Part 2 — NOTES CHAPTER XII REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Those who wish to carry out detailed investigations of the various topics discussed in the present volume will find in the Notes and Bibliography references to the original sources and to secondary works. Owing, however, to the scattered nature of the references in the Notes and to the alphabetical arrangement of the Bibliography it is impossible from them alone to gain a rapid introduction to the outstanding publications on the subject. To supply such an introduction is the purpose of the following note.

Titles are not as a rule here cited in full, and the reader should therefore turn to the Bibliography for the full titles, for indications of the place and manner of publication, and for other bibliographical details. The relatively few titles of publications mentioned here only are given in full and are followed by the words “(not in Bibliography).”

Bibliographies

The study of the geographical lore of the Middle Ages has been approached by scholars from many different points of view. This is reflected in the character of the bibliographies dealing specifically or incidentally with this field. We may group these bibliographies arbitrarily into three classes: (a) historical bibliographies; (b) geographical bibliographies; (c) bibliographies devoted to the history of science.

Historical Bibliographies

Among the historical bibliographies mention should first be made of Chevalier’s Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge, 1894–1907. Two volumes of this work, with the subtitle Bio-bibliographie, list alphabetically a large number of personages of importance in the Middle Ages. Brief biographical notes are given, followed by extensive lists of references to publications by or in any way relating to these personages. A great difficulty in using the Bio-bibliographie lies in the fact that no clues are given regarding the type of publications to which reference is made. We are not told whether these publications are printed texts of medieval works, scholarly treatises, or merely passing and relatively unimportant allusions. In a third volume of Chevalier’s Répertoire (with the subtitle Topo-bibliographie) the effort is made to list alphabetically a multitude of topics relating to medieval history and life and, as in the Bio-bibliographie, to give references to publications upon these topics. Here again, owing to the lack of critical evaluation of the references as well as to the somewhat arbitrary selection of the topical headings, the work is of very uneven utility.

Whereas Chevalier attempts to cover the entire range of medieval civilization, the writings of the historians and chroniclers of the age are dealt with in Potthast’s indispensable Bibliotheca historica medii aevi, 1896. 492The main part of these volumes consists of an alphabetical repertory of names and titles with references to manuscripts, editions, translations, and secondary works explanatory of the sources. There are also included highly useful synopses of the contents of the great collections of medieval sources (see below, pp. 493–495) and an appendix in which the titles of the original sources are given chronologically within regional divisions.

For a general guide to many of the more important books and articles on medieval history, L. J. Paetow’s Guide to the Study of Medieval History for Students, Teachers, and Librarians (University of California Syllabus Series, no. 90), Berkeley, Cal., 1917 (not in Bibliography), is valuable. A large part of Paetow’s book is devoted to medieval culture. Though by no means exhaustive, the Guide is excellent for orienting the student in an unfamiliar field.

We refrain from mentioning other historical bibliographies of regions and topics relating to the Middle Ages. References to many of these may readily be found in the first chapter of Paetow’s Guide and in the various paragraphs entitled “Bibliographies” appended to the topical sections of that publication.

Geographical Bibliographies

The bibliography of ancient and medieval geography has been dealt with at some length in the summaries of the progress of geographical research that have appeared from time to time in the Geographisches Jahrbuch published by Justus Perthes, Gotha (not in Bibliography), which since 1880 has been edited by Professor Hermann Wagner of Göttingen. The ancient period has been covered by Professor Eugen Oberhummer in vols. xix (1896), xxii (1899), xxviii (1905), and xxxiv (1911); the medieval by Professors Sophus Ruge and Walther Ruge in vols. xviii (1895), xx (1897), xxiii (1900), xxvi (1903), and xxx (1907). These reports are running commentaries on the progress of current investigation, with references to the literature in the footnotes.

A section on the history of geography, with occasional references to publications in the medieval field, has appeared regularly in the Bibliographie géographique annuelle (not in Bibliography) of the periodical Annales de Géographie, published by Armand Colin, Paris, 1893–1914, and in its continuation, Bibliographie géographique 1915–1919, 1920–1921, 1922 (not in Bibliography), published under the auspices of the Association de Géographes Français. References to secondary works in medieval geography are also given in the annual volumes of Bibliotheca Geographica (not in Bibliography), published by the Gesellschaft für Erdkunde Berlin, and covering 1891 to 1912.

Bibliographies of the History of Science

References to publications on medieval geography as a part of the history of science may be found in the critical bibliographies that have been included since its inception in 1913 in each number of the periodical Isis: 493International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Civilization, Brussels.

Dictionaries

Research in the field covered by the present volume requires a working knowledge of medieval Latin, the language in which most of the original sources were written. Medieval Latin is not difficult—except in occasional passages—for one who has some knowledge of classical Latin. The great dictionary of C. D. Du Cange, Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae latinitatis (not in Bibliography), first published at Paris in 1678 and subsequently in other editions (the latest at Niort, 1883–1887), is indispensable. For medieval French, consult F. E. Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française, 10 vols., Paris, 1881–1902 (not in Bibliography).

Manuscripts

Many of the works of medieval authors have never been printed. They can be consulted only in the collections of manuscripts of the libraries of Europe and, to a limited extent, of America. While research in manuscripts is not absolutely essential for a general study like the present, no detailed research can very well be conducted without direct recourse to unprinted documents.

The use of medieval manuscripts is an art in itself, requiring some familiarity with paleography. The handwritings of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, however, are frequently not difficult to decipher. On this subject consult: E. M. Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography, Oxford, 1912 (not in Bibliography), and, for abbreviations commonly used in manuscripts, A. Cappelli, Lexicon abbreviaturarum ...: Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane ..., Milan, 1899, 2nd edit., Milan, 1912 (not in Bibliography).

A list of catalogues of collections of manuscripts will be found in a publication of the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris: Collection alphabétique des livres imprimés mis à la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de travail, suivi de la liste des catalogues usuels du département des manuscrits, Paris, 1910 (not in Bibliography). Useful references to manuscripts of some of the writings on geography and natural science of the Middle Ages are included in Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, 1897–1906, in Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science, 1923, and in Haskins, Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science, 1924. References to manuscript maps will be found in Miller, Mappaemundi, 1895–1898.

Collections of Original Sources

The great printed collections of historical sources dealing with the Middle Ages are discussed in Paetow’s Guide (see above, p. 492) and analyzed in Potthast’s Bibliotheca (see above, p. 491). In the Bibliography of the present volume reference is made to printed texts of individual works. It will therefore not be necessary here to do more than indicate the titles of 494a few of the collections most important from the point of view of medieval geography.

The Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, 1866 ff., is a collection of critically edited texts of the writings of the Latin Church Fathers. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus ... series latina (referred to in the Notes as Pat. lat.), 1844–1864, contains texts, for the most part uncritical, not only of the writings of the Church Fathers but also of a vast assemblage of works bearing directly or indirectly on the medieval Church.

In nearly all the nations of Europe the publication has been carried through or is in progress of great collections of sources dealing with the national history during the Middle Ages. To mention briefly a few of these, we may refer first to the Rerum britannicarum medii aevi scriptores, 1858–1891, usually known as the “Rolls Series.” This series includes not only the works of the historians and chroniclers of Britain of the Middle Ages but also those of many British writers on matters of geography and natural science. The Monumenta Germaniae historica, 1826–1874 and 1876 ff., contains in its magnificent volumes documents relating to all aspects of the history and life of the medieval Germans and incidentally of Europe as a whole. Many of the texts of the Monumenta have been more critically edited in the Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum ex Monumentis Germaniae historicis recusi, 1840 ff. For France there are the Rerum gallicarum et francicarum scriptores, or Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, Paris, 1738–1904 (not in Bibliography), and the publications of the Société de l’Histoire de France, Paris, 1835 ff. (not in Bibliography); for the Crusades the most important collection is the Recueil des historiens des croisades, 14 vols., Paris, 1841–1898 (not in Bibliography).

Collections dealing more especially with texts of geographical importance are, for ancient geography, Müller’s Geographi graeci minores, 1882, and Riese’s Geographi latini minores, 1878. Itineraries to and descriptions of the Holy Land will be found in Tobler, Descriptiones terrae sanctae, 1874, Tobler, Itinera ... saec. iv-xi, 1877, Michelant and Reynaud, Itinéraires à Jerusalem, 1882, and Tobler, Molinier, and Kohler, Itinera ... bellis sacris anteriora, 1880–1885. English translations of certain medieval travels in Palestine will be found in Thomas Wright, Early Travels in Palestine, 1848, and in the Library of the Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society, 1885–1897. Texts and English translations for the early exploration of Iceland will be found in Vigfusson and Yorke Powell, Origines islandicae, 1905. Documents relating to the Norse discovery of America are included in Rafn, Antiquitates americanae, 1837–1841; and Reeves, The Finding of Wineland the Good, 1890, gives English translations of the Vineland voyages. On the texts of the great Asiatic voyages of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which do not fall within the scope of the present volume, see above, pp. 269–270, and p. 465, notes 70, 71, 74, 75.

495The primary collection of facsimiles of medieval maps prior to the appearance of the portolan charts is Miller, Mappaemundi, 1895–1898; critical texts with references to manuscripts and discussions are here given. Reproductions of early medieval maps are also given in the atlases to Santarem, Essai sur l’histoire de la cosmographie et de la cartographie, 1849–1852, and to Lelewel, Géographie du moyen âge, 1852–1857.

A selection of medieval texts dealing with meteorology will be found in Hellmann, Denkmäler mittelalterlicher Meteorologie, 1904.

Secondary Works

We may divide our treatment of secondary works into two parts: first, a discussion of publications dealing with the broader background of medieval life and thus, incidentally, with the geographical lore of the period; second, a discussion of publications dealing directly with the geographical and related lore of antiquity and the Middle Ages or with the enlargement of geographical knowledge. The titles of secondary works relating to the specific writings or authors referred to in the present volume may readily be found by using the cross-references in the Bibliography.

Background of Medieval Intellectual Life

In order not to expand our discussion beyond due measure, we shall restrict ourselves in this section to mentioning a very few publications the majority of which have been of direct service in the preparation of the present volume.

For a broad and brilliantly written treatment of medieval intellectual activity in its many phases, we may refer to H. O. Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind: A History of the Development of Thought and Emotion in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., New York, 1911, revised edit., 1914 (not in Bibliography). Haskins’ Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science, 1924, which appeared while the present volume was in press, is fundamental for the history of science in Western Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Several of its chapters are revisions of articles which had previously appeared, but other parts of the work are entirely new contributions. The volume is based to a very large extent upon hitherto unpublished sources; many critical and interesting passages of Latin texts are published in it for the first time. Poole’s Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought and Learning, 1920, is a discussion of the work of a few selected exponents of typical modes of medieval thought. The original work of the scholars of Chartres in the Middle Ages is the subject of Clerval’s Écoles de Chartres, 1895.

The Latin literature of the period as a whole is dealt with in Gröber, Übersicht über die lateinische Literatur von der Mitte des 6. Jahrhunderts bis 1350, 1888–1902, and medieval Latin literature prior to the middle of the eleventh century is treated in greater detail in M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters, vol. 1, 1911. On the Latin poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries consult Francke, Geschichte 496der lateinischen Schulpoesie, 1879. For the French literature of the age there is the important volume of Gaston Paris, La littérature française au moyen âge, 1914, or the English translation.

Medieval philosophy is outlined in De Wulf, Histoire de la philosophie médiévale, 1900, or the English translation.

On the art of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as expressing the thought of the time the student should read Mâle’s two volumes, L’art religieux du xii^e siècle, 1922, and L’art religieux du xiii^e siècle, 1910, or the English translation of the volume dealing with the thirteenth century.

An old but highly suggestive treatise on the natural science of the early twelfth century is that of C. B. Jourdain, Dissertation sur l’état de la philosophie naturelle, 1838. Natural science, magic, and legendary lore of the first thirteen centuries of the Christian era form the topics of Thorndike’s learned History of Magic and Experimental Science, 1923. Some of these subjects as they were embodied in medieval French encyclopedias compiled for the use of the layman are illustrated in C. V. Langlois, La connaissance de la nature, 1911. Legendary lore more especially is the theme of Denis’ little Monde enchanté, 1843, of Berger de Xivrey’s Traditions tératologiques, 1836, and, more recently, of Graf’s Miti, leggende e superstizioni, 1892–1893.

The relation between theology and natural science in the Middle Ages has been a matter of controversy. From a point of view relatively favorable to medieval science the subject was discussed by Zöckler, Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft, vol. i, 1877; from a more critical point of view, by Draper, Conflict Between Religion and Science, 1875, and in White’s scholarly Warfare of Science with Theology, 1895.

The influence of classical scholarship upon medieval thought was potent. This topic as a whole is dealt with in much detail in Sandys’ monumental History of Classical Scholarship, 3rd edit., vol. i, 1921. On the use of classical works in the Middle Ages see also the two monographs of M. Manitius, Beiträge zur Geschichte der römischen Prosaiker, 1890, and Philologisches aus alten Bibliothekskatalogen, 1892. In regard to medieval Latin translations from the Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, the formerly authoritative treatises of Amable Jourdain, Recherches critiques, 1843, and Wüstenfeld, Übersetzungen arabischer Werke, 1877, have to a large extent been superseded by the researches of Steinschneider (Hebräische Übersetzungen, 1893; Europäische Übersetzungen, 1905–1906), Mandonnet (Siger de Brabant, 1908, 1911), Grabmann (Forschungen über die lateinischen Aristotelesübersetzungen, 1916), Haskins (Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science, 1924), and others (see above, pp. 95–102, and notes 32–70 on pp. 398–403).

The Geographical Lore of Antiquity and of the Middle Ages

The publications dealing with ancient and medieval geographical lore may be divided into three groups: those devoted to (a) the history of 497geography as a whole; (b) the history of geography in particular periods; (c) the history of particular aspects of geography.

The History of Geography as a Whole

With the exception of a few brief popular works, the writer knows of only three general histories of geography in which the attempt is made to cover the entire field. These are Louis Vivien de St. Martin, Histoire de la géographie et des découvertes géographiques depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu’à nos jours, with atlas, Paris, 1873 (not in Bibliography); Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde, 1877; and Günther, Geschichte der Erdkunde, 1904. The first is concerned primarily with explorations and the expansion of regional knowledge; in its pages the medieval period receives but scant attention. Peschel aimed to cover both exploration and scientific geography, and his work, though old, is of great value: scholarly, well balanced, and clearly written. Whereas Peschel stopped with the early nineteenth century, Günther carries the record through that century; his book contains a wealth of detail and of useful bibliographical notes.

The History of Geography in Particular Periods

1. Ancient Geography. Bunbury’s History of Ancient Geography, 1879, remains to the present day the only work of large scope on Greek and Latin geography as a whole. Tozer’s delightful History of Ancient Geography, 1897, is a good introduction to the subject but is inadequate for detailed research. A scholarly treatment of the scientific geography of the Greeks is Berger’s Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen, 1903. The most extensive recent treatment of classical geography as a whole, with numerous references, is Gisinger’s article “Geographie” in Paulys Real-Encyclopädie, 1924. The evolution of those theories of ancient geography which prepared the way toward the discovery of America is admirably outlined in the now somewhat out of date but nevertheless useful and stimulating chapter by Tillinghast, Geographical Knowledge of the Ancients in Relation to the Discovery of America, in the first volume of Winsor’s Narrative and Critical History, 1889. Alexander von Humboldt in the first part of the Examen critique de l’histoire de la géographie du nouveau continent et des progrès de l’astronomie nautique aux quinzième et seizième siècles, Paris, 1st edit., 1814–1834 (not in Bibliography), probed deeply into the history of ancient geography. See also C. B. Jourdain, De l’influence d’Aristote ... sur la découverte du Nouveau-Monde, 1861.

2. Medieval Geography. Santarem’s Essai sur l’histoire de la cosmographie et de la cartographie, 1849–1852, marks one of the earliest attempts in modern times to open up the subject of medieval geography. It consists of a mass of detailed notes on the regional geographical theories of the cosmographers of the Middle Ages. Lelewel’s Géographie du moyen âge, 1852–1857, is a work of erudition exasperating in the confusion of its arrangement, the difficulty of its style, and the untenability of many of 498its theories. Lelewel, however, went beyond Santarem in his endeavor to take into consideration the work of Arabic as well as of Occidental geographical authors.

The most recent broad history of medieval geography is Beazley’s important Dawn of Modern Geography, 1897–1906. These three volumes are the result of long and arduous research and will probably remain for many years to come on the whole the most satisfactory general treatment of the subject. They cover the period from 300 to 1420 A. D. Attention is given to the explorations and geographical science not only of the Christians but also of the Arabs and Chinese (the two latter subjects, however, having been studied through translations and secondary works only). Throughout, especial stress is laid upon the record of travel and exploration and upon the historical events that led to the acquisition of geographical information by travel and exploration. In the first two volumes, on the period until 1260, extensive chapters are devoted to “Geographical Theory,” but in the third, covering 1260 to 1420, only 29 out of a total of 541 pages are given to geographical theory, and the chapter on geographical theory of the period from 900 to 1260 in the second volume barely touches upon the various topics discussed in Chapters V to X of the present book. To illustrate the theoretical “earth-knowledge” of the “Central Middle Age period” Beazley discusses three examples only, the work of Constantine Porphyrogenetos, that of Adam of Bremen, and the chief maps of the age. There is either the briefest passing mention or else no reference whatever to the writings of the highly characteristic authors the study of whose geographical opinions is the main purpose of the present volume—such writers as Peter Abelard, Peter Comestor, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard and Theodoric of Chartres, Adelard of Bath, William of Conches, Gerard of Cremona, Michael Scot, Robert Grosseteste, Gervase of Tilbury, Otto of Freising, Gunther of Pairis, Giraldus Cambrensis, Saxo Grammaticus, Guy of Bazoches, and the various translators from the Arabic. Furthermore, Beazley makes no attempt to give a systematic analysis of the various elements that constituted the geographical lore of the scholar or educated reader of Western Europe in the age of the Crusades.

A scholarly account of the geography of the Church Fathers is Marinelli, La geografia e i padri della chiesa, 1882 (also translated into German). Very full references are here given in footnotes.

On the geography of the Moslems of the Middle Ages the first volume of Reinaud’s Géographie d’Aboulféda, 1848, though now more than seventy years old, is still, to our knowledge, the only thoroughly scholarly work covering the whole field in detail. More recent, but much briefer treatments are those of Baron Carra de Vaux in the second volume of his Penseurs de l’Islam, 1921, and of Carl Schoy in various articles (cited in the Bibliography under his name), especially the article in the Geographical Review, 1924.

499 The History of Particular Aspects of Geography

1. Cosmogony and Cosmology. Duhem’s great Système du monde, 1913–1917, is now the fundamental history of the evolution of cosmological doctrines from the time of Plato to the fourteenth century. To it the writer owes, to a large extent, his guidance to the original sources as well as much of the material which he has necessarily accepted at second hand in those parts of the present book which deal with the origins and the larger relations of the earth to the remainder of the universe. For the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Werner’s two monographs, Die Kosmologie ... Wilhelm von Conches, 1873, and Die Kosmologie ... des Roger Baco, 1879, are important. On the development of Christian theories of the Creation one should also consult Zöckler, Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft, 1877–1879, and Robbins, Hexaemeral Literature, 1912. See also A. C. McGiffert, The God of the Early Christians, New York, 1924 (not in Bibliography), for the theologians’ view of the Creation in the early centuries of our era. An interesting monograph on the ancient theory of the periodic destruction and rebirth of the universe is that of Günther, Die antike Apokatastasis, 1916.

2. Larger problems of terrestrial geography. These problems are dealt with by Kretschmer in the monograph discussed in the following subsection (3).

Several important studies have been written on the medieval beliefs regarding the shape of the earth. Günther, in his Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen und physikalischen Geographie, 1877–1879, treated the subject from the point of view shared by many Protestants; Schneid, Die Lehre von der Erdrundung, 1877, replied to Günther from the Catholic point of view. More recently the matter has been discussed by Betten (see above, p. 384, note 48). Proofs of the curvature of the earth adduced in antiquity and during the Middle Ages are the topic of a monograph by Günther, Optische Beweisung für die Erdkrümmung, 1920.

On the Eratosthenic measurement of the size of the earth and its subsequent influence the fundamental work is now the two volumes of Thalamas, Étude bibliographique de la géographie d’Ératosthène, 1921, and La géographie d’Ératosthène, 1921. Other interesting studies in this field are those of Mori, La misurazione eratostenica, 1911, Decourdemanche, Note sur l’estimation de la longeur du degré terrestre, 1913, and Miller, Die Erdmessung im Alterthum, 1919.

The problems of the antipodes and the austral continent are sketched historically by Rainaud, Le continent austral, 1893; the antipodes more particularly by Boffito, La leggenda degli antipodi, 1903.

Three important discussions of the evolution of ancient and medieval theories regarding the relative positions and extent of areas of land and water on the earth’s surface and of the relations which obtain between the spheres of land and of water are Günther, Ältere und neuere Hypothesen 500..., forming part iii of his Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen und physikalischen Geographie, 1879; Boffito, La controversia dell’acqua e della terra prima e dopo di Dante, forming Memoria I of his Intorno alla “Quaestio de aqua et terra,” 1902; and Norlind, Das Problem des gegenseitigen Verhältnisses von Land und Wasser, 1918.

3. Physical Geography. An important monograph on the physical geography of the Christian Middle Ages is Kretschmer, Die physische Erdkunde im christlichen Mittelalter, 1889. After a discussion of the sources—both Greek and Latin—Kretschmer takes up systematically the problems of the size and shape of the earth, the question of the antipodes, medieval theories of the divergent centers of the spheres of earth and water, the compass, and the physical geography of the waters, the atmosphere, and the lands. The topics dealt with are similar to those treated in parts of Chapter VI and in Chapters VII, VIII, and IX of the present volume. On the other hand, Kretschmer neglects the interesting question of theories of the origin of the earth. In dealing with physical geography he gives little attention to the writers of the age of the Crusades. With the exception of William of Conches, he neglects the same authors of that age whom Beazley neglects (see above, p. 498).

Several works on particular phases of ancient and medieval physical geography deserve special mention. An elaborate study of the meteorological lore of the Greeks is that of Gilbert, Die meteorologischen Theorien des griechischen Altertums, 1907. A German doctoral dissertation is devoted to the theories of the Church Fathers in regard to meteorology: Hoffmann, Die Anschauungen der Kirchenväter über Meteorologie, 1907 (see also Günther, Notiz zur Geschichte der Klimatologie, 1887). Medieval wind-roses are discussed in Cusa, Sulla denominazione dei venti, 1884; Revelli, Una “rosa dei venti,” 1910; and Bertolini, L’orologio solare di Aquileia e la sistemazione della rosa dei venti, 1916. Dissertations by Frahm (Das Meer und die Seefahrt in der altfranzösischen Literatur, 1914) and Koch (Das Meer in der mittelhochdeutschen Epik, 1910) deal respectively with the sea as depicted in old French literature and in the Middle High German epic. The basic study of the history of theories of the tides in antiquity and during the Middle Ages is Almagià, La dottrina della marea, 1905. Material, pleasingly presented, on the history of geology, with, incidentally, some interesting observations on medieval physical geography, will be found in Geikie, Founders of Geology, 1905. Medieval beliefs regarding the interior of the earth, volcanoes, and earthquakes are outlined by Stegmann in a dissertation, Die Anschauungen ... über die endogenen Erscheinungen der Erde, 1913. Classical and medieval ideas of the arrangement of the mountains of the earth’s surface form the subject of Benl’s dissertation, Hypothesen über die regelmässige Anordnung der Erdgebirge, 1905.

4. Feeling for Nature. The feeling for nature as expressed in the Latin literature of antiquity is the topic of a delightful book by Geikie, The 501Love of Nature Among the Romans, 1912. On the feeling for nature in the medieval period we may refer to the works of Biese, Die Entwicklung des Naturgefühls, 1892 (or the English translation), and of Ganzenmüller, Das Naturgefühl, 1914. To the latter the writer is especially indebted for numerous references to source material that might otherwise have been overlooked. Interesting studies of early mountain climbing are those of Gribble, The Early Mountaineers, 1899; Günther, Wissenschaftliche Bergbesteigungen, 1896; and W. W. Hyde, The Development of the Appreciation of Mountain Scenery in Modern Times, in: Geographical Review, vol. iii, 1917, pp. 107–118 (not in Bibliography), though none of these devotes a great deal of attention to the period of the Crusades.

5. Astronomical Geography. On the history of the invention and use of methods of determining latitude, see Schoy, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Polhöhenbestimmung, 1911; on longitudes, Schoy’s Längenbestimmung und Zentralmeridian, 1915. See also the various articles and monographs on Ptolemy cited in the cross-references under Ptolemy in the Bibliography. Knowledge of latitudes and longitudes in the Christian West in the Middle Ages is discussed by J. K. Wright, Notes on the Knowledge of Latitudes and Longitudes, 1923.

6. Cartography. The history of cartography is discussed in the works mentioned in the sections on the history of geography as a whole and in particular periods, pp. 497–498 above. To the cartography of the ancient period as a whole are devoted two important recent publications: Kubitschek’s article “Karten” in Paulys Real-Encyclopädie, 1919, and Cebrian, Geschichte der Kartographie, 1923. The most complete single study of the medieval cartography of the period with which we have to deal is Miller, Mappaemundi, 1895–1898. Other publications which deal incidentally but significantly with the cartography of the pre-portolan period are the works of Pullé, Simar, and Langenmaier referred to in subsection 7, immediately below.

7. Regional Geography. The fundamental study of belief in the Terrestrial Paradise is that of Coli, Il paradiso terrestre, 1897, although the matter has also been discussed by Graf in his La leggenda del paradiso terrestre, 1878, and in his Miti, leggende e superstizioni, 1892–1893.

The growth of medieval knowledge of Asia is traced in the introduction to Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, 1913–1916, and much important material on this topic may be gleaned from the notes in the third edition of Yule’s Marco Polo, 1903, and from Cordier’s Ser Marco Polo, 1920. India as depicted on medieval maps is the subject of an interesting treatise by Pullé, La cartografia antica dell’India, 1901–1905. Lowes, in The Dry Sea, 1905, deals with interesting problems in the geography of Central Asia in the Middle Ages (see also Pelliot, Chrétiens d’Asie centrale et d’Extrême-Orient, 1914). On the history of commercial connections between the Near East and Europe during our period, two highly important books are Heyd, Commerce du Levant, 1885–1886 (reprinted 1923), and 502Schaube, Handelsgeschichte der romanischen Völker des Mittelmeergebiets, 1906. Dreesbach, Der Orient in der altfranzösischen Kreuzzugsliteratur, 1901, is a résumé of notices relating to the Near East as they appear in French literature of the Crusades.

Two scholarly works deal with the widening of Western knowledge of Central Africa in antiquity and during the Middle Ages. These are Simar, La géographie de l’Afrique centrale, 1912, and Langenmaier, Alte Kenntnis ... der Zentralafrikanischen Seenregion, 1916. Schaube’s Handelsgeschichte and Mas-Latrie, Traités de paix et de commerce ..., concernant les relations des Chrétiens avec les Arabes de l’Afrique septentrionale, 1866, are also important for the relations between Europe and North Africa.

Not much has been written in modern times upon the geography of Europe as it was conceived in the period covered by the present book. Hungary as it figures in the chansons de geste is the subject of an article by Karl, La Hongrie ... dans les chansons de geste, 1908, and there are other monographs of limited scope, but no general discussion. The progress of geographical knowledge of the North is outlined by Moritz, Die geographische Kenntnis von den Nord- und Ostseeküsten, 1904; Weinhold, Die Polargegenden Europas, 1871; and especially by Nansen, In Northern Mists, 1911. The history of Icelandic geography (both of historical geography and of geographical studies in Iceland) is treated by Thoroddsen, Geschichte der isländischen Geographie, 1897. European wanderings in the Atlantic and legends of fabulous islands in that ocean have been made the subject of a large library of books and monographs. We may mention here Westropp, Brasil and the Legendary Islands of the Atlantic, 1912, and the recent volume of Babcock, Legendary Islands of the Atlantic, 1922.

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