels, and allies himself with Venice against Genoa.

1350 The era of Spain ceases to be used in Aragon.

1352 The Venetian and Catalonian fleets defeated by the Genoese, who renew their encouragement of the Sardinians. The Genoese fleet defeated in the Thracian Bosphorus by the fleets of Catalonia and Venice.

1354 The Sardinian estates are convoked by Pedro at Cagliari, but fail to pacify the belligerents.

1356 War with Castile. The king of Aragon supports Henry of Trastamara and the other Castilian rebels.

1363 A peace concluded with Castile in accordance with which Pedro of Aragon murders his own brother Ferdinand. War with Castile renewed.

1368 The justice of Arborea defeats the Aragonese in Sardinia and maintains himself till the Genoese come to his aid (1373). After his death the struggle is continued with less vigour by his son, and when the latter is put to death by his own people the war is prosecuted by his sister Leonora with whom Pedro effects an agreement in 1386.

1377 Death of Frederick king of Sicily. Pedro claims the throne, but is eventually satisfied with the marriage of the heiress Maria with his grandson Martin.

1387 Juan I. Trial of the king’s stepmother Sybilla for witchcraft. Some of her friends executed.

1392 Aragonese troops under the king’s brother Martin sent to Sicily to quell a revolt against Queen Maria and her husband, Martin’s son, the younger Martin.

1395 Martin succeeds to Aragon. The count de Foix, husband of the late king’s eldest daughter, invades the kingdom to assert her rights, but finds no supporters. Martin, having pacified Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, returns to Spain. Pope Boniface IX,

1397 in revenge for the recognition by Aragon of the anti-pope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), confers Sardinia and Sicily on the count de Molinets.

1401 Death of Maria of Sicily. She is succeeded by her husband, the younger Martin, who,

1402 the following year, marries Blanche, heiress of Navarre.

1409 Martin of Sicily suppresses the rebellion in Sardinia. He dies without issue. Blanche becomes regent of Sicily.

1410 Interregnum, consequent on the death of Martin of Aragon without direct heirs. During two years the country is distracted by the conflicts of rival claimants to the throne till, at the instance of the justiciar Juan de Cerda, a commission is selected from the cortes of the three provinces of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia which names the infante Ferdinand, regent of Castile, and he receives the crowns of Aragon and Sicily as

1412 Ferdinand (I) the Just. He subdues a rebellion of the count of Urgel and maintains tranquillity in the kingdom till his death in

1416 when he is succeeded by his son Alfonso (V) the Magnanimous.

1417 Reduction of Corsica attempted by Alfonso without much success.

1420 Joanna, queen of Naples, adopts Alfonso on condition of his defending her dominions against the duke of Anjou, which he does with success.

1423 Joanna quarrels with Alfonso and adopts Louis of Anjou in his place.

1425 Death of Charles III of Navarre. He is succeeded by Blanche and her husband Juan, brother of Alfonso of Aragon.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon. Alfonso sets out to recover Naples.

1435 Joanna of Naples dies, bequeathing her kingdom to René of Anjou. Alfonso besieges Gaeta, but is defeated in a naval battle. Himself, the king of Navarre, and his brother Henry become the prisoners of the duke of Milan, who immediately releases them. Don Pedro of Aragon takes Gaeta. In the next few years Alfonso makes himself master of the kingdom of Naples.

1442 The office of justiciar declared tenable for life. Blanche of Navarre dies. Juan retains the title of king of Navarre, while her son, Charles of Viana, becomes ruler.

1443 Ferdinand, Alfonso’s illegitimate son, recognised as heir of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV.

1447 Juan of Navarre marries Juana Henriquez and subsequently appoints her co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles of Viana.

1452 Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles. Reconciliation of Juan and Charles. Birth of Juan’s younger son, Ferdinand the Catholic.

1458 Death of Alfonso V. Aragon, Sicily, and Sardinia pass to the king of Navarre, Juan II. Charles of Viana refuses to supplant Ferdinand of Naples.

1461 Charles imprisoned by his father. The Catalans revolt in his favour and compel his recognition as Juan’s heir. Death of Charles.

1462 The Catalans declare a republic and besiege the queen and Ferdinand in Gerona. Roussillon and Cerdagne pledged to Louis XI of France, who comes to the help of Juan; whereupon the rebels offer the Catalan crown first to Henry IV of Castile and then to Pedro, constable of Portugal.

1466 Pedro dies. The Catalans offer the crown to René of Anjou who

1467 sends his son John of Calabria to Barcelona.

1468 Ferdinand declared king of Sicily and associated with his father in the government of Aragon.

1469 Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile.

1470 Death of John of Calabria. Catalonia is gradually reduced.

1472 Barcelona submits.

1473 The inhabitants of Roussillon revolt against the French and massacre them. Roussillon occupied by Juan. The French besiege him in Perpignan, which is relieved by Ferdinand. By a treaty with Louis the king of Aragon promises to pay within the year the sum for which Roussillon was pledged.

1474 The French invade Roussillon.

1475 Perpignan surrenders to the French. The inhabitants compelled to emigrate.

1479 Death of Juan II. Ferdinand (II) the Catholic inherits his dominions which are henceforth united with those of Castile.

ANDORRA (805-1882 A.D.)

805 The valley of Andorra appears in history as a neutral country, Charlemagne founding the free state and placing it under the lordship of Urgel.

1170 Suzerainty of Andorra ceded by the counts of Urgel to the counts of Castelbo. The heiress of Castelbo marries the count de Foix.

1278 Suzerainty of Andorra divided between the counts de Foix and the bishops of Urgel.

1512 On the extinction of the house of Foix by the death of Count Gaston at the battle of Ravenna, the suzerainty of Andorra passes to Henry d’Albret, titular heir of Navarre,

1553 and on the accession of the latter’s grandson to the throne of France as Henry IV, becomes the prerogative of the French crown.

1790 Independence of Andorra recognised. The republic voluntarily returns to the French allegiance.

1866 The general council, hitherto composed of the aristocracy, becomes elective.

1882 A permanent delegate appointed to represent French authority in Andorra.

SPAIN AFTER THE UNION OF CASTILE AND ARAGON (1479-1902, A.D.)

1480 Cortes of Toledo. Recall of illegal grants by which in Henry IV’s reign the public revenues had been alienated in pensions and annuities. The nobles forbidden to erect castles or assume the insignia of royalty. Duelling prohibited.

1481 The Inquisition issues an edict requiring the accusation of heretics. Autos da fé in Andalusia. Epidemic of plague. Emigration of Jews.

1482 Alhama after being captured from the Moors by the marquis of Cadiz is besieged by the king of Granada and relieved by Ferdinand. Zahara seized and its inhabitants enslaved by Abul Hassan, king of Granada. Bull of Pope Sixtus IV promising the appointment of Castilians to church dignities in their country. Loja unsuccessfully besieged by Ferdinand.

1483 Thomas de Torquemada inquisitor-general in Castile and Aragon to reconstitute the holy office. An insurrection makes Abu Abdallah (Boabdil) king of Granada. Ferdinand’s ambassadors assist in negotiating a peace between Ferrara and Venice. The pope declares a crusade against Granada. Rout in the Axarquia; a small Spanish force is destroyed by the troops of Abul Hassan. Boabdil invades the Christian territory. He is defeated and taken at the Jenil, released and becomes a tributary of Ferdinand. Ferdinand and Isabella begin a series of successful campaigns against Granada and capture one fortress after another.

1484 Inquisition revived in Aragon. Columbus arrives in Spain.

1485 Ordenanças Reales, a code of Castilian laws, promulgated. Autos da fé in Saragossa. Murder of the inquisitor, Arbues, by Jewish converts. Sanguinary punishment of all implicated.

1486 Catalan peasantry, called vassals de remenza, released from serfdom under the obligation of an annual payment.

1487 Velez Malaga, Malaga, and other cities capitulate to Ferdinand. He enslaves the Malagans.

1488 Alliance between Spain and Maximilian, king of the Romans, against France.

1489 Baza besieged and taken. Almeria submits.

1491 Law to prevent the export of the precious metals. Siege and capitulation of Granada. Boabdil confined to a narrow district in the Alpujarras. The Granadans guaranteed the preservation of their religion and their liberty.

1492 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Columbus persuades Isabella to grant him assistance. He is made admiral, viceroy, and governor-general of all territories he may discover. An expedition is fitted out and he starts on the 3rd of August with three vessels. Treaty with France. Charles VIII engages to restore Roussillon and Cerdagne to Aragon.

1493 Return of Columbus reporting the discovery of Hispaniola. Pope Alexander VI issues a bull confirming the sovereigns of Spain in possession of all their discoveries, past and future, in the west. A second bull divides the area for Portuguese and Spanish discoveries by a line drawn one hundred leagues west of the Azores. Second expedition of Columbus with seventeen vessels.

1494 Agreement with Portugal at Tordesillas by which the boundary of the Portuguese area of discovery is removed 370 leagues west of Cape Verd Islands. The pope confers the epithet of “Catholic” on Ferdinand and Isabella.

1495 League of Venice between Spain, Austria, Rome, Milan, and Venice for the expulsion of the French from Italy.

1496 Spanish troops under Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, restore Ferdinand II of Naples to his throne and expel the French. Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, marries Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian. Militia ordinance requiring one-twelfth of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five to enlist for the military and police service of Spain. Santo Domingo founded. Columbus returns from his second voyage.

1497 Death of Juan, only son of Ferdinand and Isabella.

1498 Third voyage of Columbus. He lands on the South American continent. The Santa Hermandad, having restored order in Spain, reduced to the position of an ordinary police.

1499 Ximenes de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo, sets about the conversion of the Moors of Granada. He burns their books. Insurrection in Granada. Many Moors quit Spain. The remainder forcibly converted.

1500 Francisco Bobadilla sent out to investigate affairs in Hispaniola. He imprisons Columbus and sends him home in irons. Revolt of the Moors in the Alpujarras severely repressed. Treaty with France for the partition of Naples. Gonsalvo de Cordova recovers St. George in Cephalonia which the Turks had wrested from Venice. A navigation act prohibits the exportation of goods in foreign ships when Spanish are procurable, and forbids the sale of ships to foreigners. Columbus restored to his honours.

Sixteenth Century

The Moors of Ronda revolt and

1501 destroy a Spanish force under Alonso de Aguilar. On Ferdinand’s approach they submit and are granted the alternative of exile or baptism. Gonsalvo de Cordova conquers Calabria.

1502 Expulsion from Spain of all unconverted Moors. Nicholas de Ovando sent to replace Bobadilla. Tarentum occupied by the Great Captain after a long siege. Fourth voyage of Columbus. The French declare war against the Spaniards and conquer all Calabria.

1503 Treaty of peace with France signed at Lyons. Battle of Cerignola. Gonsalvo defeats the French and occupies Naples. The French invade Roussillon, but are forced to retreat by Ferdinand, who takes several frontier fortresses. Gonsalvo defeats the French at the Garigliano.

1504 Peace of Lyons. The French abandon Naples to Spain. Death of Isabella. Philip I and Juana la Loca or the Mad proclaimed her successors in Castile. Ferdinand assumes the administration in accordance with Isabella’s will and on the ground of Juana’s mental incapacity. Columbus returns from his last voyage.

1506 Death of Columbus. Ferdinand resigns the government of Castile to Philip, who excites discontent by his extravagance and his Flemish favourites. The proceeding of the Inquisition excite disturbances in Andalusia. Death of Philip. Ferdinand receives the homage of the Neapolitans.

1507 Ferdinand resumes the government of Castile. Ximenes appointed inquisitor-general of Castile.

1508 Ferdinand joins the league of Cambray formed by the French king and the emperor against Venice and retakes five Neapolitan cities pledged to Venice.

1509 An expedition led to Africa by Ximenes conquers Oran.

1511 Holy League between Pope Julius II, Ferdinand, and Venice to drive the French from Italy. Conquest of Cuba.

1512 Battle of Ravenna. The allies defeated by the French under Gaston de Foix. Gaston slain; the French retreat from Italy. Venice makes peace with France. Ferdinand demands a free passage through Navarre for the invasion of France. Alliance between France and Navarre. Pamplona taken by the Spaniards. Jean d’Albret, king of Navarre, fails to recover it.

1513 Navarre submits to Ferdinand. Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean.

1515 Navarre formally incorporated with Castile.

1516 Ferdinand dies. Ximenes regent of Castile, and the archbishop of Saragossa regent of Aragon. Charles I (afterwards the emperor Charles V) proclaimed king in Castile. French invasion of Navarre repulsed. The Inquisition is established in Oran, the Canaries, and the New World. Las Casas obtains the sending of a commission to inquire into the ill-treatment of the Indians in Hispaniola. It effects little. Peace of Noyon. France abandons her claims to Naples.

1517 Charles lands in Spain and dismisses Ximenes.

1518 The Castilian cortes acknowledge Charles as joint ruler with his mother. Aragon and Catalonia delay to do this. The favour shown his Flemish favourites and their exactions disgust the Spaniards.

1519 Ferdinand Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico. Several leading Castilian cities form a confederation to defend their privileges. Death of the emperor Maximilian. Charles elected emperor of Germany.

1520 The citizens of Valencia revolt against the oppressions of the nobles and are authorised by Charles to continue in arms. They form an association called the Germandada (Germania) or brotherhood. Luther burns the papal bull excommunicating him. The Castilian cortes with difficulty induced to grant a subsidy. Charles, having appointed Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht his viceroy, leaves Spain without redressing the grievances submitted to him. Several of the cities of Castile, under the leadership of Juan de Padilla, revolt against their deputies, appoint their own magistrates, levy troops, and league together as the “holy junta.” Padilla goes to Juana at Tordesillas. The junta acts in her name. The royalists rescue Juana. The Germandada in Valencia carries on a successful and desolating war against the nobles.

1521 Battle of Villalar. Padilla defeated, taken, and executed. Valencia taken and the leaders of the Germandada executed. Charles opens the Diet of Worms. Treaty of Charles with the pope for the expulsion of the French from the Milanese. The junta breaks up; Toledo holds out for a time under Padilla’s widow. Its fall signalises the end of the freedom of the Castilian cities. Conquest of Mexico completed by Cortes. Navarre occupied by the French. They invade Castile. The Castilians recover Navarre. The populace of Majorca, having revolted against the nobles, are subdued after a long struggle. Treaty with Henry VIII of England. Charles agrees to invade France from Spain. The emperor’s troops drive the French from Milan. Death of Leo X.

1522 Adrian of Utrecht elected pope as Adrian VI. The French fail in an attempt to recover the Milanese. League between Charles, the pope, Venice, and other Italian cities against France.

1523 The cortes grant supplies before presenting their petitions. Adrian VI dies. Clement VII pope. Ferdinand Cortes empowered to conquer all New Spain.

1524 The council of the Indies formed for the administration of the Spanish colonies. The Moors of Valencia request permission to exercise their own worship. On being refused many emigrate, and others revolt and are not finally subdued till 1526. Expulsion of the French from the Milanese. Francis I of France attempts to recover it and is defeated and taken by the imperial troops at the

1525 battle of Pavia.

1526 The Moors of Granada permitted to purchase freedom from the worst penalties of the Inquisition. Treaty of Madrid. Francis resigns his claims in Italy, Flanders, and Artois and concludes a perpetual league with Charles. Holy League of Cognac between the pope, France, England, Venice, and Sforza, duke of Milan, to restore Sforza to the Milanese. The pope and the French attack Naples.

1527 Charles’ troops ravage the papal territories and take Rome. Sack of Rome. Clement taken prisoner. The cortes refuse a grant to Charles.

1528 The French besiege Naples, but are driven by disease to retreat.

1529 Battle of Landriano. Spaniards defeat the French. Francis Pizarro commissioned to conquer and govern Peru. Treaty of Cambray called “The Ladies’ Peace.” Francis I agrees to ransom his sons and resign his pretensions to Flanders, Artois, and all places in Italy. Charles goes to Italy, makes peace with Venice, and with the dukes of Milan and Ferrara.

1530 Charles receives the iron crown of Lombardy and is crowned emperor by the pope. Florence taken. Charles makes Alessandro de’ Medici its absolute ruler. He summons the Diet of Augsburg to settle religious questions and prepare for war with the Turks.

1531 Ferdinand, brother of Charles, elected king of the Romans.

1533 Pizarro establishes his authority in the capital of Peru.

1535 Expedition to Tunis in conjunction with Portugal, Genoa, the pope, and the knights of Malta. The usurper Barbarossa is expelled and the king Mulei Hassan restored as a vassal of Spain. Ten thousand Christian slaves released. Francis I invades Savoy. Its duke appeals to Charles. Death of the duke of Milan. Charles takes possession of the duchy. Colony of Buenos Ayres founded by Pedro de Mendoza.

1536 Francis occupies Piedmont. Provence invaded by Charles, who finds it already desolated by the French, and retreats in disorder.

1537 French invasion of the Netherlands. Truce with France.

1538 It is extended for ten years (Truce of Nice). Mutiny amongst Charles’ troops in Milan, Sicily, and Africa. Their generals borrow money to pacify them. Cortes of Toledo. The deputies protest against the extravagance of Charles’ foreign wars, and the nobles claim their privilege of exemption from taxation. Charles dismisses the estates. This was the last occasion on which nobles and prelates were summoned. The cortes was henceforth reduced to a meeting of the deputies of eighteen cities.

1539 Revolt of the citizens of Ghent.

1540 Charles marches to Ghent and represses the rebellion with great severity. Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, is confirmed by the pope.

1541 The ambassadors of France murdered by Charles’ governor of the Milanese. Francis I demands reparation and prepares for war. Expedition led by Charles against the pirates of Algiers. Great part of the fleet destroyed in a storm. The army returns, having accomplished nothing. Conquest of Chili begun and Santiago founded by Pedro de Valdivia.

1542 Perpignan besieged by the French and successfully defended by the duke of Alva.

1543 Alliance with Henry VIII. War between Charles and Francis in the Netherlands.

1544 Battle of Cerisole in Piedmont. The imperialists are defeated by the French. Charles invades France in conjunction with Henry VIII. Peace of Crespy. Charles renounces all claim to Burgundy and Francis to Naples, Flanders, and Artois.

1545 The pope grants Charles half the ecclesiastical revenues of Spain.

1547 Battle of Mühlberg. Charles defeats the Smalkaldic League.

1551 League between Henry II of France and the Protestant princes of Germany.

1552 Charles compelled to fly from Innsbruck. The French seize Toul, Verdun, and Metz. By the Peace of Passau, Charles grants religious liberty to the German Protestants. Charles besieges Metz but fails to take it.

1554 Charles cedes Naples to his son Philip. Philip marries Mary, queen of England.

1555 Philip invested with the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1556 Philip invested with the sovereignty of Spain as Philip II. His possessions embrace Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, Franche-Comté, the Netherlands, Tunis, the Barbary coast, Canaries, Cape Verd Islands, Philippines, Spice Islands, West Indian colonies and territories in Mexico and Peru. Truce of Vaucelles arranges five years’ peace with France. Charles resigns the empire to his brother Ferdinand and retires to San Yuste. Pope Paul IV persuades Henry II of France to break the truce of Vaucelles and excommunicates Charles and Philip. Alva invades the papal states.

1557 Philip visits England and persuades Mary to declare war on France. St. Quentin captured by Spaniards and English. Peace with Paul IV.

1558 Spanish victory of Gravelines. Death of Charles V. Death of Mary of England.

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis between Spain and England and France. Philip marries Elizabeth of France. Margaret of Parma regent of the Netherlands. Philip assembles a force to recover Tripoli for the Knights of Malta.

1560 It captures Los Gelves in the Gulf of Khabes. A Turkish fleet routs the Spaniards, and takes sixty-five vessels.

1561 A new fleet, collected to oppose the Turks, dispersed and partly destroyed by a storm. Turks ravage the Spanish coast.

1563 The Castilian cortes protest in vain against the Inquisition. The Moriscos forbidden to carry arms.

1564 The pirate stronghold of Peñon de los Velez in Fez captured.

1565 Siege of Malta by the Turks. The Spanish fleet relieves Malta.

1566 The Flemish nobles band together under the name of the “Gueux” to resist the Inquisition. Tumult and wrecking of Catholic churches. The rebellion suppressed.

1567 The prince of Orange goes over to the Protestants. The duke of Alva succeeds Margaret of Parma as regent of the Netherlands and institutes a reign of terror. The Spanish Moriscos forbidden their distinctive costume, language, and customs.

1568 The Aragonese cortes wring from Philip an act limiting ecclesiastical interference in civil causes. Death of Philip’s only son Don Carlos. The “Gueux” defeated at Jemmingen. Revolt of the Moriscos in the Alpujarras. They devastate Granada and are defeated by the governor, Mondejar, in the

1569 pass of Alfajarali; massacre of the rebels. The English seize the Spanish treasure ships. Don John of Austria, son of Charles V, commissioned to end the Morisco war.

1570 He takes Golera. Moriscos expelled from Andalusia.

1571 League of Spain, Rome, and Venice against the Turks. Battle of Lepanto. The allies under Don John crush the naval power of the Turks.

1572 Briel and Mons captured by the Gueux. The states of Holland declare the prince of Orange stadholder of Holland, Friesland, and Zealand. Successes of Alva.

1573 The supplies furnished by the Castilian cortes declared a tribute legally due to the sovereign. Defeat of Alva’s fleet. Alva recalled. Tunis captured by Don John. He adds to the fortifications.

1574 The Turks recover Tunis and massacre the garrison.

1576 “Spanish fury” or sack of Antwerp by the Spaniards. By the pacification of Ghent, the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands agree to unite to defend their liberties and expel the Spaniards. Don John sent to govern the Netherlands.

1577 By the Perpetual Edict Philip recognises the Pacification of Ghent. The southern provinces of the Netherlands withdraw from the union.

1578 Battle of Gembloux. Don John and Alessandro Farnese defeat the revolted Netherlanders. Death of Don John. Death of Sebastian, king of Portugal. Philip claims the throne.

1579 Union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1580 Death of Henry of Portugal. Portugal conquered and reduced to a province of Spain. Spaniards join a papal invasion of Ireland and are massacred at Smerwick.

1581 The Netherlands declare their independence.

1584 Farnese takes Ghent.

1585 The Catholic party in France, headed by the Guises, forms a league with Philip for the extirpation of heresy in France and the Low Countries. Farnese reduces Antwerp. England sends help to the United Provinces.

1587 Drake burns the shipping at Cadiz.

1588 The Spanish Armada sails, is defeated by the English, and dispersed by storms.

1589 Farnese repulsed from Bergen-op-Zoom. An expedition from England under the Portuguese claimant Don Antonio invades Portugal, pillages Corunna, and retreats. Perez arraigned for the murder of Escovedo. He escapes to Aragon and appeals to its fueros (privileges). His prosecution abandoned.

1590 Increase of the excise on food, termed “the millions.” Battle of Ivry; Henry IV of France defeats the league and its Spanish auxiliaries. Philip claims the French throne for his daughter by Elizabeth of Valois. A Spanish force under Farnese is sent to the relief of Paris, but quarrels with the league.

1591 Perez arrested by the Inquisition. The mob rise against it. Perez escapes to France. Philip punishes the rioters who had attacked the Inquisition. Its power increases. Part of fueros of Aragon abolished.

1592 Farnese relieves Rouen, is deserted by the league, and escapes from Henry IV with heavy loss.

1594 Groningen, the last stronghold of the Spaniards in the United Provinces, taken by the stadholder.

1596 Cadiz sacked by Essex.

1597 The stadholder defeats the Spaniards at Turnhout. Philip repudiates his debts.

1598 Peace of Vervins with Henry IV. Death of Philip. The Netherlands pass to his daughter Isabella, and the rest of his possessions to his son Philip III.

1599 A second armada sails for England and is beaten back by a storm.

Seventeenth Century

1601 Increase of “the millions.” An expedition sent to assist Tyrone in Ireland fails.

1602 Persia joins Spain in a war against Turkey. Plundering of the coast and islands in the Mediterranean.

1604 Peace with England. The “archdukes” (Isabella and her husband Albert) capture Ostend after a three years’ siege.

1605 First part of Don Quixote published.

1607 Spanish fleet destroyed in a fight with the Dutch off Gibraltar. Eight months’ truce with the United Provinces. Spain and the “archdukes” resign their claims to the provinces.

1609 Twelve years’ truce with the United Provinces. The Moriscos expelled from Spain with the loss of all property save what they could carry with them. With them Spain loses her most industrious inhabitants. Henry IV of France organises a league against Spain in conjunction with the Italian states, England, the German Protestants, and the United Provinces.

1610 Murder of Henry IV.

1612 Philip’s daughter Anne married to Louis XIII and his son Philip to Elizabeth de Bourbon. The princesses renounce their respective claims to the kingdoms of Spain and France.

1615 The duke of Savoy invades Lombardy and is defeated by Hinojosa, viceroy of Milan. The war continued to 1617, when peace was signed at Pavia. Second part of Don Quixote published.

1617 Alsace ceded to Spain by Ferdinand of Austria.

1618 Battle of Gravosa. The duke of Osuna, viceroy of Naples, defeats the Venetian fleet. Fall of Lerma, Philip’s favourite. The war with Venice continues till the recall of Osuna.

1620 Battle of the White Hill. Spanish troops aid the imperialists to defeat the elector palatine. The Spaniards under Spinola overrun the Palatinate and expel the elector.

1621 Philip IV succeeds his father. Olivares becomes all-powerful. The cortes of Castile calls attention to the extravagance of the administration, the appalling misery in the country, and the ruinous system of taxation. Attempts to curb official corruption. Expiration of the truce with the United Provinces. Spinola sent to conquer the Netherlands. He takes Juliers.

1622 Negotiation with England for the marriage of the infanta Maria to Prince Charles. James I asks for a Spanish army to assist the elector palatine. Charles arrives in Madrid.

1623 Enormous subsidy demanded by Olivares. The cities resist. Increase of taxation. Marriage-treaty signed. Charles leaves Spain.

1624 Franco-Dutch alliance. The French drive the Spanish garrisons from the Valtelline. Spain allied with Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Genoa.

1625 Spinola takes Breda. Genoa threatened by the French and saved by Spain.

1626 Peace of Monçon between France and Spain. The Valtelline relinquished to the Grisons.

1628 Spanish treasure fleet captured by the Dutch.

1629 Peace with England. France and Spain support rival candidates to the duchy of Mantua. French successes. Spinola sent to Lombardy.

1630 He lays siege to Casale. Death of Spinola. The Buccaneers seize the island of Tortuga and make it the headquarters of their pirate bands.

1631 Treaty of Cherasco with France.

1632 Frederick Henry of Orange expels the Spaniards from the United Provinces. The archduchess Isabella resigns in favour of Philip IV. Orange captures Maestricht. Philip makes a treaty with the duke of Orléans, in rebellion against France.

1633 A Spanish army sent to aid the emperor.

1634 Battle of Nördlingen. The Spaniards under the cardinal infante, brother of Philip, aid in defeating the Protestant Swedes and Germans. Treves attacked and the elector carried off by the Spaniards. France declares war on Spain and forms an alliance with the United Provinces. Joint invasion of the Spanish-Netherlands repelled by the cardinal infante. The Milanese invaded by the French.

1636 The French expelled from the Milanese.

1637 Leucate unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. Breda captured by Orange.

1638 The French under Condé invade Spain and are totally defeated before Fuenterrabia. The Spaniards take Bremi and Vercelli and ravage Piedmont.

1639 Alsace falling to France on the death of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, the communication between Italy and the Netherlands is interrupted. Salsas in Roussillon taken by Condé and recovered by the Spaniards. The Spanish fleet takes refuge in the Downs under the neutral flag of England but is attacked and destroyed by Van Tromp. Spaniards expelled from Piedmont.

1640 Troops billeted on the Catalans and levies demanded from them. Revolt in consequence. The insurgents seize Barcelona. Revolution in Portugal. João of Braganza assumes the crown. He enters into relations with France, Holland, and the rebels in Catalonia. Los Velez sent to subdue the Catalans. He takes Cambrils and Tarragona, but is repulsed before Barcelona.

1641 Discovery of a plot of the duke of Medina Sidonia and the marquis de Ayamonte in concert with the king of Portugal to erect Andalusia into a separate sovereignty. The revolted Catalans swear fealty to France.

1642 French troops sent to aid the Catalans invade Aragon, take Perpignan and occupy Roussillon. Indecisive battle of Lerida.

1643 Disgrace of Olivares. Luis de Haro succeeds him. The Spaniards invade Champagne and are severely defeated at Rocroi. The Spaniards victorious at Lerida.

1646 Failure of a plot to deliver Barcelona to Philip.

1647 The Neapolitans revolt under Masaniello who is assassinated. Don John of Austria sent to quiet the city. Fresh revolt. The duke of Guise aims at the crown but is captured and the insurrection suppressed.

1648 Lerida successfully resists the French. The French defeat the Spaniards at Lens. On the termination of the Thirty Years’ War by the Peace of Westphalia, Spain concludes peace with the United Provinces, acknowledging their independence and leaving them their conquests in Brabant and Flanders, with Maestricht and Breda and their acquisitions in America and the Indies.

1651 Battle of Iviza. Don John of Austria destroys the French fleet and besieges Barcelona.

1652 Barcelona capitulates. Catalonia returns to her allegiance to Spain. The Great Condé goes over to the Spaniards and leads their armies in the Spanish Netherlands against France.

1654 Spaniards defeated before Arras. The buccaneers sack New Segovia in Honduras and Maracaibo and Gibraltar on the Gulf of Venezuela.

1655 Jamaica captured by the English.

1656 Valenciennes, besieged by Turenne, is relieved by Don John and Condé.

1657 Oliver Cromwell sends troops to aid Turenne. The English exiles join the Spaniards.

1658 Battle of the Dunes. The Spaniards defeated. Dunkirk, Furnes, Gravelines and Oudenarde surrender to the French.

1659 Battle of Elvas. The Portuguese defeat De Haro. Devastating war on the frontiers. The treaty of the Pyrenees ends the French war. Louis XIV is to marry the infanta Maria Theresa, who renounces her claims to the Spanish crown. Spain abandons Roussillon, Cerdagne, Artois, and several border fortresses. Burgundy, Charolois, and Franche-Comté restored to Spain. France abandons the Portuguese.

1661 Don John invades Portugal. Death of De Haro.

1662 Don John occupies Alemtejo and

1663 takes Evora. Spaniards defeated at Amegial.

1664 Portuguese capture Valencia de Alcantara and defeat the Spaniards at Villaviciosa. Don John disgraced.

1665 Battle of Montes-Claros won by the Portuguese. They invade Andalusia. Revolt in Valencia and other provinces. Philip dies and is succeeded by his son Charles II, a child of four years, under the regency of his mother Maria Anna of Austria. The Jesuit Nithard becomes supreme.

1666 Louis XIV lays claim to Franche-Comté, Hainault, Brabant, Artois, etc., in right of his wife.

1667 He invades the Netherlands, and takes several fortresses.

1668 Treaty with Portugal. Spain recognises the house of Braganza. Franche-Comté conquered by France. England, Sweden, and the Dutch form a triple alliance to preserve the Netherlands to Spain. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen). Spain abandons to Louis his Flemish conquests. Louis restores Franche-Comté.

1669 Disputes between the regent and Don John. Aragon and Catalonia declare for Don John. Nithard dismissed. The queen forced to share the government with Don John.

1671 Panama sacked by the buccaneers.

1672 Louis XIV invades Holland. Spain joins Germany in sending troops to Holland.

1674 Louis reconquers Franche-Comté. Indecisive battle of Seneffe between the allies and the French. Spanish victory in Roussillon. The victorious troops proceed to the siege of the revolted city of Messina. The French relieve Messina.

1675 Indecisive action off Messina between the French and the Spaniards and Dutch under De Ruyter. De Ruyter is killed. The French defeat the allied fleet off Palermo and rout a Spanish army in Sicily.

1677 Valenciennes and Cambray taken by the French. The Prince of Orange (William III of England) defeated at Mont-Cassel. Catalonia invaded by the French. Charles II declared of age. Don John contrives the disgrace of the queen-mother and her favourite Valenzuela. He suppresses the Council of the Indies, and introduces a few reforms.

1678 Cerdagne occupied and Ghent and Ypres taken by the French. They evacuate Sicily. Peace of Nimeguen. Spain surrenders Franche-Comté and fourteen fortresses of the Netherlands.

1679 Death of Don John.

1680 Eighty-five persons suffer at an auto-da-fé. Raiding expedition of buccaneers on the isthmus of Darien and the coast of Peru.

1683 The French renew the war.

1684 They are repulsed before Gerona and take Luxemburg. Truce with France. Plague in Andalusia.

1685 Oropesa replaces Medina-Celi as prime minister. Cadiz blockaded by France to enforce payment for goods confiscated from French merchants. Earthquakes in various places.

1686 League of Augsburg between Spain, the empire, England and Sweden against France.

1689 Revolt in Catalonia. Villa-Hermosa defeats the rebel army under Antonio de Soler. French invasion of Catalonia repulsed.

1690 Battle of Fleurus. The French defeat the allies.

1691 Melgar succeeds Oropesa. Attempt to reform the finances. Mons and Namur taken by the French. Barcelona bombarded by Noailles. Urgel taken by Noailles.

1693 The allies defeated at Neerwinden and Marsaglia. Charles appoints the elector of Bavaria hereditary governor of the Netherlands.

1694 Noailles takes Gerona.

1695 German mercenaries arrive in Catalonia, but are defeated at Llobregat.

1697 Cartagena de las Indias sacked by the French and buccaneers. Peace of Ryswick. Spain recovers Luxemburg, Mons, Courtrai, and the towns lost in Catalonia. Charles’ declining health draws the attention of Europe to the question of his successor.

1698 Secret treaty between France, England, and Holland for the partition of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia and the colonies to go to the prince of Bavaria; Naples, Sicily, Finale, and Guipuzcoa to the dauphin; Lombardy to the archduke Charles, second son of the emperor Leopold I. Charles appoints as his heir the prince of Bavaria, who dies immediately afterwards. French intrigues rouse Spanish opposition to the archduke.

1700 Second partition treaty between France, England, and Holland for the division of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the colonies to go to the archduke Charles. To the dauphin, Naples, Sicily, Finale, Guipuzcoa, and the Milanese. Charles appoints as his heir, Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. Death of Charles II. Anjou succeeds as Philip V.

Eighteenth Century

1701 Philip arrives in Spain. The emperor protests against his accession. The nobles alienated by attempts at financial reform. Philip marries Maria Louisa of Savoy. The princess Orsini obtains supreme influence over Philip and Maria. Fueros restored to Catalonia.

1702 Philip goes to Naples. Indecisive battle of Luzzara between Philip and Prince Eugene. Grand Alliance between England, Holland, Denmark, Austria, and Prussia, against Spain and France. The allies fail before Cadiz, but destroy the Spanish plate fleet at Vigo.

1704 The archduke Charles lands at Lisbon, and in union with the king of Portugal declares war on Spain. A French army under Berwick invades Portugal. Charles lands at Barcelona, but effects nothing and retreats. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke. Indecisive battle off Malaga.

1705 An attempt to recover Gibraltar fails. The allies take Barcelona. Catalonia, Valencia, and Murcia declare for Charles.

1706 Philip fails at the siege of Barcelona. Portuguese invasion. Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies leads to the loss of nearly the whole Spanish Netherlands. Charles enters Madrid. Aragon declares for him. The French driven from the Milanese and Charles proclaimed. The allies expelled from Castile.

1707 Berwick defeats the allies at Almansa. The Austrians conquer Naples; Valencia and Aragon recovered for Philip. Their fueros abolished, and their government assimilated to the Castilian.

1708 Attempt to exact a loan from the clergy. The pope forbids its payment, but offers a tax on church property, which Philip declines. The allies win the battle of Oudenarde. The plate fleet captured by the English. Minorca, Majorca, and Sardinia conquered by the allies, and Oran by the Moors.

1709 Amelot, the French ambassador, dismissed. Medina-Celi prime minister. Barrier treaty between England and Holland regulating the northern boundary of the Spanish Netherlands, and providing for their government in the name of Charles, and eventual transfer to Austria.

1710 Insincere negotiations of Gertruydenberg between France and the allies. War in Spain renewed. Philip defeated at Almenara and Saragossa. Charles re-enters Madrid, but leaves to repel an invasion of Catalonia, and Philip returns and wins the battle of Villaviciosa.

1711 Death of the emperor Joseph I. The archduke Charles succeeds him as Charles VI.

1712 England withdraws from the Grand Alliance, and recalls her troops from Catalonia. Philip renounces his rights to the French crown, and changes the law of succession to the Spanish crown, excluding females while one of his male descendants shall survive.

1713 The imperial troops withdraw from Catalonia. Orry becomes finance minister, and reforms the administration. Death of Queen Maria Louisa. The clergy resist an attempt to curb the power of the Inquisition. Spain accedes to the Peace of Utrecht between France and England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal, by which Philip is recognised as king of Spain; the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Milanese, and Naples are ceded to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy; while England retains Gibraltar and Minorca.

1714 France and England send troops to reduce Catalonia. Barcelona taken by storm. The privileges of Catalonia abolished, and the Castilian constitution established there. Majorca submits. Philip marries Elizabeth Farnese. She gains unbounded influence over him, and makes Alberoni, an Italian priest, her chief adviser. He turns his attention to the revival of commerce and industry, economical reforms, and the reorganisation of the army and navy.

1715 Peace with Portugal. Colonia del Sacramento on the Rio de la Plata ceded to her.

1716-17 Triple alliance between France, England, and Holland to preserve the provisions of the treaty of Utrecht.

1717 Sardinia occupied by the Spaniards.

1718 Triple alliance between the emperor, France, and England. The Spaniards invade Sicily. Their fleet is destroyed by Byng in a battle off Cape Passaro. Alberoni concerts with count Görtz, minister of Charles XII of Sweden, a scheme for a joint invasion of Scotland by Sweden and Russia, which is frustrated by the death of Charles XII.

1719 Spain invaded by the French. A Spanish fleet, sent to restore the English pretender, dispersed by a storm. The allies ravage the Spanish coasts. Spanish reverses in Sicily. Holland accedes to the Triple, now the Quadruple, Alliance. Alberoni disgraced. Patiño succeeds him.

1720 Philip accedes to the Quadruple Alliance. Sicily ceded to Austria, and Sardinia to Savoy. Successful campaign on the Barbary coast.

1721 Defensive alliance with France and England.

1724 Philip abdicates in favour of his son Luis. Death of Luis. Philip V resumes the crown.

1725 The Spanish infanta, the intended queen of Louis XV, sent back to Spain. Philip’s agent, Ripperdá, concludes with the emperor the treaty of Vienna, securing the succession of Charles, son of Philip and Elizabeth Farnese, to Parma and Tuscany and arranging a commercial alliance.

1726 England joins France in the league of Hanover. Administration and disgrace of Ripperdá.

1727 Gibraltar besieged by the Spaniards. The emperor makes peace with England and France, referring the questions of Parma, Tuscany, and Gibraltar to a congress.

1728 Philip accepts the terms in the convention of the Pardo.

1729 Treaty of Seville between Spain, England, and France. The commercial treaty with the emperor abrogated. Philip’s son Charles recognised as heir to Parma and Tuscany.

1731 The emperor annexes Parma, but in the second treaty of Vienna accedes to the treaty of Seville. Charles succeeds to Parma and Piacenza.

1732 Oran recovered from the Moors.

1733 Perpetual Family Compact between France and Spain. France, Spain, and Sardinia agree to assert the claims of Stanislaus Leczinsky to Poland.

1734 Charles of Parma takes possession of Naples and is declared king of the Two Sicilies. The retiring Germans defeated at Bitonto. Sicily reduced for Charles. The Germans beaten at Parma.

1735 Preliminaries of Vienna. France and Sardinia make peace with the emperor. Parma to be ceded to Austria and Tuscany to Francis of Lorraine.

1736 Philip and Charles of Sicily accede to the Peace of Vienna, Charles retaining Sicily.

1739 War of Jenkins’ Ear occasioned by the disputes of Spanish and English traders in the West Indies. To meet the expense of the war, government pensions and payments are suspended for a year, and the interest on the public debt reduced. Porto Bello captured by the English.

1740 Death of the emperor Charles VI. Philip claims the succession for his son Don Philip.

1741 Unsuccessful siege of Cartagena de las Indias by the British. They fail to conquer Cuba. Anson plunders Payta and captures a Spanish treasure ship.

1742 Philip sends troops to invade Austrian Lombardy. The king of Sardinia suddenly goes over to the emperor and drives the Spaniards from Lombardy. The British fleet compels the neutrality of Naples.

1743 Alliance of Austria, England, and Sardinia. Spain renews the French alliance in the Treaty of Fontainebleau.

1744 Indecisive battle of Hyères between the English, French, and Spanish fleets. Unsuccessful siege of Coni by the Spaniards.

1745 The French and Spanish overrun the Milanese.

1746 The French and Spaniards routed at Piacenza and expelled from Lombardy. Death of Philip. His son, Ferdinand VI, succeeds.

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Don Philip receives Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. Maria Theresa recognised as successor of Charles VI.

1749 Commercial treaty of Aquisgran between Spain and England. Under the administration of Carvajal and Ensenada, Spain begins to recover her prosperity.

1752 Treaty of Aranjuez between Spain, Maria Theresa, and the dukes of Tuscany, and Parma guarantees the neutrality of Italy.

1753 Pope Benedict XIV acknowledges by a concordat the Spanish king’s right to make ecclesiastical appointments.

1754 Death of Carvajal. Richard Wall, an Irishman, succeeds him.

1755 Earthquake in Spain.

1759 Death of Ferdinand. His half-brother, Charles of Naples, succeeds as Charles III. Naples is handed over to Charles’ younger son, Ferdinand. Charles restores Aragon and Catalonia some of their privileges and remits arrears of taxes. Squillaci (Esquilache) appointed minister of finance.

1761 Third family compact with France for mutual defence. Consequent war with England.

1762 Portugal refuses to join the family compact and is invaded by the French and Spaniards. England sends troops to Portugal. The Spaniards defeated at Valencia de Alcantara and Villa Velha. Havana and Manila captured by the English. Colonia del Sacramento taken from Portugal.

1763 Peace with England. Spain cedes Florida and her fishing rights on the Newfoundland banks. England restores Havana and Manila. Grimaldi succeeds Wall. Louisiana ceded to Spain by France. The inhabitants refuse to accept the transfer.

1765 Reorganisation of the Spanish colonies. Discontent and revolts.

1766 Discontent roused against Squillaci by sumptuary laws, foreign innovations, and the high price of bread. Sanguinary revolution in Madrid called the “Revolt of Esquilache.” De Aranda minister. He continues the policy of innovation, and

1767 expels the Jesuit fathers from Spain and the colonies, as aiders and abettors of revolution.

1769 Louisiana subdued.

1770 The Spaniards assert their claim to the Falkland Islands and expel the English. Preparations are made for war, but France withdrawing her support,

1771 Spain is compelled to apologise and restore the Falklands. De Aranda dismissed.

1773 The pope, Clement XIV, compelled by Spain to order the suppression of the Jesuits. The pursuit of trade declared to involve no loss of rank or privilege.

1774 The final blow given to the Inquisition by a decree making civil offences punishable by civil tribunals only.

1775 Ceuta and Melilla attacked by the Moors. The aggressors defeated. A Spanish army routed in Algiers.

1776 The Portuguese attack the Spaniards on the Rio Grande. Colonia del Sacramento and the neighbouring colonies occupied by Spain.

1777 Grimaldi replaced by Florida-Blanca. Peace with Portugal. Spain retains Colonia del Sacramento.

1778 Perpetual alliance with Portugal. Privilege of free trade with all American colonies save Mexico granted to seven principal Spanish ports. The privilege was afterwards extended to all the provinces save Biscay.

1779 Spain offers to mediate between England and her revolted American colonies. On her refusal Spain declares war. Gibraltar besieged by the Spaniards. Failure of a Franco-Spanish naval expedition against England.

1780 The principle of the Armed Neutrality announced by Russia and accepted by Spain. Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. English transport fleet captured.

1781 Pensacola taken by the Spaniards. Rebellions in Peru and Mexico.

1782 Minorca taken by the French and Spaniards. Gibraltar relieved by Howe. Treaty with Turkey containing commercial provisions, arranging for the exchange of slaves and protection for Spanish pilgrims.

1783 Peace with England concluded at Versailles. Spain retains Minorca and Florida. Increase of duties on foreign manufactures.

1784 The proceedings of the Inquisition against grandees and officials subjected to the king’s approval.

1786 Treaty with Algiers. The Algerian government guarantees the suppression of piracy.

1788 Death of Charles III. He is succeeded by his son Charles IV.

1791 Spain protests against the foundation of the English settlement at Nootka Sound, but being unsupported by France has to recognise it. This humiliation being attributed to the French Revolution leads to a reaction against liberalism. Florida-Blanca urges the European powers to restore Louis XVI.

1792 Dismissal of Florida-Blanca. Manuel de Godoy, the queen’s favourite, becomes supreme. The Spanish government intercedes for Louis XVI.