LATIN TRANSLATION AT SIGHT (continued 4)

13 delendam. Cf. Cato’s Delenda est Carthago.

15-17 agrum . . . in Italia esse. Cf. Verg. Georg. ii. 224-5: ‘Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the Vesuvian ridge.’—Mackail.

18 frequentandae = for the purpose of peopling.

19 institorum = pedlars or dealers. Cf. our ‘commercial travellers.’

20 publica . . . facta = confiscated. ‘This ager publicus was leased by the censors to farmers (aratores) who paid rent (vectigal) for it.’—R.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Marcellus at Nola, 216 B.C.

Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercitum instruxit. . . . Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali sub signis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stanti primo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus 5 porta egrederetur nec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquia esse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussos propere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satis fidens, si cunctantibus 10 instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebem moturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signa succeditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signa canere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto 15 maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroris tumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P. Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere. . . . Ingens victoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta 20 est; non vinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere.

Livy, xxiii. 16.

Context. The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joining Hannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, as elsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time to inform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger of a revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the town with a strong garrison.

3-5 Hannibali . . . primo miraculo esse = Hannibal, who . . . had his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished that.—Church and Brodribb.

7 colloquia esse, i.e. his communications (colloquia) with the Carthaginian party in Nola.

8 resĭdes = inactive, lit. that remains sitting (re + sedeo).

10 si cunctantibus instaret = if he met hesitation with prompt action.—Church and Brodribb. Lit. if he pressed upon those hesitating.

12 in sua . . . ministeria = to their several posts.

19-21 Ingens . . . gesta est = a great victory, the greatest, perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day.

Nola, an important town in Campania, S.E. of Capua. It remained faithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal.

Marcellus at Nola. ‘It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nola from being taken.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Cicero’s Description of Syracuse.

Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omnium saepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cum munito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: et portus habet prope in aedificatione 5 aspectuque urbis inclusos: qui cum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur et confluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, mari disiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta est urbs, ut ex 10 quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum una est ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusque portus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronis regis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs 15 Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimae porticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumque egregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunae fanum antiquum fuit, 20 Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasium amplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars et habitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postrema coaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum est maximum. 25

Cicero, In Verrem, ii. 4. 117-119.

5-6 prope . . . inclusos, a special feature of Syracuse, because many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a harbour detached from them (e.g. Ostia, the port of Rome), though sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens.

7 in exitu = at their outlet, i.e. the narrow channel between Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two harbours.

9 disiuncta = separated from the rest (dis—).

12 Insula, i.e. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited.

14 Hieronis regis, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C., distinguished by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263 B.C. till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome.

16 Achradina, the mainland N. of Ortygia. At the time of the famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B.C., the city consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina.

18 prytaneum = town-hall (πρυτανεῖον = the presidents’ hall).

25 theatrum est maximum, capable of holding 25,000 people. Of all the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the Theatre alone remains.

Reference. Freeman’s History of Sicily.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Engineering Skill of Archimedes.

Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormenta in muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingenti pondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebat telis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela 5 in hostem ingererent, murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quae cava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem. Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorum essent, in 10 eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmae catenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbi recelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; dein remissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum 15 ingenti trepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si recta reciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusa omnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed ea quoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa 20 erat Hieronis impensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte.

Livy, xxiv, 34.

1 adversus . . . apparatum, i.e. to oppose the elaborate naval attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina.

7 cubitalibus fere cavis = with holes (fr. cavum = noun) about 1½ feet square, cubitalibus (cubitum) = a cubit long. Polybius has a palm long, about 3 inches. This is more probable.

8 scorpionibus = crossbows or manuballistae.

10 quo interiores . . . essent = so as to be too close in to be hit by (intertores ictibus) the engines.

10-12 in eas (sc. proras) iniecta = on their bows was dropped . . .

11 tollenone = from a swing beam, supported at the centre of gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum.

12-13 cum (ferrea manus) gravique . . . ad solum = lit. when (the grappling-iron) swung back (recelleret) to the ground by a heavyweight of lead. ‘This is incorrect; it was not the grappling-iron, but the other (inland) end of the lever which was brought down to the ground.’—Rawlins.

15 remissa (sc. ferrea manus) = the grappling-hook was (then) suddenly let go.

16 ita undae affligebat = was dashed with such violence on the disturbed water (undae).

Cause of the War. Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B.C., his whole family was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into the hands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal’s agents.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Marcellus laments over Syracuse.

Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium ferme ilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimasse dicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloria urbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo 5 ingentes exercitus cum duobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cum Carthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta>, tot tam opulenti tyranni regesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum ante omnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque 10 sua dederat, beneficiis in populum Romanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretque cogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura, priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, 15 qui intra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes ad dedendam urbem. . . . Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multa irae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriae proditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum 20 pavor captae urbis in discursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas in pulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegre id Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiam inquisitis honori praesidioque 25 nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse.

Livy, xxv. 24, 31.

1-2 ex superioribus locis, i.e. from the heights of Epipolae, which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were celebrating a three days’ festival of Artemis.

6 ducibus, e.g. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes.

7-8 tot bella . . . gesta, e.g. at Himera, 480 B.C., on the same day as Salamis.

8-9 tot tam . . . regesque, e.g. Gelo, 485 B.C.; Dionysius the Elder, 406 B.C.; Hiero II., the friend and ally of Rome, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C.

8 tyranni, i.e. absolute rulers, despots, with reference rather to the irregular way in which the power was gained, than the way in which it was exercised.

16 qui . . . fuerant, i.e. Syracusan deserters who kept up communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse.

22 formis = diagrams.

24 sepulturae. Cf. Demonstration VI, page 54.

The Treatment of Syracuse. It would have been the undying glory of Marcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy city from further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome, a prece­dent afterwards followed.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Death of Marcellus, 208 B.C.

Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique et conspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae rei positus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castris progressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut 5 pariter ab suis quisque latebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipso consurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam. Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in ea valle 10 consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatum ab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamen diutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris 15 iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab Etruscis Fregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnando rem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiam transfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum 20 videre, tum et ipsi—perpauci autem supererant—cum Crispino consule duobus iaculis ieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt.

Livy, xxvii. 27.

Context. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B.C. After the attempt to retake Locri (S.E. of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal, Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. near Venusia in Apulia. Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adopted Fabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explore the country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps.

2-3 Numidis speculator. A wooded hill lay between the two camps: H. had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen.

4-5 si quos possent excipere = on the chance of their being able to intercept.—Stephenson.

6-8 Non ante . . . circumiere = those who were to spring on the enemy (lit. those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass confronting the enemy obviis) from the hill itself did not show themselves until a detachment had made their way round (circumiere).—S.

10 valle = a hollow, i.e. a depression on the Roman side of the hill.

16 Fregellani. Fregellae, a town of the Volsci, on the Via Latina between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B.C.

17 ipsique ex parte pugnando = taking their share in fighting. S.

Character of Marcellus. ‘He was a brave soldier, a firm intrepid patriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as a general no match for Hannibal.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Character of Scipio Africanus Maior.

Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoque quadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apud multitudinem aut ut per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitus mente monita agens, sive et ipse capti 5 quadam superstitione animi, sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctatione exsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togam virilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit, quam 10 in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumque solus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitam servabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdam fecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia 15 eiusdem generis, alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuvene excesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturae tantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit.

Livy, xxvi. 19.

2-3 in ostentationem earum compositus = he made a study (compositus) of displaying them, implying artificiality.—R.

3-5 pleraque . . . agens = in most of his dealings (pleraque agens) with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired (visa) by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration (divinitus mente monita).

7 sorte = by an oracular response (which was often written on a little tablet or lot, sors).

11 aedem, i.e. the cella (chapel, the part enclosed within the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.

13-14 seu consulto seu temere vulgatae = whether designedly or undesignedly spread abroad.

17 humanae = which one has for a mere man.—Rawlins.

19 tantam rerum molem = so stupendous a task.—R. In 212 or 211 B.C. the two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio, son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B.C. sent to Spain, at the age of 27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11,000 men.

Character of Scipio. ‘He was a man far above the average of his contemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not fail to rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by not only daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry them out.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B.C.

Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatores Tarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadis pervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitum dari, eo secum armatos quingentos 5 duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamine intravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam, circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omnium non animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantium spectantiumque 10 et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergo senserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimque ancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moenia capta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox 15 caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armati impetum fecerunt. . . . Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passim factae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo dato caedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, 20 quae ingens omnis generis fuit.

Livy, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel.)

3 vadis pervagatos stagnum = made their way through the pool by wading (vadis).

8 contractum = concentrated (confined).

13 ancipitem = double, twofold, on two opposite sides.

15 intus forisque = both within and without.

foris, adv. (an abl. form from an obsolete nom. fora) = out of doors, without. Cf. foras = out through the doors, forth.

16-17 caedendo . . . distractis foribus = when the doors were destroyed and broken up by blows.

Carthago Nova (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle of Hannibal) 243 B.C. The city is situated on a promontory running out into the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world, protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weak side, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tide the water of the shallow pool W. of the town fell so much that it was fordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. He first made a feint attack on the N. wall and then led 500 men across the ford, who scaled the W. wall and opened the nearest gate from the inside.

Result of its Capture. ‘New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis of operations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thus determining the issue of the Spanish War.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Nero’s famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B.C.

Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum Frentanum Praetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusque commeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equos iumentaque alia producerent, ut 5 vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipse de toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex milia peditum, mille equites. . . . Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibus virorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et 10 laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanae imperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumque suorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasque precabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura 15 ex hostibus victoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent, ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos post dies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisque et offerre et fatigare 20 precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usui essent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestia certare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari, nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem 25 ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset, quieti dare.

Livy, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel.)

Context. Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen of Hasdrubal’s march and plans—to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then to march on Narnia and Rome—with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrew secretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forced march joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus.

1-2 Larinatem, etc., districts lying between Apulia and Umbria, but not given in their geographical order.

15 faustum (for favostus, fav-eo) = that which is done under the blessing of the gods: felix = that which succeeds in consequence of having this blessing upon it.—Stephenson.

16-17 damnarentur . . . votorum = condemned (to pay) their vows. Cf. Verg. Voti reus = bound to my vow, i.e. bound to fulfilment.

23 Modestia certare (sc. cum iis) . . . sumerent = the soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take anything . . .—S.

‘Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassed the average qualifications of Roman generals.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Metaurus, 207 B.C.

Horace, Odes, IV. iv. 29-48.

29-36 The thought is: ‘It is true that scions of a good stock must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet education (doctrina = training l. 33) brings out the innate force.’

29 fortibus et bonis. For the combined epithets cf. καλὸς κἀγαθός.

36 Indecorant . . . culpae = faults disfigure (indecorant = dedecorant) scions of an honourable stock (bene nata).

37 Neronibus, e.g. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of Augustus.

41 alma adorea = with kindly (refreshing) success.

43 ceu flamma per taedas = like fire through a pine-forest.—W.

44 equitavit = galloped, careered, used of Hannibal, and, by zeugma, with flamma and Eurus.

46-47 impio tumultu = by the sacrilegious invasion (or riot, outrage), possibly with reference to Livy’s story (xxvi. 11) of the plundering of the Temple of Feronia.

48 rectos = upright, i.e. of the images supposed to have been thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again.

Results of the Battle. ‘The war in Italy was to all appearances finished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain.’—Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, he foresaw the doom of Carthage:—

C. (Hor. Od. IV. iv. 70-73).

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B.C.

Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur legatorum verba audisse. 5 Postquam edita sunt mandata, ‘Iam non perplexe,’ inquit, ‘sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis 10 obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.’ Iam hoc ipsum praesagiens animo praeparaverat 15 ante naves. Itaque inutili militum turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa relinquentem, 20 tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium terra excedentem.

Livy, xxx. 19, 20.

Context. Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.

3-4 ad Magonem. Mago, H.’s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C. fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa.

6 Iam non perplexe = now in no veiled manner (lit. not obscurely).

8 iam pridem trahebant = began long ago to try to pull me back.—Rawlins.

11 obtrectatione = by disparagement.

13 Hanno, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his sons.

Hannibal’s Speech. ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says ‘The whole course of the war is a sufficient refutation of these charges.’

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Zama, 202 B.C. (1) Before the Battle.

Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma expedirent milites animosque ad 5 supremum certamen, non in unum diem sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par 10 periculum praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen procedunt postero die duorum 15 opulentissimorum populorum duo longe clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis 20 magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia obversabantur.

Livy, xxx. 31, 32.

1-2 Ita infecta pace . . . renuntiant, referring to Livy’s picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace.

7-10 Roma an Carthago . . . praemium fore. ‘By the victory of Zama it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by Rome and not by Carthage.’—Ihne.

14 effuso = dispersed, i.e. defeated.

15 discrimen = decisive point, decision.

18 aut cumulaturi aut eversuri = either to augment (lit. heap up) or overthrow.

21 pensarent vires = they estimated (weighed) their strength.

The Battle of Zama. ‘Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see C 39, B. note), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.’s Carthaginian cavalry into such disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio’s horse. The first Roman line threw H.’s mercenaries back upon their reserves of the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until Scipio’s Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of H.’s horse, fell upon the enemy’s rear and decided the battle.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Zama, 202 B.C. (2) The Order of Battle.

A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, 5 at certe fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum ab Italia invitos extraxerat. 10

Hannibal’s Army. It consisted broadly of five classes:

1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).

These he placed in his third line.

2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.

These he placed in his second line.

3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic contingent, and the Spaniards.

These he placed in his first line.

4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.

These he placed on his wings.

5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his front, to open the attack.

B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti 15 facile transmitti sine perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in cornua divisit et dextro Romanis 20 equitibus Laelium, sinistro Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie causa victoriae fuit.

Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 3. 16.

Scipio’s order of battle. Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the black squares of a chessboard—the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line—he placed them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:

not *** *** *** but *** *** ***

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FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY.

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (1)

Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C.

Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primo bestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus e tribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorum militibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae 5 haud dubie vincebat, brevi circuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergo adortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali re trepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis, nec 10 circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedem referentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc loco etiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclive pulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. 15 Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam. Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem inter ceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortuna esset; deinde, postquam fugam 20 effusam animadvertit et omnia circa iuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit.

Livy, xxxiii. 9, 10.

Context. Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in 215 B.C., and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B.C.) by an attack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum in Epirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble he had caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. A casus belli was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B.C.) asking for help against Philip.

3-4 unus . . . militum. Ihne says ‘He seized the favourable opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a brilliant victory for Rome.’

5 signorum (= manipulorum) = companies, i.e. with some 3500 men.

13 loco premebantur = they (i.e. the phalanx) began to feel the disadvantage of position.—Rawlins.

16 in medio caesi = cut down from both sides.—R.

Cynoscephalae (Dog’s Heads), a low chain of hills between Pherae and Scotussa in Thessaly.

Results of the Battle. ‘The Romans lost only 700 men. That was the price paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Great in the dust.’—Ihne.

Terms of Peace, 196 B.C. Macedonia to remain an independent state, but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunk to the level of a vassal state.

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SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (2)

Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B.C.

Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cum propter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generis artium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propter opportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria 5 omnium rerum usus ministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatus erat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sed exspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae sua fortuna esset. Ad spectaculum 10 consederant, et praeco cum tubicine, ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indici solet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: ‘Senatus Romanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusque devictis, 15 liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios, Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos, Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas.’ . . . Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quae sua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro 20 libertate aliorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes; hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutis et fortunae ingentis.

Livy, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel.)

1 Isthmiorum statum ludicrum = time fixed (statum) for the Isthmian Games (celebrated at Corinth every two years).

3-4 quo certamina . . . visuntur = which makes them go to see contests of every kind of artistic performance (artium) and of feats of strength and agility.—Rawlins.

7 concilium is mercatus erat . . . = that gathering was the general rendezvous (mercatus) of . . . mercatus = i. trade, or mart; ii. a festival assemblage (πανήγυρις).

11 in mediam aream = into the centre of the open space (of the stadium).

17 Locrensesque omnes, i.e. E. & W. Locris.

18 Perrhaebos, N. of Thessaly.

Achaeos Phthiotas = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S.E. of Thessaly).

19-24 Esse aliquam . . . ingentis: in these words the Greeks express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the boon conferred upon them.

The Freedom of Greece. ‘The Greeks believed with a childlike simplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that they had crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from a foreign yoke. . . . Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, and particularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for he understood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so many other Romans, to Greek views and opinions.’—Ihne.

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WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B.C.

A. Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B.C. Victory due to Cato.

Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaia pro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritus tantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eo Porcius Cato, qui tum, iam 5 consularis, tribunus militum a populo factus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, qui praesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergo subitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimque irrupere Romani 10 et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt.

Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 4. 4.

Context. In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted the invitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B.C., had been snubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny of Rome.

B. Battle of Magnesia, 190 B.C.

Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor Carthaginis Africanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iam toto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum 15 ad amnem montemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibus auxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitum falcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensae magnitudinis, auro purpura 20 argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciem utrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hoc imbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat. Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. 25

Florus, i. 24. 14-18.

Context. In 190 B.C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war into Asia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff, fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn. Domitius, an experienced officer.

14-15 Et iam toto cesserat mari, as the result of the decisive defeat, in 190 B.C., of the Syrian fleet off Myonnesus.

15-16 Maeandrum . . . ponuntur. The battle was fought near Magnesia (N.W. of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus.

Parallel Passage. Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, ‘The Battle of Magnesia decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of Zama and Cynoscephalae had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia.’—Ihne.

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Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B.C.

Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse, postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit et omnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo ante praeparatum ad tales habebat casus, 5 poposcit. ‘Liberemus,’ inquit, ‘diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum censent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininus victoriam feret.’ Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque 10 Prusiae, et hospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculum exhausit. . . . Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum non tempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemo eorum satis dignum splendore 15 vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnes non in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal et Philopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen in carcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque 20 damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus, voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsilium indixit.

Livy, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel.)

Context. After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (Suffete = L. praetura) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms. However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome as making plans for a new war, and in 195 B.C. he was forced to flee from Carthage and took refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. found for seven years a safe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not be at ease so long as H. lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greece undertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal.

13-15 non tempore magis congruente quam = not so much in coincidence of (congruente, lit. agreeing with) date as.—R.

18 Philopoemen, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (in carcere, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison.

20-23 Scipio was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the tribune Naevius (185 B.C.) of having been bribed by Antiochus to procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at Liternum, where by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and his grave to exile (voluntarium . . . indixit).

‘Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes.’

Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself.

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M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B.C. (1)

At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Nam et in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictum addidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare. Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam 5 aetatem ab adolescentia, rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. A multis tentatus non modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit.

In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam 10 et agricola sollers et peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator et cupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat, tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque de Graecis neque de 15 Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Ab adulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam rem omnes 20 Origines videtur appellasse.

Nepos, Cato, ii., iii.

1 Censor, 184 B.C., with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life.

3 in edictum. The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued a proclamation or edict, setting forth the principles upon which they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended to use his power for the suppression of luxury.

5 pullulare = to spread, increase; lit. to put forth, of plants and animals. Cf. pull-us (our pullet), pu-er, πῶλος (= a foal).

octoginta. This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when he died 149 B.C.

6-7 rei publicae . . . non destitit. Seneca says: Scipio cum hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit.

7-9 Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time acquitted.

11 iuris consultus = lawyer.

12 magnus imperator, e.g. in the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae (191 B.C.) was mainly due to Cato.

probabilis orator = a tolerable, acceptable orator. Oscar Browning.

17-21 His two great works were his treatise De Re Rustica (or De Agri Cultura), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his Origines, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. ‘It was Cato’s great merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for literary prose composition.’—Ihne.

Cato the Censor. ‘He deserves our highest respect for the defiant and manly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices of the age.’—Ihne.

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M. Porcius Cato. (2)

Horace, Odes, II. xv.

Argument. ‘Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens are supplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. This is not the spirit of Romulus or of Cato. Their rule was private thrift, public magnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples of hewn stone.’—W.

1 Iam = presently.

1-2 regiae moles = princely piles. moles, lit. masses, of huge buildings.

2-4 undique . . . lacu = and fish-ponds (stagna) of wider extent than the L. lake will be sights to see (visentur).—Wickham.

4 platanus caelebs = the bachelor plane, so called because vines were not wedded to it (i.e. trained upon it).—Gow.

6 omnis copia narium = all that is sweet to smell. Lit. all the fulness of the nostrils.

10 ictus (sc. solis). The point is that formerly trees were stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun is excluded.—Gow.

11 intonsi (= antiqui) = old-fashioned. Cf. Cic.’s use of barbatus.

13 census erat brevis = list of property was short.

14 commune (= τὸ κοινόν) = the common (public) stock.

14-15 decempedis metata privatis = measured with ten-foot rods for private owners. In old days the porticūs were always publicae.

17 fortuitum caespitem = the chance-cut (handy) turf.

20 novo saxo = with fresh-hewn stone, i.e. hewn on purpose.—W.

Parallel Passages. Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, Catiline 12, 13.

‘Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavoured without success to bring this old time back.’—Ihne.

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THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C. (1)

Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maior sexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculique capessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat, implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A 5 tergo caetratis erat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur. Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidem phalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, unde circa fluvium 10 commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alas sociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraque nova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, non quemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo 15 effectu evanescunt, ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commenta Macedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecuti sunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. 20

Livy, xliv. 41.

Context. Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the death of his father in 179 B.C. He did all he could to prepare for the inevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as the Liberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus of Syria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174 B.C., the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiating with Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. The Senate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B.C.), appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to the supreme command in Macedonia.

4 caetratos = Targeteers, armed with the small round shield.

5-7 A tergo . . . habebat (sc. legio prima) = the (first) Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards the Shieldmen.—Rawlins.

6 clipeatos = Shieldmen, armed with the large round shield.

7 chalcaspides = Brazen Shields, Right Division of phalanx.

9 leucaspidem = White Shields, Left Division of phalanx.

10 in dextrum cornu (sc. Romanum), i.e. nearest to the sea.

13-15 commenta . . . oportet = lit. the contrivances of men, though in theory (in verbis) they had some importance (vim) yet upon trial (experiendo) when there is need of action and not of discussion (edisseri) how to act. . . .

17 commenta Macedonum. Perh. with reference to Perseus’ contrivances (e.g. by the use of dummy elephants) to prepare his men and horses to make a stand against real elephants.

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THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C. (2)

In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ulla evidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant, quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuius confertae et intentis horrentes 5 hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; si carptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitate hastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut ab tergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tum adversus catervatim 10 incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariam acie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent, insinuabant ordines suos. . . . Diu phalanx a fronte, a lateribus, ab tergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, 15 inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos, qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphas concurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venire rati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, 20 longius in aquam, quidam etiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphis caederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliam foediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litus acti, exeuntes obterebant 25 elidebantque.

Livy, xliv. 41, 42.

1 In medio . . . immissa = On the centre the second legion charged (immissa), i.e. into the interstices of the phalanx, which was not preserving its usual close order.—Rawlins.

4-6 fluctuantem . . . vires sunt = first demoralised the phalanx so as to make it waver, (fluctuantem), and then shattered it. Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles with couched (intentis) spears, is irresistible (intolerabiles).

6 carptim aggrediendo = by repeated harassing attacks.

10 ruinae modo = in hopeless confusion.—R.

17 classe. The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with the army.

Results of the Battle. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom was divided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had fought its last great battle.

Character of Paulus. ‘He was a model of the Roman of the best time. He was not, like his contemporary Cato, a onesided worshipper of everything old; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious to preserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them.’—Ihne.

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THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B.C.

Destruction of Carthage, 146 B.C.

Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus, nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa, quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvis profligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen 5 Scipionum videbatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem belli reposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent esse morientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quam cum integra. Compulsis 10 in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mari Romanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis parte foderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere posse credebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iam diebus, 15 iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, nova perditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribus flamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorum se dederunt quod minus credas—duce Hasdrubale. 20

Florus, II. xv. 11-17 (sel.).

Context. An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B.C. to inquire into the affairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who, astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage, returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must be destroyed—delenda est Carthago. A pretext was soon found in the war (151 B.C.) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally of Rome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitions of war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city and settle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die rather than give up the sacred soil of their country.

5 profligato = almost finished.

6 in alium Scipionem, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal.

12 alterum portum, i.e. they pierced the narrow strip of land separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea.

18 deploratis = was looked upon as lost, lit. wept for bitterly.

20 duce Hasdrubale: ‘Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of the last Carthaginian in the best sense of the word, as a representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and patriotism of his race.’—Ihne.

‘The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemn curse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build a new town on that spot.’—Ihne.

Africa made a Roman Province.

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WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B.C.

Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B.C.

Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annos DCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit. Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alter Africanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec 5 quisquam ex novis hominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversi imperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegans liberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, ut Polybium Panaetiumque, 10 praecellentes ingenio viros, domi militiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius intervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacis serviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpus periculis 15 aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit, ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas ac statuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, si eas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. 20

Velleius Paterculus, i. 13.

Context. In 149 B.C. an adventurer named Andriscus claimed to be Philip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly. He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B.C. his army was routed and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans, no longer needing the help of Greek troops, determined to break up the Achaean League. A last desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but the Greeks were easily defeated (146 B.C.) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, and Corinth itself was plundered and destroyed.

2-3 quam . . . condita. Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city Διὸς Κόρινθος.

10 Panaetium, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor.

13 dispunxit = he devoted, gave up (lit. marked off).

19 locaret = he hired (lit. place out, i.e. give out on contract).

conducentibus = to the contractors.

The Destruction of Corinth. ‘The flames which consumed Miletus (destroyed by the Persians 494 B.C.) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480 B.C.) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of a magnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came the long dark night.’—Ihne.

Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of the Roman governor of Macedonia.

C₅₀

WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B.C.

The Lusitanian Hannibal.

Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solis gentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vir calliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito dux atque imperator et, si fortuna 5 cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, non contentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omnia citra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiam praetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene ad internecionem 10 exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibus nostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iam Fabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violata victoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem et extrema 15 deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticos percussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vinci non posse.

Florus, II. xvii. 13-17 (sel.).

Context. After the defeat of Perseus (168 B.C.) and before the outbreak of the third Punic War (149 B.C.) a suitable opportunity seemed to present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest of Spain; but ‘for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and of humble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured for himself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal and Mithridates.’ Ihne.

1 cum Lusitanis. The Lusitani (S. of the R. Tagus = mod. Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B.C.

6 cessisset (= concessisset) = had permitted.

10-12 Claudium Unimanum . . . fixit, i.e. in 147 B.C. ‘The captured fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e.g. trabeis, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains.’—Ihne.

13 Fabius Maximus consul, i.e. Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141 B.C., and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome soon found a pretext for breaking.

17 percussores = assassins, lit. strikers (per + cutio = quatio). Cf. the fate of Sertorius, 72 B.C.

The War with Viriathus. ‘It was sad and disgraceful for the Roman arms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover, the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability and the moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than even in the war with Viriathus.’—Ihne.

C₅₁

NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B.C.

Destruction of Numantia, 133 B.C.

Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redacto in disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum se umquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret. Dedere etiam se volebant, 5 si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossa atque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, a duce orantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant, placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret 10 fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorum cingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deplorato exitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce se suos patriam ferro veneno 15 subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Macte fortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem! Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manu aetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitas nullum de 20 se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus non fuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: arma ipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine.

Florus, II. xviii. 11-17 (sel.).

Context. In 143 B.C. the Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged by the successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their most important town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius (Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consul failed to take it, until in 134 B.C. Scipio Africanus Minor, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborn city.

2-3 Sic redacto . . . a Scipione. ‘Scipio’s first task, when he arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there, once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and cowardice—the most unroman of all vices—had begun to creep in.’—Ihne.

7 lorica = a breastwork, serving as a screen. Usu. = a cuirass.

11 sedit = was decided on, lit. settled.

16 Macte = a blessing on or hail to thee. Mactus prob. from √μακ, e.g. in μάκ-αρ = blessed, but cf. mag-nus.

18 Asseruit = it protected. assero (ad + sero) = lit. join-to.

Destruction of Numantia. Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town to the ground, and received the added surname of Numantinus.

Roman Province in Spain.

C₅₂

Rome the Invincible.

Horace, Odes, IV. iv. 49-68.

51 ultro = aggressively, needlessly.—Wickham.

51-52 opimus triumphus = a rare (lit. rich, noble) triumph. Cf. spolia opima.

53-56 ‘This stanza is a résumé of the story of the Aeneid.’—W.

53 gens (sc. illa), i.e. the Roman stock.

57-60 ‘The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from its pyre.’—W.

58 frondis with feraci. Cf. fertilis frugum.

59-60 ab ipso . . . ferro = from the very edge of the steel itself, the holm-oak (= the Roman stock) draws fresh power and spirit.

61-62 Cf. the saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, ‘I see that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent.’

63-64 i.e. of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon’s teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes.

63 submisere = produced, raised.

64 Echioniae Thebae. Echion was one of the five survivors of the Σπαρτοί (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes.

65 Merses (= si mersaris) = plunge it if you will.

evenit = it emerges (comes forth).

66-67 multa cum laude = amid loud applause, of a feat in a wrestling match.—W.

68 coniugibus = i. by Roman wives or ii. by Carthaginian widows. So Conington, ‘Whose story widow’d wives shall tell.’

B₁

CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS, ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B.C.

THE GRACCHI.

Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliis bellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem et paucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa, modo per socios et nomen Latinum, 5 interdum per equites Romanos, quos spes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat, et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium, tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum 10 M. Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haud satis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo more iniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usa multos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque 15 in reliquum sibi timoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitates pessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbius ulcisci volunt.

Sallust, Jugurtha, 42.

1-3 quorum maiores . . . addiderant, e.g. their grandfather P. Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (in Spain and Sardinia).

3-4 paucorum scelera . . . coepere. (i) Tib. Gracchus by his Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the ruling class (in excess of the 500 iugera limit of the Licinian Laws, 367 B.C.). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried the Sempronian Law, ‘one of the cornerstones of individual liberty.’

5 per socios . . . Latinum, by working on Roman jealousy against the Italians, for whom equality was claimed.

6 spes societatis, i.e. the hope of sharing with the nobility in office, and in provincial appointments.

10 triumvirum c. d., one of the three Commissioners for establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the ager publicus.

11 Fulvio Flacco, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B.C.

17 pessum dedit = has destroyed. pessum (prob.) = pedis + versum = towards the feet, to the ground, cf. pessum ire.

The aim of the Gracchi. ‘Their object was to reduce the excessive power of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, which had become merely nominal, a reality.’—Ihne.

Their political mistake. ‘Their error consisted in the belief that such a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the old Comitia. They overlooked the necessity of remodelling the Roman people itself by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in reality make them represent the people.’—Ihne.

B₂

CICERO ON THE GRACCHI.

A. On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C.

Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda Numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum interemit.

De Off. i. 76.

2 Numantia, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus, 133 B.C.

3 P. Nasīca, a partisan leader of the Senate. privatus = not in office. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it suits his purpose, e.g. in de lege agraria, ii. § 10, duos (Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae viros . . . quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video partes constitutas.

B. On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B.C.

Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas 5 fecisset et effudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verba audiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legem frumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendum venerat. Animum advertit 10 Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem: quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentum petat, quam dissuaserit. ‘Nolim’ inquit ‘mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritim dividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam.’ Parumne declaravit vir 15 gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari? Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices.

Tusc. Disput. iii. 20, 48.

8 L. Piso ille Frugi = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of worth), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus.

8-9 legem frumentariam, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens at about half the market price. ‘One of the worst measures ever proposed by a well-meaning statesman.’—Ihne.

12 qui = how, old abl. of qui.

C. On C. Gracchus as an Orator.

Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studio et doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute, pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse.

Brutus, 125.

20 doctus a puero. Cornelia mater gracchorum (inscribed upon her statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education; so Cic. Brut. 104 Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero doctus et Graecis literis eruditus. ‘From her they had received that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering, which animated their political action.’—Ihne.

B₃

THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B.C.

The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B.C.

Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur, Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere, idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sed nocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante 5 diem colloquio decretum, Maurus, adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secum ipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quae scilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremo Sullam accersi 10 iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidias tendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haud procul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obvius honoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem 15 Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat, accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur. Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Marium deductus est. 20

Sallust, Jugurtha, 113.

2 Bocchus, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha, coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance.

Sullam, appointed Quaestor 107 B.C. by Marius, who superseded Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War.

9 quae scilicet . . . patefecisse, i.e. the external signs of his irresolution,—the calling and then dismissing his people (adhibitis . . . remotis, ll. 6, 7), and the changes of his countenance (voltu . . . varius, ll. 8, 9). Scilicet is here used with the Infinitive patefecisse, the verbal sense of the word (= scire + licet) being prominent.

10 accersi (= arcessiri), frequent in Sallust.

16 necessariis (necesse) = friends. Cf. ἀναγκαῖοι (ἀνάγκη).

19 Iugurtha Sullae . . . traditur. Sulla is said to have been so proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him. (Plutarch, Sulla, 3.)

Jugurtha. ‘Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic for six years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time, against a Metellus, a Marius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherous promises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law.’—Ihne.

B₄

A. Arpinum—Birthplace of Cicero and Marius.

Juvenal, Sat. viii. 237-239, 243-250.

239 in omni monte, i.e. in every part of Rome, on each of the seven hills.

244 patrem patriae: under the Empire the title pater patriae became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor.

libera = while yet free, emphatic. The State was no longer free when Augustus received this title, 2 B.C.—Duff.

247 frangebat vertice vitem = he had the vine-switch (rattan) broken on his head, i.e. served as a common soldier.—D.

248 dolabra = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe for digging the fossa. For dolabra, cf. Dolabella.

249 Cimbros, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae, 101 B.C.

250 Excipit = faced (lit. is ready to receive); metaphor from field-sports.—D.

B. From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius.

1 Iovis pinnata satelles, i.e. the Eagle. Cf. Pindar, Pyth. i. 6: εὕδει δ’ ἀνὰ σκάπτῳ (= σκήπτρῳ) Διὸς αἰετός, and sleeps on the staff of Zeus his eagle.

3 Surrigit (= surgit) = raises up; very rare in this sense. The v.l. Sūbigit (for sŭbigit) = carries aloft.

Compare Plutarch’s story of the eagle’s nest, with seven young ones in it, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so the diviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul.

B₅

The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B.C.

Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eorum inundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique et Gallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castra Silani, inde ad Senatum 5 petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibi terrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibus inter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armis petere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec 10 secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati, exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset. . . . Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem, prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus 15 adsecutus in loco quem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque medium hostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone id egerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certe necessitate acta virtus 20 victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquam exercitu, ‘Si viri estis’ inquit, ‘en, illic habetis.’ Itaque tanto ardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruento flumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. 25

Florus, III. iii. 1-9 (sel).

5 Silani = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B.C.

11 Mallius—Caepio, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the Rhone, 105 B.C.

Plutarch, Lucullus 27, says: ‘The 6th Oct., on which day the battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B.C.’

12 Actum erat, sc. de republica.

14 compendiis = short ways; cf. our compendium = an abridgement.

16 Aquas Sextias, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B.C. = Aix, 18 miles N. of Marseilles.

23 caedes hostium. 150,000 (Vell.) and 200,000 (Liv. Ep. lxviii.).

‘By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the Cimbri, 101 B.C.), the movement of the German races southward was for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was Marius, the champion of the people.’—Ihne.

Parallel Passages. Propert. IV. iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. lxviii.

References. Plutarch, Marius, 15. Ihne, Hist. Rome, vol. v. pp. 98-105.

B₆

MARIUS, 157-86 B.C.

A. His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time.

Lucan, Pharsalia, ii. 67-85.

67 exempla timori = precedents to hear out his fears.—Haskins.

70 Exsul. 88-7 B.C. For details see Plut. Marius, caps. 38-40.

72 Fortuna, i.e. the evil destiny of Rome, protecting him because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 82-83 debet . . . mortes.

73 in carcere, i.e. at Minturnae, S.E. of Latium. There were extensive marshes in the neighbourhood.

paedor = filth.

82 legibus aevi = the laws that govern time = fatis.—H.

B. Marius outlived his fame.

Juvenal, Sat. x. 278-282.

Marius outlived his powers and his reputation.

‘Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of the greatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstained with any blood save that of foreign foes.’—Ihne.

Parallel Passages. Ov. P. Ep. iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. x. 276-278.

References. Plut. Marius, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. iv. pp. 336-7, vol. v. pp. 111-12.

B₇

Cicero on Civil Strife.

Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum eas quas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L. Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huius urbis, multosque fortes viros partim 5 eiecit ex civitate, partim interemit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit: omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit. Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis viris interfectis, lumina civitatis 10 exstincta sunt. Ultus est huius victoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quanta deminutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae. . . . Atque illae tamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam rempublicam 15 pertinebant—non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed in ea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se in hac urbe florere voluerunt—eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliatione concordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. 20

Cicero, In Cat. iii. 10.

4 P. Sulpicium, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As Tribunus Plebis 88 B.C. carried the Leges Sulpiciae.

6 Cn. Octavius, one of Sulla’s chief supporters. Consul 87 B.C. Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair.

9-11 Superavit . . . exstincta sunt, i.e. 87-6 B.C. The Reign of Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 22 ‘Nihil illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta.’

10 lumina civitatis, e.g. the Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula; Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. and C. Caesar.

11-13 The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 28 ‘Primus ille (Sulla), et utinam ultimus, exemplum proscriptionis invenit.’

Parallel Passages. Horace, Epodes vii. and xvi. 1-14.

The Sullanian Proscriptions. Sulla was not like Marius swayed by feelings of revenge alone. His main object was the public good, which in his conviction was to be realised by a return to the older institutions of the republic. This he believed could be accomplished only by the utter annihilation of his opponents. The Proscriptions were not however intended to be an encouragement to indiscriminate murder, but rather a barrier against the rage of over-zealous partisans.

B₈

Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 B.C.

Deinde interiectis paucis annis tribunatum iniit M. Livius Drusus, vir nobilissimus, eloquentissimus, sanetissimus, meliore in omnia ingenio animoque quam fortuna usus. Qui cum senatui priscum restituere cuperet decus et indicia ab equitibus ad 5 eum transferre ordinem . . . in eis ipsis, quae pro senatu moliebatur, senatum habuit adversarium non intellegentem, si qua de plebis commodis ab eo agerentur, veluti illiciendae multitudinis causa fieri, ut minoribus perceptis maiora permitteret. Denique 10 ea fortuna Drusi fuit, ut malefacta collegarum quamvis optime ab ipso cogitatis senatus probaret magis. . . . Tum conversus Drusi animus, quando bene incepta male cedebant, ad dandam civitatem Italiae: quod cum moliens revertisset e foro, immensa 15 illa et incondita, quae eum semper comitabatur, cinctus multitudine in area domus suae cultello percussus, qui affixus lateri eius relictus est, intra paucas horas decessit. Sed cum ultimum redderet spiritum, intuens circumstantium macrentiumque 20 frequentiam, effudit vocem convenientissimam conscientiae suae: ecquandone, inquit, propinqui amicique, similem mei civem habebit res publica? Hunc finem clarissimus iuvenis vitae habuit.

Velleius Paterculus, ii. 13-14.

3-4 Drusus. ‘Generous and free from all selfishness and meanness, but without political experience, adroitness and knowledge of men, he aspired to a task which surpassed his strength.’—Ihne.

4-6 By the Sempronian Laws of C. Gracchus 123 B.C. exclusive judicial rights had been given to the Equites, as a counterpoise to the power of the Senate. The corruption of the Equites (as Judices) was flagrant, and Drusus proposed to transfer the judicial functions to a mixed body of 300 Senators and 300 Knights, the selected Knights to be included in the now attenuated ranks of the Senate.

14 ad dandam civitatem Italiae. The claims of the Italians to the franchise were just and pressing, but the overbearing pride and self-sufficiency of the Roman citizens proved too strong.

Parallel Passages. Cic. de Oratore iii. 1, and pro Cluent. 56, 153. Florus, iii. 18.

Reference. Ihne, Hist. vol. v. pp. 176-189.

‘Drusus was the Mirabeau of the social revolution of Rome, and had his measures been carried Rome might have been spared the most terrible of her civil wars.’

B₉

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (1)

A. Cause and Outbreak of the War at Asculum.

Cum ius civitatis, quam viribus auxerant, socii iustissime postularent, quam in spem eos cupidine dominationis Drusus erexerat, postquam ille domestico scelere oppressus est, eadem fax, quae illum cremavit, socios in arma et in expugnationem urbis 5 accendit. . . . Primum fuit belli consilium ut in Albano monte festo die Latinarum Iulius Caesar et Marcius Philippus consules inter sacra et aras immolarentur. Postquam id nefas proditione discussum est, Asculo furor omnis erupit, in ipsa quidem ludorum 10 frequentia trucidatis qui tum aderant ab urbe legatis. Hoc fuit impii belli sacramentum. Inde iam passim ab omni parte Italiae duce et auctore belli discursante Poppaedio diversa per populos et urbes signa cecinere. 15

Florus, III. xviii. 3-10 (sel.).

2 iustissime. ‘The final issue of the war confirmed the justice and the wisdom of the reforms planned by the Gracchi and by Livius Drusus.’—Ihne.

7 Latinarum, sc. Feriarum, the solemn festival conducted by the Consuls on the Alban Mount.

10 Asculo. Asculum (Ascoli), chief town of Picenum. The opening and closing scene of the war.

B. Advice of the Sabellian father to his sons.

Juvenal, Sat. xiv. 179-188.

179 collibus istis, i.e. in the central mountain range of Italy. The Federals chose Corfinium (E. of Lake Fucinus) to be the Italian rallying-point, and the seat of a new State.

180-181 Marsus . . . Hernicus . . . Vestinus, Sabellian peoples noted for their bravery and simplicity; the backbone of Rome’s army.

182 numina ruris, e.g. Ceres, Liber and Priapus.

185-186 alto perone = a high rustic boot of raw hide.

187 pellibus inversis = skins with the hair turned inwards.—Duff.

B₁₀

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (2)

A. Defeat and Death of Rutilius.

Ovid, Fasti, vi. 563-566.

563 Hanc, sc. Leucothea, goddess of the sea and of harbours.

Rutili. Rutilius, consul 90 B.C., defeated and slain at the R. Tolenus (Turano) by the Marsian Vettius Scato.

B. The Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C.

Data est civitas Silvani lege et Carbonis: si qui 5 foederatis civitatibus ascripti fuissent, si tum, cum lex ferebatur, in Italia domicilium habuissent et si sexaginta diebus apud praetorem essent professi.

Cicero, pro Archia, 4, 7.

5 lege, i.e. the Lex Plautia Papiria of the tribines M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo. The Lex Julia of L. Julius Caesar 90 B.C., granting the civitas to the Latins and to all the other Italian States not in rebellion, had weakened the resistance. The Lex Plautia Papiria ‘scattered among the Italian ranks the seeds of discord and dissolution.’

C. Cicero’s first and only Campaign.

Memini colloquia et cum acerrimis hostibus et cum gravissime dissidentibus civibus. Cn. Pompeius, 10 consul me praesente, cum essem tiro in eius exercitu, cum P. Vettio Scatone, duce Marsorum, inter bina castra collocutus est. . . . Quem cum Scato salutasset, ‘quem te appellem?’ inquit: ‘voluntate hospitem, necessitate hostem.’ Erat in colloquio aequitas: 15 nullus timor, nulla suberat suspicio; mediocre etiam odium. Non enim, ut eriperent nobis socii civitatem, sed ut in eam reciperentur petebant.

Cicero, Phil. xii. 11, 27.

D. The battle near Asculum, and capture of the city.

Strabo vero Pompeius omnia flammis ferroque populatus non prius finem caedium fecit quam Asculi 20 eversione manibus tot exercituum consulum direptarumque urbium dis litaretur.

Florus, III. xviii. 14.

20 Asculi eversione. The siege was memorable for the desperate patriotism of the besieged under their leader Judacilius, cf. siege of Saguntum.

Reference. Ihne, Hist. vol. v. pp. 190-220.

B₁₁

L. CORNELIUS SULLA, 138-78 B.C.

His Character and Bearing.

Igitur Sulla gentis patriciae nobilis fuit, familia prope iam exstincta maiorum ignavia, litteris Graecis et Latinis iuxta atque doctissimi eruditus, animo ingenti, cupidus voluptatum sed gloriae cupidior: tamen ab negotiis numquam voluptas remorata; 5 facundus callidus et amicitia facilis, ad simulanda negotia altitudo ingeni incredibilis, multarum rerum ac maxumae pecuniae largitor. Atque illi, felicissumo omnium ante civilem victoriam, numquam super industriam fortuna fuit, multique dubitavere fortior 10 an felicior esset. Nam postea quae fecerit, incertum habeo pudeat an pigeat magis disserere. Igitur Sulla, uti supra dictum est, postquam in Africam atque in castra Mari cum equitatu venit, rudis antea et ignarus belli, solertissumus omnium in paucis 15 tempestatibus factus est. Ad hoc milites benigne appellare, multis rogantibus aliis per se ipse dare beneficia, invitus accipere, sed ea properantius quam aes mutuum reddere, ipse ab nullo repetere, magis id laborare ut illi quam plurimi deberent, ioca atque 20 seria cum humillumis multus adesse neque interim, quod prava ambitio solet, consulis aut cuiusquam boni famam laedere, tantum modo neque consilio neque manu priorem alium pati, plerosque antevenire. 25

Sallust, Jug. 95, 96.

1 nobilis, i.e. of a patrician family which had held curule offices.

1-2 familia . . . exstincta. The Cornelii were a distinguished gens in early times and included 7 patrician families (e.g. the Lentuli and Scipios). Of these the Sullae were the least known.

2-3 litteris Graecis . . . eruditus. Contrast the proud boast of Marius:—‘I have learnt no Greek: in the knowledge, however, which is far the most important for the State, I am a master.’—Sall. Jug. 85.

9 ante civilem victoriam, i.e. before 81 B.C.

10-11 fortior an felicior. Sulla assumed the name Felix on the death of the younger Marius 82 B.C. Cf. Plut. Sulla, cap. vi.

11-12 Nam postea . . . disserere. Cf. Vell. Patere. II. xvii. 2: ‘Sulla vir qui neque ad finem victoriae satis laudari neque post victoriam abunde vituperari potest.’

20 illi more strictly sibi—‘a negligence not unfrequent.’—Merivale.

22 multus adesse = frequently visited, multus = saepe.

For character of Sulla cf. Plut. Sulla, and Mommsen, iv. pp. 139-142: ‘One of the most marvellous characters in history.’

B₁₂

MITHRIDATES THE GREAT, 130-63 B.C.

A. His Youth and Early Training.

Huius futuram magnitudinem etiam caelestia ostenta praedixerant. Nam et eo, quo genitus est, anno, et eo, quo regnare primum coepit, stella cometes per utrumque tempus LXX diebus ita luxit, ut caelum omne conflagrare videretur. Puer tutorum insidias 5 passus est, qui eum fero equo impositum equitare iacularique cogebant: qui conatus cum eos fefellissent, supra aetatem regente equum Mithridate, veneno eum appetivere. Veritus deinde, ne inimici, quod veneno non potuerant, ferro peragerent, venandi 10 studium finxit, quo per septem annos neque urbano neque rustico tecto usus est, sed per silvas vagatus, diversis montium regionibus pernoctabat ignaris omnibus, quibus esset locis; adsuetus feras cursu aut fugere aut persequi, cum quibusdam etiam viribus 15 congredi. Quibus rebus et insidias vitavit, et corpus ad omnem virtutis patientiam duravit.

1 Huius. Mithridates (Mithras = Persian sun-god) ‘second only to Hannibal in inextinguishable, life-long hostility to Rome, as also in military genius.’ Ihne.

5 tutorum = (at the hands) of his guardians. Cf. tueor.

17 ad omnem virtutis patientiam = to all manly endurance.

B. His Preparations for Conquest.

Ad regni deinde administrationem cum accessisset, statim non de regendo, sed de augendo regno cogitavit. Itaque Scythas invictos antea ingenti 20 felicitate perdomuit. Hieme deinde appetente, non in convivio, sed in campo, nec in avocationibus, nec inter sodales, sed inter aequales, aut equo aut cursu aut viribus contendebat. Exercitum quoque suum ad parem laboris patientiam cotidiana exercitatione 25 durabat, atque ita invictus ipse inexpugnabilem exercitum fecerat.

Justinus, xxxvii. 2, 3, 4.

19 de augendo regno. He subdued all the coast districts of the Euxine, East, North and West, as far as the Hister (Danube).

22 avocationibus = in diversions (very rare).

24 exercitum. At the outbreak of the War with Rome, 88 B.C., he had collected a motley force of 250,000 foot and 40,000 horse.

Mithridates. ‘With one blow he overthrew the Roman dominion in Asia, carried the war into Europe, united almost the whole Eastern world in an attack on the Republic, and resisted for 25 years the first generals of his time,—a Sulla, a Lucullus, and a Pompeius.’—Ihne.

Historic Parallels. Alexander, Hannibal, Peter the Great.

B₁₃

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (1)

The Battle of Chaeronea, 86 B.C. Brilliant Tactics of Sulla.

Archelaus adversus L. Sullam in fronte ad perturbandum hostem falcatas quadrigas locavit, in secunda acie phalangem Macedonicam, in tertia Romanorum more armatos auxiliares, mixtis fugitivis Italicae gentis, quorum pervicaciae plurimum fidebat; 5 levem armaturam in ultimo statuit; in utroque deinde latere equitatum, cuius amplum numerum habebat, circumeundi hostis causa posuit. Contra haec Sulla fossas amplae latitudinis utroque latere duxit et capitibus earum castella communiit: qua 10 ratione, ne circuiretur ab hoste et peditum numero et maxime equitatu superante, consecutus est. Triplicem deinde peditum aciem ordinavit relictis intervallis per quae levem armaturam et equitem, quem in novissimo conlocaverat, cum res exegisset, emitteret. 15 Tum postsignanis qui in secunda acie erant imperavit ut densos numerososque palos firme in terram defigerent, intraque eos appropinquantibus quadrigis antesignanorum aciem recepit: tum demum sublato universorum clamore velites et levem armaturam 20 ingerere tela iussit. Quibus factis quadrigae hostium aut implicitae palis aut exterritae clamore telisque in suos conversae sunt turbaveruntque Macedonum structuram: qua cedente, cum Sulla instaret et Archelaus equitem opposuisset, Romani equites 25 subito emissi averterunt eos consummaverantque victoriam.

Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 3. 17.

1 Archelaus (and his brother Neoptolemus) ‘trained in the traditions and experience of Greek and Macedonian masters.’

2 falcatas quadrigras. Archelaus had 60 of these chariots armed with scythes projecting. Cf. Livy xxxvii. 41.

5 pervicaciae = steadfastness (per + vic; cf. vinco).

11-12 qua ratione . . . consecutus est. Sulla had about 30,000 men (15,000 Romans only) against 120,000.

23 turbaverunt. ‘The war-chariots on this as on other occasions (e.g. at Magnesia) had not only proved a failure, but had actually led to a partial disaster.’—Ihne. Cf. use of war elephants, e.g. at Beneventum 275 B.C. and at Zama 202 B.C.

27 victoriam. It was a great victory, but the results were trifling, partly because Sulla had no fleet, and partly because his political enemies at Rome were bent on crippling him.

Historic Parallel. The Battle of Magnesia 190 B.C.

B₁₄

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (2)

A. Capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 86 B.C.

Sulla interim cum Mithridatis praefectis circa Athenas ita dimicavit, ut et Athenas reciperet et plurimo circa multiplices Piraei portus munitiones labore expleto amplius CC milia hostium interficeret nec minus multa caperet. . . . Nam oppressi (Athenienses) 5 Mithridatis armis homines miserrimae condicionis cum ab inimicis tenerentur, oppugnabantur ab amicis et animos extra moenia, corpora necessitati servientes intra muros habebant.

Velleius Paterculus, ii. 23.

2 ut Athenas reciperet. Sulla reduced the city by starvation.

3 Piraei portus. This was strongly held by Archelaus, and was taken only after a most obstinate defence.

7 cum . . . tenerentur. The contemptible adventurer Aristion, with his bodyguard of 2000 men and the bribe of Delos and its treasure, had made himself master of Athens.

B. Battle of Orchomenus, 85 B.C. Sulla restores the Fight.

L. Sulla, cedentibus iam legionibus exercitui 10 Mithridatico ductu Archelai, stricto gladio in primam aciem procucurrit appellansque milites dixit, si quis quaesisset, ubi imperatorem reliquissent, responderent pugnantem in Boeotia: cuius rei pudore universi eum secuti sunt. 15

Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 8. 12.

10-15 = ‘The great victory at Orchomenus was the turning-point in the War.’—Ihne.

C. Peace of Dardanus. End of the First Mithridatic War, 84 B.C.

Transgressus deinde in Asiam Sulla parentem ad omnia supplicemque Mithridatem invenit, quem multatum pecunia ac parte navium, Asia omnibusque aliis provinciis, quas armis occupaverat, decedere coegit, captivos recepit, in perfugas noxiosque 20 animadvertit, paternis, id est Ponticis finibus contentum esse iussit.

Velleius Paterculus, ii. 23.

16-22 The terms of peace were (i) Restoration of all conquests, (ii) Surrender of 80 ships and of all prisoners, (iii) Indemnity of 3000 talents. Florus says ‘Non fregit ea res Ponticos, sed incendit.’ Sulla was anxious to secure peace, because his presence was needed at Rome.

Sulla’s Conduct of the War. ‘No previous general had shown so great a mastery of the art of war and such care and interest for the welfare of the State, as distinguished from the success of a party.’—Ihne.

B₁₅

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (1)

Battles of Sacriportus and the Colline Gate.

Lucan, Pharsalia, ii. 134-138.

134 apud Sacriportum, near Praeneste, where Sulla totally defeated the Marians, under the younger Marius, 82 B.C.

135 Collina Porta, i.e. N.E. gate of Rome near the Collis Quirinalis.

138 paene, with mutavit, l. 137.

B. At Pontius Telesinus, dux Samnitium, vir animi bellique fortissimus penitusque Romano nomini infestissimus, contractis circiter XL milibus fortissimae pertinacissimaeque in retinendis armis iuventutis Kal. Novembribus ita ad portam Collinam cum Sulla 10 dimicavit, ut ad summum discrimen et eum et rempublicam perduceret, quae non maius periculum adiit Hannibalis intra tertium miliarium conspicata castra, quam eo die, quo circumvolans ordines exercitus sui Telesinus dictitansque adesse Romanis ultimum 15 diem vociferabatur eruendam delendamque urbem, adiciens numquam deluturos raptores Italicae libertatis lupos, nisi silva, in quam refugere solerent, esset excisa. Post primam demum horam noctis et Romana acies respiravit et hostium cessit. Telesinus 20 postera die semianimis repertus est, victoris magis quam morientis vultum praeferens, cuius abscisum caput ferro figi gestarique circa Praeneste Sulla iussit.

Velleius Paterculus, ii. 27.

6 Pontius Telesinus, ‘a kinsman in name and temper of the hero of 321 B.C.’

12-14 quae . . . castra. ‘As Hannibal had tried to relieve the closely pressed Capua by a direct attack on Rome, Pontius Telesinus thought to draw off the besieging army from Praeneste by threatening the Capital.’—Ihne.

20 Romana acies respiravit. Sulla, with the left wing, was driven back by the Samnites to the walls of Rome, but Crassus with the right wing was completely victorious, and to him the final victory was due.

‘The issue of the whole war, at least on Italian ground, was decided by the battle of the Colline Gate.’—Ihne.

B₁₆

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (2)

A. Death of the Younger Marius. Sulla Felix.

Tum demum desperatis rebus suis C. Marius adulescens per cuniculos, qui miro opere fabricati in diversas agrorum partes fuerunt, conatus erumpere, cum foramine e terra emersisset, a dispositis in id ipsum interemptus est. . . . De quo iuvene quid 5 existimaverit Sulla, in promptu est; occiso enim demum eo Felicis nomen adsumpsit, quod quidem usurpasset iustissime, si eundem et vincendi et vivendi finem habuisset.

Vell. Pat. ii. 27.

1 Tum, i.e. after Sulla’s victory at the Colline Gate, 82 B.C.

C. Marius. ‘He possessed his father’s martial spirit, courage and unyielding perseverance.’—Ihne.

2 per cuniculos = through subterranean passages.

B. The Sullan Proscriptions.

Lucan, Pharsalia, ii. 139-148, 221-224.

139 Sulla . . . ultor = Sulla too in his vengeance came to crown these fearful disasters.—Haskins.

141-143 dumque . . . manus. Sulla is compared to a surgeon who in too great haste to remove the mortified flesh cuts away the sound flesh also.

146 non uni . . . = all crimes were not committed for one man’s sake, i.e. to please Sulla.

223-224 hoc ordine belli ibitur = in this course of war events will move.—H. i.e. History will repeat itself.

232 sic maesta senectus. An old man, who had lived through the Marian and Sullan times, predicts similar horrors of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey.

The Proscriptions. ‘They were the product not of passion or thirst of blood, but of a cool political calculation, and the conviction of its inevitable necessity.’—Ihne.

B₁₇

A. Sulla appointed Dictator, 81 B.C.

Dictator creatus (cuius honoris usurpatio per annos centum et viginti intermissa; nam proximus post annum quam Hannibal Italia excesserat, uti appareat populum Romanum usum dictatoris haud metu desiderasse tali quo timuisset potestatem) imperio, 5 quo priores ad vindicandum maximis periculis patriam usi erant, eo in immodicae crudelitatis licentiam usus est.

Velleius Paterculus, ii. 28.

1-2 cuius honoris . . . intermissa. The last real Dictator (M. Junius Pera) was appointed after Cannae 216 B.C.

5-8 imperio quo . . . usus est. ‘The Dictator of the first age of the Republic down to the Punic Wars had always a well-defined special duty to discharge in a given time. Sulla’s task was of a general nature and all-comprehensive range, and he had the most essential of all monarchical attributes, which is the unlimited duration of office.’—Ihne.

B. Sulla lays down his Dictatorship, 79 B.C.

Nec minoris impotentiae voces propalam edebat, ut Titus Ampius scribit, ‘Nihil esse rempublicam, 10 appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie. Sullam nescisse litteras, qui dictaturam deposuerit.’

Suetonius, Divus Iulius, 77.

9 impotentiae = arrogance (lack of self-restraint).

10 Ampius. Titus Ampius Balbus, a Pompeian general.

11-12 Sullam nescisse litteras = (i) S. had not profited by the teachings of History, or (ii) S. was without a liberal education.

C. Death of Sulla, 78 B.C.

Puteolis enim ardens indignatione, quod Granius, princeps eius coloniae pecuniam a decurionibus ad refectionem Capitolii promissam cunctantius daret, 15 animi concitatione nimia atque immoderato vocis impetu convulso pectore, spiritum cruore ac minis mixtum evomuit, nec senio iam prolapsus, utpote sexagesimum ingrediens annum, sed alita miseriis reipublicae inpotentia furens. Igitur in dubio est 20 Sullane prior an iracundia Sullae sit extincta.

Valerius Maximus, ix. 3. 8.

13 Granius, the chief magistrate of Puteoli, had kept back money destined for the building of the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The old one was destroyed by fire 83 B.C. ‘It was Sulla’s great desire that his name should be recorded on the front of the new temple, for it was to be the symbol of the Republic, restored as he fondly hoped by him to its pristine purity.’—Ihne.

B₁₈

THE LEGES CORNELIAE, 81 B.C.

A. Limitation of the Tribune’s Right of Veto.

In ista quidem re vehementer Sullam probo, qui tribunis plebis sua lege iniuriae faciendae potestatem ademerit, auxili ferendi reliquerit.

Cicero, de Legibus, iii. 9. 22.

2 iniuriae faciendae, e.g. by their abuse of the right of veto.

3 auxili ferendi. ‘Sulla limited the office of tribune to the original functions for which it was established, the legal protection of the people from the abuse of magisterial power.’—Ihne.

B. Abolition of Corn Distributions.

Populus Romanus, paullo ante gentium moderator, exutus imperio gloria iure, agitandi inops despectusque ne servilia quidem alimenta relicua habet.

Sallust, Hist., Orat. M. Lepidi.

5 agitandi inops (i.e. vitam sustentandi) = without means of livelihood.

6 servilia alimenta = a slave’s allowance of food. Sulla abolished the largesses of corn.

C. Restoration of Judicial Functions to the Senators.

Iudicandi munus quod C. Gracchus ereptum senatui ad Equites, Sulla ab illis ad Senatum transtulerat.

Velleius Paterculus, ii. 32.

8-10 Sulla filled up the gaps in the Senate from the ranks of the Equites, and to the new Senate thus constituted he entrusted the administration of justice.

D. A Sumptuary Law, Limiting the Expense of the Table.

L. Sulla dictator, cum plerique in patrimoniis amplis eluerentur et familiam pecuniamque suam prandiorum conviviorumque gurgitibus proluissent, legem ad populam tulit, qua cautum est, ut Kalendis, Idibus, Nonis diebusque ludorum et feriis quibusdam 15 sollemnibus sestertios trecenos in cenam insumere ius potestasque esset, ceteris autem diebus omnibus non amplius tricenos.

Aulus Gellius, ii. 24, 11.

12 eluerentur = had squandered (lit. ‘washed away’).

Leges Corneliae. ‘Sulla’s legislation was an attempt to revive what was dead and gone. The time had arrived when the old republican institutions could last no longer. The transformation of the state into a monarchy was inevitable.’—Ihne.