APPENDIX
Reading edition
NOTE I
LUCRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN
Lucretius's conception[BC] of the gradual development of human culture undoubtedly came from Greek sources beginning with Empedocles. His indebtedness is beautifully expressed in the opening lines of Book III of his De Rerum Natura:
"O Glory of the Greeks! who first didst chase The mind's dread darkness with celestial day, The worth illustrating of human life— Thee, glad, I follow—with firm foot resolved To tread the path imprinted by thy steps; Not urged by competition, but, alone, Studious thy toils to copy; for, in powers, How can the swallow with the swan contend? Or the young kid, all tremulous of limb, Strive with the strength, the fleetness of the horse; Thou, sire of science! with paternal truths Thy sons enrichest: from thy peerless page, Illustrious chief! as from the flowery field Th' industrious bee culls honey, we alike Cull many a golden precept—golden each— And each most worthy everlasting life. For as the doctrines of thy godlike mind Prove into birth how nature first uprose, All terrors vanish; the blue walls of heaven Fly instant—and the boundless void throughout Teems with created things."
The same conception[BD] of the early periods in the development of humanity is found in the Histoire universelle of Bossuet, in a curious passage undoubtedly suggested by Lucretius:
"Tout commence: it n'y a point d'histoire ancienne où il ne paraisse, non seulement dans ces premiers temps, mais encore longtemps après, des vestiges manifestes de la nouveauté du monde. On voit les lois s'établir, les mœurs se polir, et les empires se former: le genre humain sort peu à peu de l'ignorance; l'expérience l'instruit, et les arts sont inventés ou perfectionnés. A mesure que les hommes se multiplient, la terre se peuple de proche en proche: on passe les montagnes et les précipices; on traverse les fleuves et enfin les mers, et on établit de nouvelles habitations. La terre, qui n'était au commencement qu'une forêt immense, prend une autre forme; les bois abattus font place aux champs, aux pâturages, aux hameaux, aux bourgades, et enfin aux villes. On s'instruit à prendre certains animaux, à apprivoiser les autres, et à les accoutumer au service. On eut d'abord à combattre les bêtes farouches: les premiers héros se signalèrent dans ces guerres; elles firent inventer les armes, que les hommes tournèrent après contre leurs semblables. Nemrod, le premier guerrier et le premier conquérant, est appelé dans l'écriture un fort chasseur. Avec les animaux, l'homme sut encore adoucir les fruits et les plantes; il plia jusqu'aux métaux à son usage, et peu à peu il y fit servir toute la nature."
NOTE II
HORACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN
Horace[BE] also adopted the Greek conception of the natural evolution of human culture:
"Your men of words, who rate all crimes alike, Collapse and founder, when on fact they strike: Sense, custom, all, cry out against the thing, And high expedience, right's perennial spring. When men first crept from out earth's womb, like worms, Dumb speechless creatures, with scarce human forms, With nails or doubled fists they used to fight For acorns or for sleeping-holes at night; Clubs followed next; at last to arms they came, Which growing practice taught them how to frame, Till words and names were found, wherewith to mould The sounds they uttered, and their thoughts unfold; Thenceforth they left off fighting, and began To build them cities, guarding man from man, And set up laws as barriers against strife That threatened person, property, or wife. 'Twas fear of wrong gave birth to right, you'll find, If you but search the records of mankind. Nature knows good and evil, joy and grief, But just and unjust are beyond her brief: Nor can philosophy, though finely spun, By stress of logic prove the two things one, To strip your neighbor's garden of a flower And rob a shrine at midnight's solemn hour."
NOTE III
ÆSCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN
Æschylus, in Prometheus Bound,[BF] presents one of the earliest known as well as one of the noblest conceptions of the natural development of the human faculties:
"And let me tell you—not as taunting men, But teaching you the intention of my gifts, How, first beholding, they beheld in vain, And hearing, heard not, but, like shapes in dreams, Mixed all things wildly down the tedious time, Nor knew to build a house against the sun With wicketed sides, nor any woodwork knew, But lived, like silly ants, beneath the ground In hollow caves unsunned. There came to them No steadfast sign of winter, nor of spring Flower-perfumed, nor of summer full of fruit, But blindly and lawlessly they did all things, Until I taught them how the stars do rise And set in mystery, and devised for them Number, the inducer of philosophies, The synthesis of Letters, and, beside, The artificer of all things, Memory That sweet Muse-mother."
NOTE IV
'UROCHS,' OR 'AUEROCHS,' AND 'WISENT'
Kobelt[BG] discusses the habits of the wild cattle and of the bison as follows:
"One is inclined to consider the ancient wild cattle of Europe, the Urochs, or Auerochs, as the inhabitants of boggy forests. The Auerochs survived to the seventeenth century in the forests of Poland and then became extinct. It is described as of a black color with a light stripe along the back.
"The bison, or Wisent, is generally regarded as the inhabitant of the open steppe, or at least of dryer, opener woods; it differs so little from the American bison that both can be considered only as races of one species, the Bison priscus of Pleistocene times, which spread over the temperate zone of both hemispheres. The American bison has always avoided the woods and roamed the prairies in countless herds. But all reliable historic records describe the Wisent as a forest animal, and its few remaining survivors are entirely limited to the forests. Apparently it was never so widely and generally distributed as the Auerochs and reached western Europe later, for it is not found in the north, and never in conjunction with the mammoth and rhinoceros. Remains of the bison have also been found in Asia Minor. In Lithuania the bison lives together in herds, resenting the approach of all strangers. In the Caucasus it lives wild in certain high valleys and here it is a true mountain animal, its favorite haunts being the forests of beech, hornbeam, and evergreens from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above sea-level. Only in winter does it descend to lower levels. It is uncertain whether the Wisent does not also occur in Siberia. Kohn and Andree assert positively that it is found in large numbers in the wooded mountains of Sajan, in Siberia (1895)."
According to Kobelt, much confusion in the nomenclature of these animals has resulted from the fact that, after the extinction of the 'Urochs,' or 'Auerochs,' in the seventeenth century, the term 'Auerochs' was frequently used by writers as synonymous with 'Wisent,' or bison, an entirely different animal.
NOTE V
THE CRÔ-MAGNONS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS[BH]
"In the museums of the Grand Canary, Teneriffe, and Palma a considerable number of prehistoric vessels are preserved. Anthropologists are agreed that the natives of the archipelago at the time of its conquest, in the fifteenth century, were a composite people made up of at least three stocks: a Crô-Magnon type, a Hamitic or Berber type, and a brachycephalic type. These natives were in a Neolithic stage of civilization. Their arms were slings, clubs, and spears. Most of the people went naked, except for a girdle round the loins, and there was no intercommunication between the islands. Their stone implements were of obsidian or of basalt. Only four polished axes are known from the Grand Canary and one from Gomera. The axes are of chloromelanite, and of a type contemporary with megalithic structures in France. The first colonists probably brought the knowledge of making pottery with them, but each island developed an individuality of its own. Even the painted ware of the Grand Canary appears to be of local origin and not due to external influence. Although undoubted Lybian inscriptions in the Grand Canary and lava querns of Iron Age type prove that the archipelago was visited before its conquest by the Spaniards without affecting the general civilization of its inhabitants."
GUANCHE CHARACTERISTICS RESEMBLING CRÔ-MAGNON[BI]
The following excerpts are quoted from the account given by the distinguished anthropologist, Dr. René Verneau, of his observations during a five years' residence in the Canary Islands.
Page 22.
"Without doubt the race that has played the most important rôle in the Canaries is the Guanche. They were settled in all the islands, and in Teneriffe they preserved their distinctive characteristics and customs until the conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century.
"The Guanches, who at that time were described as giants, were of great stature. The minimum measure of the men was 1.70 m. (5 ft. 7 in.).
"I myself met a number of men in the various islands who measured over 1.80 m. (5 ft. 11 in.). Some attained a height of 2 m. (6 ft. 6½ in.). At Fortaventure the average height of the men was 1.84 m. (6 ft. 3⁄10 in.), perhaps the greatest known in any people.
"It is a curious fact that the women who gave birth to such men were comparatively small—I observed a difference of about 20 cm. (8 in.) in the heights of the two sexes.
"Their skin was light colored—if we may believe the poet Viana—and sometimes even absolutely white. Dacil, the daughter of the last Guanche chief of Teneriffe, the valiant Bencomo, who struggled so heroically for the independence of his country, had a very white complexion and her face was quite freckled. The hair of the true Guanche should be blond or light chestnut, and the eyes blue.
"The most striking characteristic of the Guanche race was the shape of the head and the features of the face. The long skull gave shape to a beautiful forehead, well developed in every way. Behind, above the occipital, one notices a large plane contrasting strongly with the marked prominence of the occipital itself. In addition, the parietal eminences, placed very high and very distinct from each other, combined to give the head a pentagonal form."
Page 29.
"The Guanche chiefs were much respected. At Teneriffe the coronation of the chief took place in an enclosure surrounded with stones (the Togaror), in the presence of nobles and people. One of his nearest kinsmen brought him the insignia of power. According to Viera y Clavijo, this was the humerus of one of his ancestors, carefully preserved in a case of leather; according to Viana, it was the skull of one of his predecessors.
"The chief (Menceg) placed the relic on his head, pronouncing the sacramental formula: 'I swear upon the bone of him who has borne this royal crown, that I will imitate his acts and work for the happiness of my subjects.' Each noble, in turn, then received the bone from the hands of the chief, placed it upon his shoulder and swore fidelity to his sovereign.... These chiefs led a very simple life: their food was like that of the people, their apparel but little more elaborate, and their dwellings—like those of their subjects—consisted of caves, only theirs were a little larger than those of the common people. They did not disdain to inspect their flocks or their harvests in person, and were, indeed, no richer than the average mortal."
Page 31.
"Above all, the ancient Canarians sought to develop strength and agility in their children. From an early age the boys devoted themselves to games of skill in order to fit them to become redoubtable warriors. The men delighted in all bodily exercises and, above all, in wrestling. At Gran Canaria (Grande Canarie) they often held veritable tourneys, which were attended by an immense number of people. These could not take place without the consent of the nobles and of the high priest.
"Permission obtained, the combatants presented themselves at the place of meeting. This was a circular or rectangular enclosure, surrounded by a very low wall, allowing free view of the details of the combat. Each warrior took his place upon a stone of about 40 cm. diameter (15½ in.). His offensive weapons consisted of three stones, a club, and several knives of obsidian: his defensive weapon was a simple lance. The skill of defense consisted in evading the stones by movements of the body, or parrying the blows with the lance, without moving from the stone on which stand had been taken. These combats often resulted fatally for one of the combatants."
Page 34.
"The Guanche understood the use of the sword, and although it was of wood (pine), it could cut, they say, as if it were of steel.
"To parry blows, they used a lance, as mentioned above, but they also had shields made of a round of the dragon-tree (Dracæna draco).
"The Guanches were essentially shepherds. While their flocks pastured they played the flute, singing songs of love or of the prowess of their ancestors. Those songs which have come down to us show them to have been by no means devoid of poetic inspiration.
"When the care of their stock permitted, they employed their leisure in fishing. For this they employed various means—sometimes nets, sometimes fish-hooks, sometimes a simple stick."
Page 47.
"The Guanches were above all troglodytes—that is to say, they lived in caves. There is no lack of large, well-sheltered caves in the Canary Islands. The slopes of the mountains and the walls of their ravines are honeycombed with them. The islanders may have their choice.
"The caves are almost never further excavated. They are used just as they are.
"Here is a description of one of these caves, the Grotto of Goldar:
"The interior is almost square—5 m. (16 ft. 4 in.) along the left side, 5.50 m. (18 ft.) along the right. The width at the back is 4.80 m. (15 ft. 6 in.). A second cave, much smaller, opens from the right wall. All these walls are decorated with paintings. The ceiling is covered with a uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls are decorated with various geometric designs in red, black, gray, or white. High up runs a sort of cornice painted red, and on this background, in white, are groups of two concentric circles, whose centre is also indicated by a white spot. On the rear wall the cornice is interrupted by triangles and stripes of red."
Page 61.
"The Guanches never polished their stone weapons."
Page 168.
"Inhabited caves are very numerous at Fortaventure. The population in certain parts—Mascona, for example—must be quite numerous to judge by the number of these caves. At a little distance, in the place known as Hoya de Corralejo, one may still see the Togaror, or tribal meeting place. It is an almost circular enclosure about 40 m. (131 ft. 2 in.) in diameter, surrounded by a low wall of stones. Six huts, from 2.50 to 4 m. (8 ft. 2½ in.—13 ft. 1½ in.) in diameter, designed no doubt for the sacred animals, stood near the Togaror."
Page 245.
"A great number of Canarians still live in caves. Near Caldera de Bandama (Gran Canaria) there is a whole village of cave dwellers."
Page 264.
At Teneriffe Dr. Verneau received hospitality in a cabin worthy of the Palæolithic Age.
"I had no need to make any great effort to imagine myself with a descendant of those brave shepherds of earlier times. My host was an example of the type—even though the costume was lacking—and his dwelling completed the illusion. The walls, which gave free access to the wind, supported a roof composed of unstripped tree trunks covered with branches. Stones piled on top prevented the wind from tearing it off.
"Hung up on poles to dry were goatskins, destined to serve as sacks for the gofio (a kind of millet), bottles for water, and shoes for the family. A reed partition shut off a small corner where the children lay stretched out pell mell on skins of animals. For furniture, a chest, a hollowed-out stone which served as a lamp, shells which served the same purpose, a water jar, three stones forming a hearth in one corner, and that was all."
(And this host was the most important personage in the place.)
Page 289.
Another time, also at Teneriffe, Dr. Verneau had a similar experience.
"An old shepherd invited me to his house and offered me some milk. What was my surprise on seeing the furnishing of his hut! In one corner was a bed of fern, near by a Guanche mill and a large jar, in all points similar to those used by the ancient islanders. A reed flute, a wooden bowl and a goatskin sack full of gofio completed the appointments of his home. I could scarcely believe my eyes on examining the jar and the mill. Seeing my astonishment, the old man explained that he had found them in a cave where 'the Guanches' lived, and that he had used them for many years. I could not persuade him to part with these curiosities. To my offers of money he answered that he needed none for the short time he had still to live."
NOTE VI
THE LENGTH OF POSTGLACIAL TIME AND THE ANTIQUITY OF THE AURIGNACIAN CULTURE
The most recent discussion on the length of Postglacial time was that held at the Twelfth International Congress of Geology, in Ottawa, in 1913 (Congrès Géologique International, Compte-rendu de la XII Session, Canada, 1913, pp. 426-537). The notes abstracted by Dr. Chester A. Reeds from the various papers are as follows:
"American estimates of Postglacial time have been made chiefly from the recession of waterfalls since the final retreat of the great ice-fields in North America. The retreat of the Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota, has been estimated by Winchell at 8,000 years and by Sardeson at 30,000 years. The retreat of the Falls of Niagara has been estimated as requiring from 7,000 to 40,000 years; it has proved a very uncertain chronometer, because of the great variation in the volume of water at different stages in its history. The recession of Scarboro Heights and other changes due to wave action on Lake Ontario have been estimated by Coleman as requiring from 24,000 to 27,000 years. Fairchild has estimated that 30,000 years have elapsed since the ice left the Lake Ontario region of New York.
"In Europe the most accurate chronology is that of Baron de Geer on the terminal moraines and related marine clays of northern Sweden. For the retreat of the ice northward over a distance of 370 miles in Sweden 5,000 years were allowed; for the time since the disappearance of the ice in Sweden, 7,000 years; for the retreat of the ice from Germany across the Baltic, 12,000 years; giving a total of 24,000 years as compared with a total of between 30,000 and 50,000 years allowed by Penck for the retreat of the ice-fields of the Alps."
NOTE VII
THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA
It is possible that within the next decade one or more of the Tertiary ancestors of man may be discovered in northern India among the foot-hills known as the Siwaliks. Such discoveries have been heralded, but none have thus far been actually made. Yet Asia will probably prove to be the centre of the human race. We have now discovered in southern Asia primitive representatives or relatives of the four existing types of anthropoid apes, namely, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla, and since the extinct Indian apes are related to those of Africa and of Europe, it appears probable that southern Asia is near the centre of the evolution of the higher primates and that we may look there for the ancestors not only of prehuman stages like the Trinil race but of the higher and truly human types.
As early as 1886 several kinds of extinct Old World primates, including two anthropoid apes related to the orang and to the chimpanzee, were reported from the Siwalik hills in northern India, and recently Dr. Pilgrim, of the Geological Survey, has described three new species of Siwalik apes resembling Dryopithecus of the Upper Miocene of Europe, also an anthropoid which he has named Sivapithecus and regards as actually related to the direct ancestors of man, a conclusion which may or may not prove to be correct. Another extinct Indian ape, Palæopithecus, is of very generalized type and is related to all the anthropoid apes.
NOTE VIII
ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS[BJ]
The Periplus of Hanno purports to be a Greek translation of a Carthaginian inscription on a tablet in the "temple of Chronos" (Moloch) at Carthage, dedicated by Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, in commemoration of a voyage which he made southward from the Strait of Gibraltar along the western coast of Africa as far as the inlet now known as Sherboro Sound, the next opening beyond Sierra Leone.
Hanno is a very common Carthaginian name, but recent writers think it not improbable that this Hanno was either the father or the son of that Hamilcar who led the great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 480 B. C. In the former case the Periplus might be assigned to a date about 520 B. C.; in the latter, some fifty years later.
The narrative was certainly extant at an early period, for it is cited in the work on Marvellous Narratives ascribed to Aristotle, which belongs to the third century B. C., and Pliny also expressly refers to it. The authenticity of the work is now generally conceded.
According to the narrative the farthest limit of Hanno's voyage, which was undertaken for purposes of colonization, brought him and his companions to an island containing a lake with another island in it which was full of wild men and women with hairy bodies, called by the interpreters gorillas. The Carthaginians were unable to catch any of the men but they caught three of the women, whom they killed, and brought their skins back with them to Carthage. "Pliny, indeed, adds that the skins in question were dedicated by Hanno in the temple of Juno at Carthage, and continued to be visible there till the destruction of the city. There can be no difficulty in supposing these 'wild men and women' to have been really large apes of the family of the chimpanzee, or pongo, several species of which are in fact found wild in western Africa, and some of them, as is now well known, attain a stature fully equal to that of man."