LATIN TRANSLATION AT SIGHT (continued 3)

Livy, vii. 29.

1 iam hinc, i.e. 343-266 B.C.

2 longinquitate . . . temporum = the distance of the theatre of war (regionum) and the length of the campaign (temporum).—Rawlins.

6-7 quanta rerum moles = What stupendous exertions!—R.

8 in hanc magnitudinem, i.e. in the reign of Augustus.

10 cum societate, i.e. from 354 B.C.

12 Sidicinis, a Sabellian people N.W. of Campania, on the Samnite border.

16 fluentes (luxu) = enervated (lit. relaxed) by luxury.

21 Tifāta (neut. Plur.), a mountain range N.E. of Capua.

22-23 quadrato agmine = in regular order of battle, so that the whole army formed a parallelogram.

The Cause of the War. ‘The interference of Rome was a breach of the Treaty with the Samnites. Livy admits this, but asserts that Capua had formally surrendered to Rome, and as a subject state claimed her protection. The story is confessedly false, for Capua remained, what it had always been, an independent town.’—R.

D₃₂

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B.C. (2)

Battle of Mt. Gaurus. M. Valerius Corvus.

Non alias militi familiarior dux fuit, omnia inter infimos militum haud gravate munia obeundo. In ludo praeterea militari, cum velocitatis viriumque inter se aequales certamina ineunt, comiter facilis; vincere ac vinci vultu eodem, nec quemquam aspernari 5 parem, qui se offerret; factis benignus pro re, dictis haud minus libertatis alienae quam suae dignitatis memor, et, quo nihil popularius est, quibus artibus petierat magistratus, iisdem gerebat. Itaque universus exercitus incredibili alacritate adhortationem 10 prosecutus ducis castris egreditur. . . . Primus omnium consul invadit hostem et, cum quo forte contulit gradum, obtruncat. Hoc spectaculo accensi dextra laevaque ante se quisque memorandum proelium ciet; stant obnixi Samnites, quamquam 15 plura accipiunt quam inferunt vulnera. Aliquamdiu iam pugnatum erat, atrox caedes circa signa Samnitium, fuga ab nulladum parte erat; adeo morte sola vinci destinaverant animis. Itaque Romani, cum et fluere iam lassitudine vires sentirent et diei 20 haud multum superesse, accensi ira concitant se in hostem. Tum primum referri pedem atque inclinari rem in fugam apparuit; tum capi, occidi Samnis; nec superfuissent multi, ni nox victoriam magis quam proelium diremisset. 25

Livy, vii. 33.

1 familiarior = on better terms with.—Cluer and Matheson.

2 haud gravate = without reluctance (ungrudgingly). Compare Sallust’s description of Marius and Sulla.

4 aequales = competitors, lit. well-matched.

comiter facilis = he was courteously good-natured.

6-7 pro re = to suit the occasion.

9 artibus iisdem = in the same spirit.—Weissenborn.

11 prosecutus = welcoming, lit. attending.

12-13 cum . . . gradum = with whom he happened to engage. Cf. collato pede = fighting foot to foot.

15 stant obnixi = stand their ground firmly. obnixus (ob + nitor, strive + against), resolute.

23 Samnis, nom. sing.

capi, occidi, Historic Infinitives.

25 diremisset = had broken off. dirimo (dis + emo) = take apart.

The Battle of Mt. Gaurus. The battle was fought on the volcanic range of mountains between Cumae and Neapolis. The Consul in command, M. Valerius, obtained the surname of Corvus (Raven), because when serving as a military Tribune under Camillus in 349 B.C., he defeated the Gallic champion by the aid of a raven. See next page, A. l. 4.

D₃₃

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B.C. (1)

Self-Sacrifice of Decius Mus, 340 B.C.

A. Rome’s Empire safe in the keeping of Augustus.

Propertius, III. (IV.) xi. (x.) 63-68.

63 Curtius . . . lacunis, in allusion to the spot called Lacus Curtius (marked by a circular pavement) in the Forum which served as a memorial (monimenta) of his heroic sacrifice. Livy, vii. 6.

lacuna (cf. lacus) = a hole, pool, chasm.

65 semita (sed + meo = go + aside) = a path, road. Cocles, apparently, gave his name to the street running up from the bridge which he ‘kept so well.’—Ramsay.

66 cui, i.e. M. Valerius Corvus, the hero of Mt. Gaurus. See p. 91.

67-68 i.e. with Caesar (Augustus) safe, Rome has none to fear, nay, scarce Jove himself. Flattery can go no further than this!

B. The Dream of the Consuls on the Eve of Battle.

Illud etiam somnium et magnae admirationis et clari exitus, quod eadem nocte duo consules P. Decius Mus et T. Manlius Torquatus Latino bello gravi ac periculoso non procul a Vesuvi montis radicibus 10 positis castris viderunt. Utrique enim quaedam per quietem species praedixit ex altera acie imperatorem, ex altera exercitum dis Manibus matrique Terrae deberi; utrius autem dux copias hostium superque eas sese ipsum devovisset, victricem abituram. Id 15 luce proxima consulibus sacrificio vel expiaturis, si posset averti, vel, si certum deorum etiam monitu visum foret, exsecuturis, hostiarum exta somnio congruerunt, convenitque inter eos, cuius cornu prius laborare coepisset, ut is capite suo fata patriae lueret. 20 Quae neutro reformidante Decium depoposcerunt.

Valerius Maximus, i. De Somniis.

13 Dis Manibus = the deified souls of the dead, usually looked upon as beneficent spirits.

15 victricem, sc. aciem.

17 deorum etiam monitu = by the warning of the gods also, i.e. by the auspices as well as by the dream.

19-20 cuius cornu . . . coepisset. The left wing led by Decius was repulsed by the Latins, and Decius accordingly devoted himself to death.

Parallel Passage. Livy, viii. 6. 9.

D₃₄

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B.C. (2)

The Battle of Mt. Vesuvius, 340 B.C.

Procedente deinde certamine cum aliis partibus multitudo superaret Latinorum, Manlius consul audito eventu collegae paulisper addubitavit, an consurgendi iam triariis tempus esset; deinde melius ratus integros eos ad ultimum discrimen servari, 5 Accensos ab novissima acie ante signa procedere iubet. Qui ubi subiere, extemplo Latini, tamquam idem adversarii fecissent, triarios suos excitaverunt; qui aliquamdiu pugna atroci cum et semet ipsi fatigassent et hastas aut praefregissent aut hebetassent, 10 pellerent vi tamen hostem, debellatum iam rati perventumque ad extremam aciem, tum consul triariis ‘Consurgite nunc’ inquit ‘integri adversus fessos, memores patriae parentumque et coniugum ac liberorum, memores consulis pro vestra victoria 15 morte occubantis.’ Ubi triarii consurrexerunt, integri, refulgentibus armis, nova ex improviso exorta acies, receptis in intervalla ordinum antepilanis, clamore sublato principia Latinorum perturbant hastisque ora fodientes primo robore virorum caeso per alios manipulos 20 velut inermes prope intacti evasere tantaque caede perrupere cuneos, ut vix quartam partem relinquerent hostium.

Livy, viii. 10.

3-4 an consurgendi . . . esset. Livy says ‘The Triarii were posted crouching by the standards, their left leg extended forwards, holding their shields resting on their shoulders, and their spears fixed in the ground with the points erect, so that their line bristled as if enclosed by a rampart.’

6 Accensos. The Accensi (ad + censeo), originally supernumeraries to take the place of those who fell in battle, = levis armatura.

ante signa, i.e. of the Hastati and Principes.

8 excitaverunt = surgere iusserunt.—Weissenborn.

10 hebetassent = had blunted.

18 antepilanis = prop. both the Hastati and Principes who were drawn up before the Pilani or Triarii who formed the third line.

19 principia = the front line, now the Triarii of the Latins.

22 cuneos = columns (lit. wedges), i.e. a body of soldiers drawn up in the shape of a wedge. Livy uses it of the phalanx.

The Cause of the War. The war was almost a civil one. The dispute was chiefly about a right to share in the privileges of the full Roman citizenship (espec. the right to vote and to hold office).

Result of the War. Rome broke up the Latin Confederation by making separate treaties with the Latin towns, and by prohibiting commercial intercourse between them.

D₃₅

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (1)

The Dictator and his Master of the Horse.

Ea fortuna pugnae fuit, ut nihil relictum sit, quo, si adfuisset Dictator, res melius geri potuerit; non dux militi, non miles duci defuit. Eques etiam, auctore L. Cominio tribuno militum, qui aliquotiens impetu capto perrumpere non poterat hostium agmen, 5 detraxit frenos equis atque ita concitatos calcaribus permisit, ut sustinere eos nulla vis posset; per arma, per viros late stragem dedere; secutus pedes impetum equitum turbatis hostibus intulit signa. Viginti milia hostium caesa eo die traduntur. Magister equitum, 10 ut ex tanta caede, multis potitus spoliis congesta in ingentem acervum hostilia arma subdito igne concremavit, seu votum id deorum cuiquam fuit, seu credere libet Fabio auctori eo factum, ne suae gloriae fructum Dictator caperet nomenque ibi scriberet aut 15 spolia in triumpho ferret. Litterae quoque de re prospere gesta ad senatum, non ad Dictatorem missae argumentum fuere minima cum eo communicantis laudes. Ita certe Dictator id factum accepit, ut laetis aliis victoria parta prae se ferret iram tristitiamque. 20

Livy, viii, 30.

2 Dictator = L. Papirius Cursor, noted for the strictness of his military discipline. At this time he had gone to Rome to take the auspices anew (ad auspicium repetendum) and had given strict orders to his Master of the Horse, Q. Fabius Rullianus, to avoid all collision with the enemy during his absence.

7 permisit = gave them their heads. Cf. immittere habenas.

9 turbatis . . . signa = attacked the enemy (dative) when in confusion.

11 spoliis, i.e. the arms taken from the fallen.

13-14 seu credere . . . factum = lit. or whether one prefer to credit the authority of Fabius that it was done on this account (eo) . . . Fabius Pictor, the earliest Roman historian, wrote in Greek and served in the 2nd Punic War.

15 ibi (sc. hostilia arma) = on them. These, set up as a trophy with the victor’s name inscribed, would have been borne in the triumphal procession.

19 Ita certe . . . accepit = so (ita) no doubt the Dictator interpreted his (Fabius’) action.

The Cause of the War. The actual casus belli was a dispute between Rome and the Samnites for the possession of Palaeopolis (= old city) near Neapolis (= new city). Cf. the First Punic War, 241 B.C., due to the struggle for the possession of Messana, and the war with Pyrrhus, 281 B.C., for the possession of Tarentum.

Historic Parallel. Fabius Cunctator and Minucius.—Livy, xxii. 24-30.

D₃₆

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (2)

The Caudine Forks, 321 B.C.

Duae ad Luceriam ferebant viae, altera praeter oram superi maris, patens apertaque, sed quanto tutior, tanto fere longior, altera per Furculas Caudinas, brevior; sed ita natus locus est. Saltus duo alti, angusti silvosique sunt, montibus circa perpetuis 5 inter se iuncti. Iacet inter eos satis patens, clausus in medio, campus herbidus aquosusque, per quem medium iter est; sed antequam venias ad eum, intrandae primae angustiae sunt, et aut eadem, qua te insinuaveris, retro via repetenda, aut, si ire 10 porro pergas, per alium saltum, artiorem impeditioremque, evadendum. In eum campum via alia per cavam rupem Romani demisso agmine cum ad alias angustias protinus pergerent, saeptas deiectu arborum saxorumque ingentium obiacente mole 15 invenere. Cum fraus hostilis apparuisset, praesidium etiam in summo saltu conspicitur. Citati inde retro, qua venerant, pergunt repetere viam; eam quoque clausam sua obice armisque inveniunt. Sistunt inde gradum sine ullius imperio, intuentesque alii alios 20 diu immobiles silent.

Livy, ix. 2.

1 ad Luceriam = in the direction of Luceria, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, and now threatened by the Samnites.

1-2 praeter . . . maris = along the coast of the upper sea, i.e. the Adriatic. Taking this route, they would go N. of Samnium, through the Peligni, and S. through the Frentani into Apulia.

3 fere = just.

3-4 Furculas Caudinas, two fork-shaped defiles near Caudium, the capital of the Caudine Samnites, between Beneventum and Capua on what was afterwards the Via Appia.

5-6 montibus . . . iuncti = united by a continuous ring (perpetuis circa) of mountains.

10 insinuaveris = lit. have wound your way.

11-12 artiorem impeditioremque = more narrow and more difficult (i.e. steeper).

13 per cavam rupem = through an overhanging rocky defile.

demisso agmine = with their troops led down (the descent).

14 protinus = straightforward.

14-15 deiectu . . . mole = lit. ‘a barrier lying in the way (formed) by the throwing down of trees and large pieces of rock.’

mole = an abattis (a knocking down, felling).—Rawlins.

16 cum fraus . . . = no sooner had . . . when . . .

17 citati = hurriedly (in hot haste). Partic. used adverbially.—Stephenson.

19 sua obice = with a barrier of its own (i.e. specially prepared).

D₃₇

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (3)

The Caudine Forks. The Yoke.

Alii alios intueri, contemplari arma mox tradenda et inermes futuras dextras obnoxiaque corpora hosti; proponere sibimet ipsi ante oculos iugum hostile et ludibria victoris et vultus superbos et per armatos inermium iter, inde foedi agminis miserabilem viam 5 per sociorum urbes, reditum in patriam ad parentes, quo saepe ipsi maioresque eorum triumphantes venissent: se solos sine vulnere, sine ferro, sine acie victos: sibi non stringere licuisse gladios, non manum cum hoste conferre; sibi nequicquam animos datos. 10 Haec frementibus hora fatalis ignominiae advenit, omnia tristiora experiundo factura, quam quae praeceperant animis. Iam primum cum singulis vestimentis inermes extra vallum exire iussi, et primi traditi obsides atque in custodiam abducti. Primi 15 consules prope seminudi sub iugum missi; tum ut quisque gradu proximus erat, ita ignominiae obiectus; tum deinceps singulae legiones. Ita traducti sub iugum et, quod paene gravius erat, per hostium oculos, cum e saltu evasissent, etsi velut ab inferis 20 extracti tum primum lucem aspicere visi sunt, tamen ipsa lux ita deforme intuentibus agmen omni morte tristior fuit.

Livy, ix. 5, 6.

1-10 intueri; contemplari . . . = There they are looking one on another. . . . By a string of infinitives the picture of a series of actions is put before the reader without the actions being thought of singly.—Lee Warner.

2 obnoxia = at the mercy of . . .—Rawlins.

6 per sociorum urbes, e.g. Capua.

11 fatalis ignominiae = destined for their disgrace.

12 experiundo = by experience; praeceperant = they had anticipated.

16 seminudi = with only their tunics on.

17 gradu = in rank.

18 traducti, ‘always used in this sense of disgraceful exhibition or parade.’—Stephenson.

22-23 ipsa lux . . . fuit = the very light was to them as they gazed on so hideous a line of march more gloomy than any form of death.

The Caudine Forks. Other writers state that the Romans were entrapped only after a severe defeat.

‘By the side of those names (the Allia and Cannae) there was yet a third in the list of evil days—the name of the Caudine Pass.’—Ihne. Cf. p. 82, B.

Historic Parallels. Livy’s account of Trasimene. The Kyber Pass, 1842. The Capitulation of Metz, 1870.

D₃₈

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (4)

Rome repudiates the Treaty.

At vero T. Veturius et Sp. Postumius, cum iterum consules assent, quia, cum male pugnatum apud Caudium esset, legionibus nostris sub iugum missis pacem cum Samnitibus fecerant, dediti sunt eis; iniussu enim populi senatusque fecerant. Eodemque 5 tempore Ti. Numicius, Q. Maelius, qui tum tribuni plebis erant, quod eorum auctoritate pax erat facta, dediti sunt, ut pax Samnitium repudiaretur. Atque huius deditionis ipse Postumius, qui dedebatur, suasor et auctor fuit. Quod idem multis annis post 10 C. Mancinus, qui ut Numantinis, quibuscum sine senatus auctoritate foedus fecerat, dederetur, rogationem suasit eam, quam L. Furius, Sex. Atilius ex senatus consulto ferebant: qua accepta est hostibus deditus. Honestius hic quam Q. Pompeius, quo, 15 cum in eadem causa esset, deprecante accepta lex non est. Hic ea, quae videbatur utilitas, plus valuit quam honestas, apud superiores utilitatis species falsa ab honestatis auctoritate superata est.

Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 109.

4 pacem . . . fecerant, i.e. a military convention, by which Rome and Samnium were to acknowledge each other as free peoples with equal rights and privileges, and Rome was to give up her conquests and colonies on Samnite territory.

5 iniussu . . . senatusque. ‘The Senate considered it in the light of a sponsio, a convention made on personal responsibility, rather than a pactio or foedus, a public treaty.’—Holden.

6 tribuni plebis, prob. only tribunes-elect (= designati), for the tribunes could not leave Rome even for one night.

11 C. Mancinus commanded against Numantia in Spain, 137 B.C.

15 Q. Pompeius commanded against Numantia, 140 B.C.

16 cum in eadem causa esset = though he was in the same case, as Mancinus, i.e. had made a degrading peace with the Numantines.—H.

15-17 quo . . . deprecante . . . non est = through his begging to be let off, the law (i.e. for delivering him up to the enemy) was not passed.

17 Hic = in this case, i.e. that of Pompeius.

18 apud superiores, i.e. Veturius, Postumius, and Mancinus.

18-19 utilitatis species falsa = the false semblance of expediency.

The Repudiation of the Treaty. ‘It is clear that Postumius and his brother officers could not bind the Roman Senate and people by the promise they had made in Caudium; but it is equally clear that they were bound by their promise to do what was in their power to cause the treaty to be ratified.’—Ihne.

D₃₉

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (5)

Battle of Bovianum, 305 B.C. Peace made, 304 B.C.

Eodem anno in campum Stellatem agri Campani Samnitium incursiones factae. Itaque ambo consules in Samnium missi cum diversas regiones, Tifernum Postumius, Bovianum Minucius petisset, Postumii prius ductu ad Tifernum pugnatum. Alii 5 haud dubie Samnites victos ac viginti milia hominum capta tradunt, alii Marte aequo discessum, et Postumium, metum simulantem, nocturno itinere clam in montes copias abduxisse, hostes secutos duo milia inde locis munitis et ipsos consedisse. Consul ut 10 stativa tuta copiosaque petisse videretur, postquam et munimentis castra firmavit et omni apparatu rerum utilium instruxit, relicto firmo praesidio de vigilia tertia, qua* proxime potest, expeditas legiones ad collegam, et ipsum adversus alios sedentem, ducit. 15 Ibi auctore Postumio Minucius cum hostibus signa confert, et, cum anceps proelium in multum diei processisset, tum Postumius integris legionibus defessam iam aciem hostium improviso invadit. Itaque cum lassitudo ac vulnera fugam quoque praepedissent, 20 occidione occisi hostes, signa unum et viginti capta.

Livy, ix. 44.

1 In campum Stellatem. Stellas, a part of the Campanian plain, N. of Mt. Tifata (E. of Capua).

4 Tifernum, E. of Bovianum on the R. Tifernus.

Postumius . . . Minucius, Consuls 305 B.C.

Bovianum, in Samnium, W. of Luceria (in Apulia).

11 stativa tuta = safe quarters. Cf. stativa castra = a stationary camp.

15 et ipsum . . . sedentem = also lying encamped (sedentem) in the face of another army.—Stephenson.

20 praepedissent = hampered, lit. to entangle the feet (prae + pes).

21 occidione occisi. This has the force of a superlative by the repetition, a common idiom in Oriental† languages.—S.

Results of the Second Samnite War. Roman influence became supreme in Campania and Apulia, and the Samnites were confined to their own mountains. In 304 B.C. the Romans renewed their ancient Treaty with the Samnites (as Livy tells us) by which they were left in possession of their independence.

Why the Romans conquered. (1) Their conduct of the war was more systematic. (2) By their plan of fortified colonies (e.g. Cales, Fregellae, Luceria) they retained their hold on the conquered territory. (3) The diplomatic skill of the Senate secured the friendship of the neighbours of the Samnites (e.g. the Apulians and Lucanians).

D₄₀

THIRD SAMNITE WAR, 298-290 B.C.

Battle of Sentinum, 295 B.C. ‘Novum pugnae genus.’

Ferocior Decius et aetate et vigore animi quantumcunque virium habuit certamine primo effudit. Et quia lentior videbatur pedestris pugna, equitatum in pugnam concitat et ipse fortissimae iuvenum turmae immixtus orat proceres iuventutis, in hostem 5 ut secum impetum faciant: duplicem illorum gloriam fore, si ab laevo cornu et ab equite victoria incipiat. Bis avertere Gallicum equitatum; iterum longius evectos et iam inter media peditum agmina proelium cientes novum pugnae conterruit genus: essedis 10 carrisque superstans armatus hostis ingenti sonitu equorum rotarumque advenit et insolitos eius tumultus Romanorum conterruit eqnos. Ita victorem equitatum velut lymphaticus pavor dissipat; sternit inde ruentes equos virosque improvida fuga, 15 turbata hinc etiam signa legionum multique impetu equorum ac vehiculorum raptorum per agmen obtriti antesignani; et insecuta, simul territos hostes vidit, Gallica acies nullum spatium respirandi recipiendique se dedit. 20

Livy, x. 28.

1 Decius. P. Decius Mus, Consul with Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, commanded the left wing at the Battle of Sentinum, where he was opposed to the Gauls, and when his troops began to give way before the Gaulish chariots (essedae) he, like his father at the Battle of Vesuvius, 340 B.C., devoted* himself with the hostile army ‘to the gods of earth and of the grave.’

5 proceres iuventutis = the flower of the young men.

8 avertere (= se avertere) = to retire (lit. turn away).

10 essedis = war-chariots, on two wheels, open in front, but closed behind, and drawn by two horses; used also by the Britons.

14 lymphaticus = mad, frenzied.

16 turbata . . . signa legionum = the ranks of the legions were thrown into disorder. Signa is frequently used of military movement, as the most noticeable feature in an army.

The Cause of the Third Samnite War. The democratic party among the Lucanians made overtures to the Samnites. The Romans peremptorily ordered the Samnites not to interfere in Lucania, an arrogant command which the Samnites declined to obey, and war broke out anew.

Results of the War. After an obstinate struggle peace was concluded in 290 B.C., the Samnites retaining their independence.

D₄₁

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS, 281-275 B.C. (1)

The Aims of Pyrrhus. Battle of Heraclea, 280 B.C.

Pyrrhus rex Epiri cum iterata Tarentinorum legatione additis Samnitium et Lucanorum precibus, fatigaretur, non tam supplicum precibus quam spe invadendi Italiae imperii inductus venturum se cum exercitu pollicetur. In quam rem inclinatum semel 5 animum praecipitem agere coeperant exempla maiorum, ne aut inferior patruo suo Alexandro videretur, quo defensore idem Tarentini adversus Bruttios usi fuerant, aut minores animos magno Alexandro habuisse, qui tam longa a domo militia Orientem subegerat. 10 Igitur relicto custode regni Ptolemaeo filio annos xv nato exercitum in portu Tarentino exponit. Cuius audito adventu consul Romanus Valerius Laevinus festinans, ut prius cum eo congrederetur, quam auxilia sociorum convenirent, exercitum in 15 aciem educit. Nec rex, tametsi numero militum inferior esset, certamini moram fecit. Sed Romanos vincentes iam inusitata ante elephantorum forma stupere primo, mox cedere proelio coegit, victoresque iam nova Macedonum repente monstra vicerunt. 20 Nec hostibus incruenta victoria fuit. Nam et Pyrrhus ipse graviter vulneratus est, et magna pars militum eius caesa, maioremque gloriam eius victoriae quam laetitiam habuit.

Justinus, xviii. 1.

1 iterata legatione = by a second embassy.

3 fatigaretur = was importuned.

3-4 non tam . . . inductus. Pyrrhus aimed at founding a western Grecian Empire in Italy and Sicily.

7-9 patruo suo Alexandro . . . fuerant. Alexander of Epirus had almost succeeded in uniting the whole of Magna Graecia (332-326 B.C.) when he was cut off by the hand of an assassin.

9 magno Alexandro. Pyrrhus was acknowledged to be the first general of the school of Alexander, and Hannibal (so Plutarch tells us) considered him the greatest military genius.

18 inusitata ante . . . forma = the unfamiliar appearance of.

22-23 magna pars militum. Pyrrhus is said to have lost 4000 men, ‘a serious matter to him in a foreign country, where he could not easily replace the loss of his tried old warriors.’—Ihne.

Cause of the War. By 282 B.C. Rome had taken possession of Magna Graecia, with the exception of Tarentum. In 282 B.C. (in defiance of the treaty of 301 B.C.) a Roman fleet appeared before the Harbour of Tarentum. A naval battle ensued in which the Tarentines were victorious, and the war began.

D₄₂

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (2)

Fabricius the Just. Honesty before Expediency.

Cum rex Pyrrhus populo Romano bellum ultro intulisset, cumque de imperio certamen esset cum rege generoso ac potenti, perfuga ab eo venit in castra Fabricii eique est pollicitus, si praemium sibi proposuisset, se, ut clam venisset, sic clam in Pyrrhi 5 castra rediturum et eum veneno necaturum. Hunc Fabricius reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum idque eius factum laudatum a senatu est. Atqui, si speciem utilitatis opinionemque quaerimus, magnum illud bellum perfuga unus et gravem adversarium imperi 10 sustulisset, sed magnum dedecus et flagitium, quicum laudis certamen fuisset, eum non virtute sed scelere superatum. Utrum igitur utilius vel Fabricio, qui talis in hac urbe qualis Aristides Athenis fuit, vel senatui nostro, qui numquam utilitatem a dignitate 15 seiunxit, armis cum hoste certare an venenis? Si gloriae causa imperium expetendum est, scelus absit, in quo non potest esse gloria: sin ipsae opes expetuntur quoquo modo, non poterunt utiles esse cum infamia. 20

Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 86, 87.

1-2 bellum ultro intulisset = had begun an aggressive (ultro) war.

ultro = lit. to a place beyond, hence = beyond expectation, unprovoked.

2 de imperio = uter imperaret.—Holden.

3 perfuga = a deserter. Aulus Gellius says the traitor was Nicias, a friend of Pyrrhus; Florus and Eutropius, a physician of Pyrrhus.

8 atqui = and yet, a more emphatic at.

8-9 speciem utilitatis opinionemque (sc. utilitatis) = the semblance and (popular) opinion of expediency.—H.

11-13 sed magnum . . . superatum = but it would have been a lasting disgrace and scandal for a general, with whom the struggle lay for glory, to have been overcome by an act of wickedness and not by valour.—H.

14 Aristides Athenis. Aristides the Just. ‘Sans Peur et sans Reproche.’

19 quoquo modo = in any way. Cf. quacumque ratione.—H.

Parallel Passage. Eutropius ii. 7. 8. 14: Tum Pyrrhus admiratus eum dixisse fertur: ‘Ille est Fabricius, qui difficilius ab honestate quam sol a cursu suo averti potest.’

Fabricius, like Cincinnatus and M’. Curius Dentatus, is the representative of the purity and honesty of the good old times.

D₄₃

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3)

Appius the Blind, 280 B.C.

Ad Appi Claudi senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset; tamen is, cum sententia senatus inclinaret ad pacem cum Pyrrho foedusque faciendum, non dubitavit dicere illa, quae versibus persecutus est Ennius: 5

ceteraque gravissime, notum enim vobis carmen est, et tamen ipsius Appi exstat oratio. Atque haec ille egit septemdecim annis post alterum consulatum, 10 cum inter duos consulatus anni decem interfuissent censorque ante superiorem consulatum fuisset, ex quo intelligitur Pyrrhi bello grandem sane fuisse. . . . Quattuor robustos filios, quinque filias, tantam domum, tantas clientelas Appius regebat et caecus 15 et senex; intentum enim animum tamquam arcum habebat nec languescens succumbebat senectuti. Tenebat non modo auctoritatem, sed etiam imperium in suos: metuebant servi, verebantur liberi, carum omnes habebant; vigebat in illo animus 20 patrius et disciplina.

Cicero, De Senectute, §§ 16, 37.

1 Appi Claudi. This was the Appius Claudius whose Censorship, 312 B.C., was famous for his great public works, the Via Appia, the great South road of Rome, and the Aqua Appia, an aqueduct which brought water to Rome a distance of eight miles; and also for his measure (corre­sponding to a Parliamentary Reform Bill) admitting freedmen as full citizens by enrolling them in Tribes.

2-9 tamen is . . . exstat oratio. When the Senate was about to yield to the persuasive eloquence of Cineas, the envoy of Pyrrhus, he had himself led into the Senate-house to make the speech which turned the scale against the invader.

4 versibus persecutus est = has followed out in the lines. J. S. R.

7 viai (= viae old genit.) = i. quo viae, cf. ubi terrarum, or ii. sese flexere viae, a Greek genitive.

9-10 haec ille egit = he made this speech.

14-15 tantam . . . clientelas = a large household, a large number of dependents; clientelas = clientes.

16 intentum (in + tendo) = on the stretch. Cf. opposite remissus.

19-21 metuebant . . . disciplina = his slaves feared him, his children stood in awe of him, yet all held him dear; in him ancestral spirit and principles (disciplina) were strong.—J. S. Reid.

The Speech of Appius Claudius. For the substance of the Speech, see Plutarch, Pyrrhus, xi.

D₄₄

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (4)

A. The Battle of Asculum, 279 B.C.

In Apulia deinde apud Asculum melius dimicatum est Curio Fabricioque consulibus. Iam quippe terror* beluarum exoleverat, et Gaius Numicius quartae legionis hastatus unius proboscide abscisa mori posse beluas ostenderat. Itaque in ipsas pila congesta sunt 5 et in turres vibratae faces tota hostium agmina ardentibus ruinis operuerunt. Nec alius cladi finis fuit quam nox dirimeret, postremusque fugientium rex ipse a satellitibus umero saucius in armis suis referretur. 10

1 Asculum, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, between Beneventum and Canusium.

3 exoleverat = had grown less (lit. had grown out of use).

6 in turres vibratae faces = firebrands hurled against their towers.

8 dirimeret = separated (the combatants).

The Battle of Asculum. It is clear that Pyrrhus was again victorious, but the Romans were able to retire into their fortified camp, and so lost fewer men than at Heraclea.

B. The Battle near Beneventum, 275 B.C.

Lucaniae suprema pugna sub Arusinis, quos vocant, campis ducibus isdem quibus superius; sed tum tota victoria. Exitum, quem datura virtus fuit, casus dedit. Nam provectis in primam aciem rursus elephantis unum ex his pullum adacti in caput teli 15 gravis ictus avertit; qui cum per stragem suorum recurrens stridore quereretur, mater agnovit et quasi vindicaret exsiluit, tum omnia circa quasi hostilia gravi mole permiscuit. Ac sic eaedem ferae, quae primam victoriam abstulerunt, secundam parem 20 fecerunt, tertiam sine controversia tradiderunt.

Florus, I. xviii. 9-13.

11-12 Lucaniae . . . campis. The Battle was fought near Beneventum (orig. Male-ventum, perhaps from male + ventus on account of its unwholesome air) in Samnium on the Via Appia, E. of Capua.

15-16 unum ex his . . . avertit = the heavy stroke of a weapon driven home (adacti) into the head of a young elephant (pullum) made it turn aside.

19 gravi mole = with her unwieldy bulk.

The Battle of Beneventum. Pyrrhus, in his attempt to storm the entrenched camp of Curius Dentatus, was obliged to fight on unfavourable ground. The result was a total defeat, and no choice was left him but to give up the unequal contest.

D₄₅

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (5)

Death of Pyrrhus, 272 B.C.

In praise of a great General.

Repulsus ab Spartanis Pyrrhus Argos petit: ibi, dum Antigonum in urbe clausum expugnare conatur, inter confertissimos violentissime dimicans, saxo de muris ictus occiditur. Caput eius Antigono refertur, qui victoria mitius usus filium eius Helenum 5 cum Epirotis sibi deditum in regnum remisit, eique insepulti patris ossa in patriam referenda tradidit.

Satis constans inter omnes auctores fama est, nullum nec eius nec superioris aetatis regem comparandum Pyrrho fuisse, raroque non inter reges 10 tantum, verum etiam inter illustres viros, aut vitae sanctioris aut iustitiae probatioris visum fuisse: scientiam certe rei militaris in illo viro tantam fuisse, ut cum adversus Lysimachum, Demetrium, Antigonum, tantos reges, bella gesserit, invictus 15 semper fuerit: Illyriorum quoque, Siculorum Romanorumque et Carthaginiensium bellis numquam inferior, plerumque etiam victor exstiterit; qui patriam certe suam angustam ignobilemque fama rerum gestarum et claritate nominis sui toto orbe 20 illustrem reddiderit.

Justinus, xxv. 5.

1-4 Repulsus ab Spartanis . . . occiditur. At the invitation of Cleonymus, who had been excluded from the throne of Sparta, Pyrrhus undertook and failed in a desperate attack on the city. He then turned against Argos, to wrest it from Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, and was hit by a tile thrown from a roof by a woman.* As he lay helpless on the ground he was recognised and murdered.

8 Satis constans fama = a tolerably unanimous opinion.

12 iustitiae probatioris = of more eminent (lit. tested) justice.

14 Lysimachum, one of Alexander’s generals. About 286 B.C. King of Macedonia and Asia Minor.

Demetrium, surnamed Poliorcetes (stormer of cities), son of Antigonus, King of Asia (one of Alexander’s generals).

16-17 Siculorum bellis. During the years 280-276 B.C. Pyrrhus made himself master of all Sicily with the exception of the Carthaginian stronghold of Lilybaeum.

Character of Pyrrhus. ‘He was not only one of the ablest generals and princes, but amiable also as a man, and worthy of our sympathy and respect.’—Ihne.

Why he failed. ‘From lack of accurate information he wholly underestimated the power of Rome. Here was the great error in his calculation, an error for which he can hardly be held responsible.’—Ihne.

Reference. Plutarch, Pyrrhus.

D₄₆

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (6)

Manius Curius Dentatus, an old-time Roman.

A. Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta rerum rusticarum, sed ea ipsa quae dixi sentio fuisse longiora. Ignoscetis autem, nam et studio rerum rusticarum provectus sum, et senectus est natura loquacior, ne ab omnibus eam vitiis videar vindicare. 5 Ergo in hac vita M’. Curius, cum de Samnitibus, de Sabinis, de Pyrrho triumphavisset, consumpsit extremum tempus aetatis; cuius quidem ego villam contemplans, abest enim non longe a me, admirari satis non possum vel hominis ipsius continentiam 10 vel temporum disciplinam. Curio ad focum sedenti magnum auri pondus Samnites cum attulissent, repudiati sunt: non enim aurum habere praeclarum sibi videri dixit, sed eis qui haberent aurum imperare.

Cicero, De Senectute, §§ 55-56.

Context. The speaker is Cato the Censor, 184 B.C., the founder of Latin Prose, whose manual of Agriculture, de Re Rustica, is still extant.

1 Possum persequi = I might follow out.

oblectamenta = amusements (cf. de-lecto, delight).

4 provectus sum = I have been carried away.—J. S. Reid.

8 extremum tempus aetatis = the closing season of his life.

9 a me (= a mea villa) = from my country-house.

11 disciplinam = morals (lit. teaching).

11-13 After the close of the war Curius had become patronus of the Samnites, and they were bringing the customary offering of clientes.—J. S. R.

Juvenal, xi. 78-79.

78-79 Plutarch, Cato 2, tells the story. Curius was one of Milton’s

79 holuscula (dimin. of hŏlus) = small herbs or vegetables.

Horace, Odes, I. xii. 41-44.

41 Hunc = Fabricius.

42 paupertas = frugality, not poverty (= egestas).

43-44 apto cum lare = with its cottage home to match (apto).—W.

D₄₇

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (7)

In Praise of Tarentum.

Horace, Odes, II. vi. 9-end.

Subject. ‘Septimius, my dear friend who would accompany me to the ends of the earth, let me spend the close of my life at Tibur (Tivoli), or if not there, then at Tarentum. Let us go there together, and live there till I die.’—Wickham.

9 unde = from this place, i.e. from Tibur.

10 dulce pellitis ovibus = dear to the skin-clad (pellitis) sheep, so clad to keep their fleeces clean.—Gow.

10-11 Galaesi flumen, flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, near the city.

12 Phalantho, an exile from Sparta, founded Tarentum, 708 B.C.

13, 21, 22 Ille (13) . . . ille (21) . . . ibi (22) = Tarentum, emphatic guiding words. Cf. te mecum (21) . . . tu amici (22, 24) = Septimius and Horace.

14-15 ubi non . . . decedunt = where the honey does not give way to (is not inferior to) that of Hymettus.

15-16 viridi Venafro = with the green (olive-groves of) Venafrum (N. of Campania).

16 Baca = the olive, the noblest of berries.—Gow.

18 Aulon = (the grapes of) Aulon, a hill and valley near Tarentum.

19 Fertili = who makes the vines fertile.

22-24 ibi tu . . . vatis amici.

Reference. Polybius, x. 1. In 272 B.C. Milo with his garrison of Epirots marched out of Tarentum with all the honours of war.

Rome now ruled supreme over the whole of Italy from Ariminum in the North to the Sicilian Straits.

D₄₈

THE PRAISE OF ITALY.

‘Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum.’

Vergil, Georg. ii. 155-176.

158 mare quod supra alluit = the mare superum = the Adriatic.

mare quod infra alluit = the mare inferum = the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian (Τυρῥηνός = Tuscan) sea.

159 Lari = Lake Larius (= Como), N. of Milan.

160 Benace = Lake Benacus (= Garda), W. of Verona.

fremitu marino = with roar as of the sea.

168 adsuetum malo = trained in hardship.—Mackail.

Volscosque verutos = and the Volscian spearmen (light infantry). verutos = armed with the verutum (or veru = lit. a spit), a javelin.

170 Scipiadas, Greek patronymic form = Lat. Scīpĭōnēs.

maxime Caesar = Augustus.

171-172 After Actium, 31 B.C., Augustus spent more than a year in reducing and settling the East (imbellem Indum) whose forces had been wielded by Antony.—Sidgwick.

173 Saturnia tellus, in allusion to Saturn’s reign in Latium in the age of gold.

174-175 tibi res . . . fontes = for thee I enter on themes of ancient glory and skill (i.e. in agriculture) and dare to unseal (recludere) the sacred springs; res laudis, the theme of the Aeneid, res artis, of the Georgics.

176 Ascraeum carmen = the song of Ascra, i.e. the Georgics, because Hesiod (author of Works and Days to which Vergil is much indebted) was born at Ascra, near Helicon, in Boeotia.—S.

C₁

CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C.

The Vision of Anchises.—Rome’s Heroes.

Vergil, Aen. vi. 836-846, 855-859.

836 Ille = L. Mummius Achaicus, destroyed Corinth, 146 B.C.

838 Ille = L. Aemilius Paullus, crushed Perseus (= Aeaciden l. 839) at Pydna, 168 B.C.

841 Cosse = Cornelius Cossus, won Spolia Opima a second time, 428 B.C.

842 Gracchi genus, e.g. (i.) Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, twice Consul 215, 212 B.C., in 2nd Punic War; (ii.) T. S. G. distinguished in Spain; (iii.) the two great Tribunes, Tiberius and Gaius.

843 Scipiadas = (i.) Scipio Africanus Maior, victor at Zama, 202 B.C.; (ii.) Scipio Africanus Minor, destroyed Carthage, 146 B.C.

844 Fabricium, Consul 282 and 278 B.C. in war with Pyrrhus. Proof against bribes.

Serrane = Regulus, victor at Ecnomus, 256 B.C., a prisoner, 255 B.C. True to his word.

845 Maximus = Q. Fabius M. Cunctator, Dictator after Cannae. The Shield of Rome.

846 From the Annals of Ennius (239-169 B.C.), often quoted.

855 Marcellus, five times Consul. Took Syracuse 212 B.C. The Sword of Rome.

857 magno . . . tumultu = when a great upheaving shakes it.—Page.

Tumultus (as Cic. tells us) is specially used of a rising in Italy or in Gaul, as it was close to Italy. (Elsewhere = bellum.)

858 Sistet, . . . sternet. Notice the antithesis and alliteration (assonance).

The Vision of Anchises is the imperishable record of the national life, where the poet ‘sums up in lines like bars of gold the hero-roll of the Eternal City.’—Myers.

C₂

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

The Foundation of Carthage, 878 B.C.

Pygmalion, cognita sororis fuga, cum impio bello fugientem persequi pararet, aegre precibus matris deorumque minis victus quievit. . . . Itaque Elissa delata in Africae sinum incolas eius loci adventu peregrinorum mutuarumque rerum commercio 5 gaudentes in amicitiam sollicitat. Dein empto loco, qui corio bovis tegi posset, in quo fessos longa navigatione socios, quoad proficisceretur, reficere posset, corium in tenuissimas partes secari iubet atque ita maius loci spatium, quam petierat, occupat: unde 10 postea ei loco Byrsae nomen fuit. Confluentibus deinde vicinis locorum, qui spe lucri multa hospitibus venalia inferebant, sedesque ibi statuentibus ex frequentia hominum velut instar civitatis effectum. est. . . . Itaque consentientibus omnibus Carthago 15 conditur, statuto annuo vectigali pro solo urbis. In primis fundamentis caput bubulum inventum est, quod auspicium fructuosae quidem, sed laboriosae perpetuoque servae urbis fuit; propter quod in alium locum urbs translata. Ibi quoque equi caput repertum, 20 bellicosum potentemque populum futurum significans, urbi auspicatam sedem dedit. Tunc ad opinionem novae urbis concurrentibus gentibus brevi et populus et civitas magna facta.

Justinus, xviii. 5.

1 Pygmalion, King of Tyre, murdered Sychaeus, husband of Elissa (Dido).

4 sinum = Gulf of Tunis. (See Murray’s Classical Atlas.)

5 peregrinorum = of strangers. per + ager. Cf. pilgrim. Fr. pèlerin.

mutuarum rerum commercio = barter.

11 Byrsae, i.e., later, the Citadel quarter, as if from βύρσα = a hide, prob. corrupted from Phoen. Bozra (= a fort). So Carthage = Kirjath (city); cp. Kirjath-Arba (Hebron), and Hannibal (= Hanniel) = the grace of Baal.

14 velut instar c. = as if the semblance of a state; cf. ‘instar montis equus,’ Verg.—Post.

17 bubulum = of an ox, adj. from bos.

22 auspicatam = auspicious, in active sense.

Parallel Passages. Verg. Aen. i. 336-368, 418-438, and Aen. iv. 21-22.

References. Bosworth Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians.—Ihne, Hist. of Rome, vol. ii. pp. 3-21.

C₃

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

Aeneas views the Building of Carthage, circ. 878 B.C.

Vergil, Aen. i. 419-438.

419 plurimus = in huge mass, with the predicate imminet.

421 magalia = huts, a Carthaginian (Phoenician) word. Cf. μέγαρον.

422 strata viarum = stratas vias = the paved roads.—Sidgwick.

423, 424, 425 ducere . . . moliri . . . subvolvere . . . optare . . . concludere, dependent on the idea of eagerness or striving in instant.—S.

426 Vergil is thinking, as often, of Roman institutions, and not of what was appropriate to heroic times. Cf. Aen. i. 507-8.

430-436 This simile is a reproduction of Georg. iv. 162-169. Cf. Milton, Par. Lost, i. 768:

432 līquentia = liquid, from līquor, dep. Elsewhere Vergil uses lĭquens from lĭqueo.

433 Stipant = pack, the notion of pushing and tightness being given in the very sound of the heavy overhanging spondees in this line.—S.

435 Ignavum . . . arcent = drive the drones, a slothful herd, from the enclosure. Notice the order.—Page.

437 ‘The want of a city is the key-note of the Aeneid.’—Conington.

C₄

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

A Roman Martyr. Country before Expediency.

M. Atilius Regulus, cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus esset duce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisi redditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem. Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis 5 speciem videbat, sed eam, ut res declarat, falsam iudicavit: quae erat talis: manere in patria, esse domui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello, communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis 10 gradum. . . . Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit, sententiam ne diceret recusavit: quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur, non esse se senatorem. . . . Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas, captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem 15 rediit neque eum caritas patriae retinuit nec suorum, . . . ‘At stulte, qui non modo non censuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit.’ Quo modo stulte? etiamne, si reipublicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutile reipublicae sit, id cuiquam 20 civi utile esse?

Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 99, 100.

1 consul. Regulus was Consul 261 and 256 B.C., and Proconsul in Africa 255 B.C., when he was defeated and taken prisoner by Xanthippus.

6 speciem = the specious (plausible) appearance (semblance).

12, 13 sententiam . . . recusavit = declined to give his own opinion on the case.

13 iure iurando (sc. dato) = by the oath sworn to his enemies.

17 ‘At stulte’ (sc. fecit) = ‘But, it may he said, he acted like a fool.’

19 etiamne (sc. stulte fecit) = What, how did he act like a fool, if . . .—Holden.

20, 21 potest autem . . . utile esse. Cf. Ὅ τῇ πόλει οὐκ ἔστι βλαβερὸν οὐδὲ τὸν πολίτην βλάπτει = that which is not harmful (βλαβερόν = inutile) to the State is not harmful to the citizen.

Parallel Passages. Polybius, i. 31-36 (he makes no mention of the embassy of Regulus); Pliny, Ep. vii. 2 (interesting letter on the death of Regulus); and espec. Hor. Od. III. v. 13-end.

C₅

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

A. First Roman Naval Victory near Mylae, 260 B.C.

C. Duilius, primo Punico bello a Romanis dux contra Carthaginienses missus, cum videret eos multum mari valere, classem magis validam quam decoram aedificavit, et manus ferreas, quas corvos vocabant, instituit. His, quas ante pugnam hostes 5 valde deriserant, in pugna ipsa ad Liparas insulas commissa naves hostium comprehendit, easque partim cepit, partim demersit. Dux classis Punicae Carthaginem fugit, et ex senatu quaesivit quid faceret. Omnibus ut pugnaret succlamantibus: 10 ‘Feci,’ inquit, ‘et victus sum.’ Sic poenam crucis effugit, nam hac poena dux, re male gesta, apud Poenos afficiebatur. Duilius autem victor primum triumphum maritimum Romae egit, et ad memoriam victoriae columna rostrata in foro posita est. 15

(Adapted) Cf. Florus, I. xviii. 7-10.

4 corvos = crows (the κόρακες of Polybius), boarding-bridges. A broad movable ladder, fastened to the foremast, and held in position by a rope. When the rope was let go, the iron hook at the upper end of the ladder penetrated the deck of an enemy’s ship.

6 ad Liparas insulas = Aeoliae Insulae (Lipari Islands), N.E. of Sicily. Mylae was on a promontory S.E. of these Islands.

8 Dux, i.e. Hannibal, the defender of Agrigentum 262 B.C.

B. Unique honour conferred on Duilius.

C. Duilium, qui Poenos classe primus devicerat, redeuntem a cena senem saepe videbam puer; delectabatur cereo funali et tibicine, quae sibi nullo exemplo privatus sumpserat: tantum licentiae dabat gloria.

Cicero, De Senectute, xiii. § 44.

18 cereo funali,* i.e. torchlight.

nullo exemplo = without any precedent.

18-19 sibi . . . sumpserat. Cicero is wrong: more probably the honour was conferred on Duilius by a vote of the Comitia Tributa.

19 dabat = excused; lit. granted, allowed.— J. S. Reid.

References. Polybius, i. 22, for a description of the corvi, κόρακες. Sir Andrew Barton (Percy’s Reliques). Lord Howard says:—

C₆

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

Carthaginian Victory off Drepana, 249 B.C. Rashness of Claudius.

Praedictiones vero et praesensiones rerum futurarum quid aliud declarant nisi hominibus ea ostendi, monstrari, portendi, praedici? Ex quo illa ostenta, monstra, portenta, prodigia dicuntur. Quod si ea ficta credimus licentia fabularum, Mopsum, Tiresiam, 5 Amphiaraum, Calchantem, Helenum, quos tamen augures ne ipsae quidem fabulae adscivissent, si res omnino repudiaret, ne domesticis quidem exemplis docti numen deorum conprobabimus? Nihil nos P. Claudi bello Punico primo temeritas movebit, qui 10 etiam per iocum deos irridens, cum cavea literati pulli non pascerentur, mergi eos in aquam iussit, ut biberent, quoniam esse nollent? Qui risus, classe devicta, multas ipsi lacrimas, magnam populo Romano cladem attulit. Quid? Collega eius Iunius 15 eodem bello nonne tempestate classem amisit, cum auspiciis non paruisset? Itaque Claudius a populo condemnatus est, Iunius necem sibi ipse conscivit.

Cicero, De Nat. Deorum, II. 3. 7-8.

3 ostenta . . . dicuntur = are called in Latin ‘ostenta,’ ‘monstra,’ etc.—Walford.

4 prodigium for prodicium = pro + √dic- δεικ- = point out.

5 Mopsum, etc. = all those stories about Mopsus, etc., in apposition to ea: poetical construction.

Mopsum, the prophet who accompanied the Argonauts.

Tiresiam, the blind prophet of Thebes.

6 Amphiaraum, the seer of Argos. One of the Seven against Thebes.

Helenus, son of Priam. A seer of the Iliad and the Aeneid.

10 P. Claudi temeritas. P. Cl. Pulcher (son of Appius Claudius, the blind Censor) defeated by Adherbal off Drepana (N.W. corner of Sicily, between Eryx and Lilybaeum).

15 Iunius. L. J. Pullus, consul 249 B.C. His fleet was destroyed by a storm off Pachynus (C. Passaro) the same year.

Parallel Passage. Florus ii. 2 says that ‘Claudius was overthrown, not by the enemy, but by the gods themselves, whose auspices he had despised.’

The Defeat off Drepana. ‘The reason of the defeat lay in the superiority of the Carthaginian admiral and seamen, and the inexperience of Claudius and of his crews, consisting mainly of landsmen who knew nothing of the sea. This disaster and the destruction of the fleet of Junius crowned the series of misfortunes which befell the Romans in the year 249 B.C., the most dismal time of the whole war.’—Ihne.

C₇

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae, 241 B.C. Peace with Carthage.

A. Interim Carthaginienses classe apud insulas Aegates a C. Lutatio, consule Romanorum, superati statuerunt belli facere finem, eamque rem arbitrio permiserunt Hamilcaris. Ille, etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, quod 5 patriam, exhaustam sumptibus, diutius calamitates belli ferre non posse intellegebat, sed ita, ut statim mente agitaret, si paulum modo res essent refectae, bellum renovare Romanosque armis persequi, donicum aut virtute vicissent aut victi manus dedissent. 10

Corn. Nepos, Hamilcar, i.

1 apud insulas Aegates, the Goat Islands, off the W. Coast of Sicily, between Drepana and Lilybaeum (Marsala).

3 statuerunt belli facere finem. This victory led to the close of the First Punic War.

5 paci serviendum = to devote himself to (obtaining) peace.

9 donicum (= donec), lit. ‘at the time of day when ——’

10 virtute vicissent = they (the Romans) should have conquered by (superior) prowess.

Silius Italicus, vi. 653-657, 684-688.

653-654 stagnosi Literni. Town and River on the coast of Campania, N. of Cumae. The River flows through a marsh = Literna palus.

654 ductor = Hannibal.

654-657 Silius (who closely imitates Vergil) makes Hannibal view the sculptured memorials of the First Punic War, just as Aeneas sees carved the tale of Troy. Verg. Aen. i. 445-493.

Parallel Passage. Polybius, i. caps. 59-63.

Terms of Peace. Carthage engaged to evacuate Sicily; not to make war upon Hiero of Syracuse; to give up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and to pay 2200 talents in twenty years.

Sicily the first Roman Province.

C₈

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. Great Importance of the Second Punic War.

In parte operis mei licet mihi praefari bellum maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sint, me scripturum, quod Hannibale duce Carthaginienses cum populo Romano gessere. Nam neque validiores opibus ullae inter se civitates gentesque contulerunt 5 arma, neque his ipsis tantum unquam virium aut roboris fuit, et haud ignotas belli artes inter sese, sed expertas primo Punico conferebant bello, et adeo varia fortuna belli ancepsque Mars fuit, ut propius periculum fuerint, qui vicerunt. Odiis etiam prope 10 maioribus certarunt quam viribus, Romanis indignantibus quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, Poenis, quod superbe avareque crederent imperitatum victis esse.

3 Hannibale duce. Polybius called the war of which Hannibal was the life and soul the ‘Hannibalian War.’

6 his ipsis, sc. Romanis Poenisque, with validiores.

6-7 virium aut roboris = offensive or defensive strength.—R.

8 expertas = tested, in a passive sense.

9 ut propius . . . vicerunt, e.g. after Cannae, 216 B.C.

12 ultro inferrent arma = should presume to attack.—Dimsdale.

13 Poenis, sc. indignantibus.

superbe avareque. ‘When the war of the mercenaries broke out in Africa (241-238 B.C.) Rome availed herself of the distress of Carthage to extort the cession of Sardinia, and raised the war indemnity by 1200 talents.’—Ihne.

B. The Oath of the Boy Hannibal.

Fama est etiam, Hannibalem annorum ferme 15 novem, pueriliter blandientem patri Hamilcari, ut duceretur in Hispaniam, cum, perfecto Africo bello, exercitum eo traiecturus sacrificaret, altaribus admotum, tactis sacris, iure iurando adactum, se, cum primum posset, hostem fore populo Romano. 20

Livy, xxi. 1.

16 blandientem = coaxingly entreating.—D.

17 perfecto Africo bello, i.e. between Carthage and her mutinous mercenaries, 241-237 B.C.

Parallel Passage. For Hannibal’s Oath, Livy xxxv. 19.

Importance of the War. ‘It was a struggle for existence, for supremacy or destruction. It was to decide whether the Graeco-Roman civilisation of the West or the Semitic (Carthaginian) civilisation of the East was to be established in Europe, and to determine its history for all future time.’—Ihne.

C₉

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

‘The paths of glory lead but to the grave.’

Juvenal, Sat. x. 147-167.

147-148 Expende . . . invenies = if you lay (lit. ‘weigh’) Hannibal in the scale, how many pounds will you find in the greatest of commanders?—Duff. Cf. Ov. Met. xii. 615:

156 media Subura, i.e. in the heart of Rome. The Subura was one of the busiest and most populous quarters of Rome.

157 O qualis facies . . . tabella = what a sight and how fit for caricature! lit. ‘worthy of what a picture’ i.e. how ridiculous a picture it would have made.—Hardy.

158 luscum = one-eyed. Hannibal lost an eye from disease, while marching through the country flooded by the Arno, 217 B.C.

160 in exilium, i.e. first to Antiochus of Syria, and then to Prusias of Bithynia.

166 anulus. Hannibal took poison which he carried about in a ring (anulus) 183 B.C., aged 76.

167 ut . . . fias = to suit the taste of schoolboys, and become the subject of their speeches.—Duff.

For the thought, cf. Shak. Ham. V. i. 232:

C₁₀

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Character of Hannibal.

Nunquam ingenium idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit. Itaque haud facile discerneres, utrum imperatori an exercitui carior esset; neque Hasdrubal alium quemquam praeficere malle, ubi quid fortiter ac strenue agendum 5 esset, neque milites alio duce plus confidere aut audere. Plurimum audaciae ad pericula capessenda, plurimum consilii inter ipsa pericula erat. Nullo labore aut corpus fatigari aut animus vinci poterat. Caloris ac frigoris patientia par; cibi potionisque 10 desiderio naturali, non voluptate modus finitus; vigiliarum somnique nec die nec nocte discriminata tempora: id, quod gerendis rebus superesset, quieti datum; ea neque molli strato neque silentio accersita; multi saepe militari sagulo opertum humi iacentem 15 inter custodias stationesque militum conspexerunt. Vestitus nihil inter aequales excellens; arma atque equi conspiciebantur. Equitum peditumque idem longe primus erat; princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio excedebat. Has tantas viri virtutes 20 ingentia vitia aequabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica, nihil veri, nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum ius iurandum, nulla religio.

Livy, xxi. 4.

2 habilius = better adapted, lit. ‘more easily handled’; cf. our handy.

7 ad pericula capessenda = in incurring peril.

12 discriminata = regulated, lit. ‘divided off’; cf. dis-cerno, dis-crimen.

14 accersita (= arcessita) = wooed.

15 sagulo = in his military cloak: diminutive of sagum.

21 inhumana crudelitas. Polybius says that many of his alleged cruelties were to be set down to his namesake H. Monomachus.

21-23 perfidia plus quam Punica. ‘This does not seem to have been anything worse than a consummate adroitness in laying traps for his enemies.’—Church and Brodribb. Cf. ‘Perfidious Albion.’

23 nulla religio = no scruples, i.e. no force binding (re + ligare) or restraining from wrong-doing, no conscience.

Parallel Passages. Livy xxvi. 41 of Scipio Africanus Minor—Sallust Cat. 5 of Catiline—Polybius ix. 22-26 (important).

‘Bitterly as the Romans hated, reviled, and persecuted Carthage, the most deadly poison of their hatred they poured upon Hannibal; they did not hesitate to blacken his memory by the most revolting accusations.’—Ihne.

C₁₁

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Siege of Saguntum, 219 B.C.

Angulus muri erat in planiorem patentioremque quam cetera circa vallem vergens; adversus eum vineas agere instituit, per quas aries moenibus admoveri posset. Sed ut locus procul muro satis aequus agendis vineis fuit, ita haudquaquam prospere, 5 postquam ad effectum operis ventum est, coeptis succedebat. Et turris ingens imminebat, et murus, ut in suspecto loco, supra ceterae modum altitudinis emunitus erat, et iuventus delecta, ubi plurimum periculi ac timoris ostendebatur, ibi vi maiore obsistebant. 10 Ac primo missilibus summovere hostem nec quicquam satis tutum munientibus pati; deinde iam non pro moenibus modo atque turri tela micare, sed ad erumpendum etiam in stationes operaque hostium animus erat; quibus tumultuariis certaminibus 15 haud ferme plures Saguntini cadebant quam Poeni. Ut vero Hannibal ipse, dum murum incautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit, tanta circa fuga ac trepidatio fuit, ut non multum abesset, quin opera ac vineae desererentur. 20

Livy, xxi. 7.

2 quam cetera (sc. loca) circa = than the neighbouring country.

4-5 ut . . . ita = lit. as . . . so, i.e. although . . . yet . . .

6 postquam . . . ventum est = when they came to attack the wall in earnest. Effectum (verbal noun in us) = the completion of the work, i.e. the bringing up of the ram.—Dimsdale.

8 ut in suspecto loco = as (was natural) in a suspected (i.e. weak) spot.—Capes.

11-12 nec quicquam . . . pati = they allowed those engaged on the works no sort of safety, lit. not (even) moderate safety.—D.

18 adversum femur = in the front of the thigh.

SAGUNTUM (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about 20 miles S. of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greek colonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B.C. Rome made an alliance with Saguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked the city ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies of Carthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city in his rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months’ siege and a heroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm 219 B.C.

Lucan, Phars. iii. 349-50.

Cf. also Juv. Sat. xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A.D.

C₁₂

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. The Dream of Hannibal.

Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnis a Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse ut Italiae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illum utentem cum exercitu progredi 5 coepisse; tum ei ducem illum praecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisse elatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem, circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta, virgulta, tecta 10 pervertere.

Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 24, 49.

1 Coelius, i.e. L. Coelius Antipater (a contemporary of C. Gracchus 123 B.C.), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his narrative.

7 id . . . non potuisse. Cf. Livy ‘temperare oculis nequivisse = he could not restrain his eyes.’

8 cupiditate = from curiosity. Cf. Livy ‘cura ingeni humani = with the natural curiosity of the human mind.’

8-11 visam belluam . . . pervertere = he thought he saw a monster overthrowing.

B. The Interpretation—Vastitatem esse Italiae.

Silius Italicus, iii. 198-213.

202 hiatu = with its wide-open mouth.

203 Cyllenes, i.e. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is said to have been born: hence styled Cyllenius.

209 tergore = tergo. poet. and post-Augustian.

Parallel Passage. Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii. 47.

C₁₃

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

From the Pyrenees to the Rhone. Passage of the Elephants.

Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variat memoria actae rei. . . . Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esse elephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terra in amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne 5 secunda aqua deferretur, pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humo iniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur. Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta, 10 huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viam praegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressi sunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis ab actuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita 15 primis expositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant, donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta ab ceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibus extremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum 20 edebant, donec quietem ipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientes quidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribus quaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. 25

Livy, xxi. 28.

2 variat . . . rei = the accounts of what was done differ.—Dimsdale.

7 parte superiore . . . pontis = fastened to the upper part of the bank, i.e. to the bank at a point higher up stream.—D.

9 per solum = on firm ground.

14 ab actuariis = by some light craft, lit. ‘Easily moved’ (ago).

17-18 donec . . . agerentur = So long as they were being driven on what seemed a bridge connected with the land.—C. and B. Agebantur would be more usual, but agerentur may give the reason of nihil trepidabant. Cf. donec—fecisset ll. 21-22.

19 in altum = into mid stream, usu. of the Sea.—D.

inter se = one on another, alii alios.

24 quaerendis pedetemptim vadis = feeling their way into shallow water. pedetemptim = step by step, lit. ‘stretching out the feet’ (pes + tendo). Cf. paulatim, sensim.

Reference. Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought that elephants could not swim.

C₁₄

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

From the Rhone to Italy. Hannibal encourages his Soldiers.

Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atque Italiam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigando adhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terror invaserit. . . . Alpes quidem habitari, coli, 5 gignere atque alere animantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant, legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidem eorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibus saepe agminibus cum 10 liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tuto transmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belli portanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur, quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! 15 Romam, caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduum videri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiri posse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute genti per eos dies totiens ab se victae, 20 aut itineris finem sperent campum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis.

Livy, xxi. 30.

2-3 varie . . . versat = works on their minds by different methods, i.e. castigando adhortandoque.—Dimsdale.

4-5 repens terror. Livy says that H.’s soldiers dreaded the Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps.

7 Eos ipsos legatos, i.e. of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan).

9 advenas Italiae cultores = foreign settlers in Italy. advenas = adj. here.—D.

11 migrantium modo = as immigrants.

16 Romam caput orbis. A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was not yet mistress even of all Italy (e.g. the Boii not subdued until 191 B.C.).

18 Cepisse Gallos. The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B.C.

20 genti . . . victae, e.g. at the Passage of the Rhone.

21 campum, i.e. the Campus Martius, N.W. of Rome, where the Tiber makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. p. 116, ll. 7, 8.

The Speeches of Livy. ‘He does not intend in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of the time in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character and motive.’—Mackail.

C₁₅

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

From the Rhone to Italy. The Descent of the Alps.

Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum mille admodum altitudinem abruptus erat. . . . Tandem nequiquam iumentis atque hominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum loco purgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque 5 egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupem muniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendum esset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struem ingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni 10 coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso aceto putrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntque anfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiam deduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum 15 iumentis prope fame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habent rivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta in pabulum missa, et quies 20 muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo inde ad planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis.

Livy, xxi. 36, 37.

Context. At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. the Little St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in the road, caused by a landslip or avalanche.

2-3 in pedum . . . abruptus erat. Polybius says that the precipice at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for about 1000 ft. in length. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000 ft. in depth.

3-4 Tandem . . . fatigatis, i.e. after H.’s attempt to pass by a side-way over a glacier failed.

4 in iugo, i.e. on the higher level where the road was broken away.

6 ad rupem muniendam = to cut a way through the rock. Munire (cf. moenia) = lit. ‘to wall,’ ‘to build.’ So munire viam = to make a road. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a sort of terrace.

9 detruncatis = trimmed, (lit. ‘lopped off’), i.e. cleared of branches.

11-12 infuso aceto. Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar, which the posca, the soldiers’ regular drink of vinegar and water, would supply. Polybius does not mention this.

13-14 molliuntque . . . clivos = relieve the steepness of the descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths. Anfractus, from ambi + frango.

References. Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179.

C₁₆

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B.C.

Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consulis castra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos in insidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Semproni credulitatem adequitare vallo eius 5 iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut ad primum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul et adortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitu fluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem 10 opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuit partibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet.

Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 5. 23.

1 ad Trebiam, a small tributary S. of the Padus, which it joins 2 miles W. of Placentia (Piacenza).

2 castra. Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily, effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified camp on the W. or left bank of the Trebia.

8-9 ieiunum . . . rigefecit, i.e. Sempronius made stiff (rigefecit) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men faint with hunger (ieiunum).

11 oleoque, i.e. ut mollirent artus = to make their limbs supple.

12-13 nec defuit . . . caederet. The Romans kept their ground with the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked them in rear.

B. The River bars the Retreat.

Silius Italicus, iv. 570-580.

574 precibus . . . undas. The poet, in his imitation of Vergil, makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal.

576 soli frustrata = prevented from reaching firm ground.

577 lento = sticky.

579 resoluta = crumbling.

References. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191.

C₁₇

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C. (1)

Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexplorato postero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam in patentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod ex adverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super 5 caput haud* detectae insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus et circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simul invadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magis Romanis subita atque improvisa 10 res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula campo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribus collibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariter decucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret, se circumventum 15 esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnari coeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringique gladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut† in re trepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos 20 clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adire audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. 25

Livy, xxii. 4, 5.

1 Flaminius (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome. Consul 223 B.C., conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B.C. Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (a second time) 217 B.C., defeated and killed at Trasimene.

2 inexplorato = without reconnoitring. ‘This word expresses the whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great.’—Dimsdale.

4 pandi (= se pandere) = to deploy.

13 ipsa . . . conspecta = were sufficiently visible to each other.

15 prius quam satis cerneret = before he could clearly distinguish anything.—D.

19 ut in re trepida = considering the confusion of the moment.—D.

The Scene of the Battle. At the N.W. end of the Lake the mountains of Cortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. the pass expands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from ½ to 1½ miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. end of the plain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibal encamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troops behind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N., and his cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. to cut off the Roman retreat.

C₁₈

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C. (2)

Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipi poterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locum noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus, opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis 5 quam tecti. Et erat in tanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorum ictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos strepentium* paventiumque clamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globo illati 10 haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientium agmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ab lateribus montes ac lacus, a fronte et ab tergo hostium acies claudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis 15 spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam et nova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principes hastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa alia pugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus 20 cuique ante aut post pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeo intentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiae magnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. 25

Livy, xxii. 5.

4 ad arma capienda aptandaque = to seize and put on for the battle their arms.—Dimsdale.

5 onerati: i.e. most were cut down in their full marching equipment.

8-9 mixtos . . . clamores = the mingled shouts of noisy triumph (strepentium) or dismay.

10 pugnantium . . . haerebant = rushed upon a knot (globo) of combatants, and became entangled with it.—Jebb.

14 a fronte, i.e. by Hannibal’s African and Spanish infantry.

ab tergo, i.e. by Hannibal’s cavalry and the Gauls.

18-19 non illa . . . triarios = not in that well-known (illa) mode of fighting (sc. pugna) arranged according to. . . . Livy refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by Camillus) of i. hastati, of young men, ii. principes, of men at their prime, iii. triarii, of middle-aged men.

References: Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, Hist. vol, i. pp. 204-10.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C. (3) The Death of Flaminius.

Silius Italicus, v. 644-666.

644 Dum . . . hostes, i.e. after Flaminius’ vain attempt to rally and form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault (inexplorato* angustiis superatis) with his life.

645 Ducarius—Livy, ‘an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper.’

651 mānet = will flow. Cf. emanate.

652 populares = fellow-countrymen, but of Romans usu. civis.

658-666 Livy says more simply ‘He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.’

660 laeva = unfavourable, lit. ‘on the left side.’ Cf. sinister.

Parallel Passages.—Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. iii. 84.

Character of Flaminius. ‘The party feelings which have so coloured the language of the ancient writers (e.g. Livy, Polybius) respecting him need not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed an unequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul and as Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile of Trasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourable grave.’ Arnold, Hist. Rome, iii. 110.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator.

Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi, ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, nec senectus mores mutaverat. . . . Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cum plane grandis esset, et Hannibalem 5 iuveniliter exsultantem patientia sua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:

Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp. Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit, restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatem dividenti. . . . Multa in eo viro praeclara 15 cognovi, sed nihil admirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri et consularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophum non contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civium magnus, sed intus 20 domique praestantior.

Cicero, De Senectute, §§ 10-12.

1 Ego, i.e. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B.C.

eum qui Tarentum recepit. Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212 B.C. and recovered by Fabius 209 B.C.

2-3 Erat . . . gravitas = that hero possessed dignity tempered by courtesy.—J. S. R. condita (condio) = lit. seasoned.

5 grandis, sc. natu. He was consul for a first time in 233 B.C.

6 iuveniliter. Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps.

exsultantem = wildly roaming, of a horse galloping at will.

7 noster Ennius, circ. 239-169 B.C., famous espec. for his Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use this metre.

9 Noenum (ne + oinum = not one thing) = non. Cf. nihil = ne + hilum = not a whit, nothing.

12-14 Flaminius, when tribune 232 B.C., by a vote of the Comitia Tributa (i.e. by a plebiscitum) and against the expressed wish of the Senate (contra senatus auctoritatem) carried an agrarian law for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens.

18 laudatio, sc. funebris, the funeral speech.

19-20 in luce . . . civium = in public and under the gaze of his fellow-countrymen.—J. S. R.

References. Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch, Fabius, vi.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B.C.

Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditum esset, Minucius convocatis militibus ‘Saepe ego’ inquit ‘audivi, milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit, secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui 5 nec ipse consulere nec alteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animi ingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperare discimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabio iungamus; ad praetorium 10 eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eum parentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignum est, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt, patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis 15 animorum gloriam dies hic dederit.’ Signo dato conclamatur inde, ut colligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra in admirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. 20

Livy, xxii. 29, 30.

Context. Fabius’ policy of ‘masterly inactivity’ had become so unpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided between Fabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from a destruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid of Fabius. Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness.

4 consulat = can give counsel—so consulere l. 6.

6-7 extremi ingenii = has the meanest capacity. gen. of quality.

7-8 prima . . . sors est = the highest rank in the scale of spirit and intellect.—Dimsdale.

14 patronos = as the authors of your freedom. Patronus = legal title used by a freed slave (libertus) of his former master. The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as liberti, owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their patroni.

17 ut colligantur vasa, i.e. impedimenta. Cf. signa movere.

Fabius Cunctator. ‘Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it to war, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully and persistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that any general could at that time render to the State. It was probably at this time that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (corona graminea), the highest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved a besieged town.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 218 B.C. (1)

The Destruction of the Roman Infantry.

Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo et viribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandem Romani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulere hostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum 5 validum a cetera prominentem acie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenore uno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati, postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimque reductis 10 alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant, aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontem primum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornua fecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere 15 alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani, defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum terga ceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam, quod inclusi adversus 20 circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cum recentibus ac vegetis pugnabant.

Livy, xxii. 47.

1 Sub . . . certaminis, i.e. at the close of (sub) the first stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated.

2-3 constabant . . . Hispanisque. These formed Hannibal’s centre, the convex of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left, but at some distance behind.

4 obliqua fronte, perh. = concave, so as to surround the projecting part of the enemy’s line (a cetera prominentem acie).

5 cuneum: here = the convex formation of the Gauls and Spaniards.

8-9 in mediam aciem = the centre of the line, i.e. of the Gauls and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first.

10 subsidia = reserves, i.e. the Africans, on the right and left.

14-16 Afri circa . . . alas. Hannibal’s formation is now reversed.* The horns (cornua) of the semicircle (the Africans) are now advanced, and outflanked (circumdedere alas) the Romans, who rushed heedlessly into the intervening space (in medium, i.e. the concave part of H.’s line formed by the retirement of the Gauls and Spaniards).

21-22 recentibus ac vegetis = fresh in body and mind.

Results of the Battle. Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, and the Romans lose (including 23,000 taken prisoners) about 70,000 men.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (2)

‘Paulus animae magnae prodigus.’

Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidisset, ‘L. Aemili’ inquit, ‘quem unum insontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum, dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, 5 et comes ego te tollere possum ac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sine hoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est.’ Ad ea consul: ‘Tu quidem, Cn. Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e 10 manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus, urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiis firment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem et vixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac 15 strage militum meorum patere exspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegae existam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam.’ Haec eos agentes prius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulem ignorantes, 20 quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultum arripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt.

Livy, xxii. 49.

1 praetervehens equo = riding by. praetervehor used here as a deponent.—Dimsdale.

2 oppletum (= perfusum) = covered (lit. filled up), or drenched.

4 respicere = to look on with favour.—D.

9 macte virtute esto = lit. go on and prosper in your courage.

mactus = i. magis + auctus = increased, glorified, or more prob. ii. = old partic. of obsolete mago (= augeo), from √μακ, e.g. in μάκ-αρ. Vocative used as nominative.

14 praeceptorum. His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics of Fabius were again adopted after his death.

15 et vixisse adhuc et mori = died as he had ever lived.—D.

17 reus iterum e consulatu = a second time to stand on my defence in consequence of my consulship, i.e. on a charge that grew out of his acts as Consul (219 B.C.) with M. Livius Salinator of misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War.

18-19 ut . . . protegam. The two Consuls had the chief command of the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae.

‘The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but the Romans would have given up the idea of further resistance.’—Ihne.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (3)

A. Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome.

Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, ut tanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentis quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbal praefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, ‘Immo 5 ut, quid hac pugna sit actum, scias, die quinto’ inquit ‘victor in Capitolio epulaberis. Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam.’ Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capere animo posset. Itaque voluntatem 10 se laudare Maharbalis ait; ad consilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: ‘Non omnia nimirum eidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.’ Mora eius diei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. 15

Livy, xxii. 51.

2-4 diei . . . sumeret = he should take what remained of that day and the following night for rest.—Church and Brodribb.

8 venisse, sc. te, suggested by sequere.—Dimsdale.

9 res = the idea, i.e. of such a rapid termination to the war.—D.

Hannibal was too far off (11 days’ march) to take Rome by storm. Its population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was strongly fortified by its situation and by art.

B. Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy.

Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magna reliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium, P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo talia agitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se 20 sua interfecturum, nisi qui iurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse se primus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximis minatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplo coegit ad iurandum. 25

Frontinus, Strat. iv. 7. 39.

18 P. Scipio adulescens, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior, fatalis dux huiusce belli, the predestined champion in this war.

Parallel Passage. Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, where Camillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. Rome’s Heroes.

Horace, Odes, I. xii. 37-48.

37 Scauros* (= Scaurum) = such men as Scaurus. Censor, 100 B.C.

40 Fabricium, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B.C. See p. 101, Fabricius the Just.

43-44 apto cum lare = with homestead to match.—Gow.

B. The Dream of Propertius.

Propertius, III. (IV.) iii. (ii.) 1-12.

Subject:—Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with his lips (l. 5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow the example of Ennius.

2 i.e. the Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties.

4 nervis . . . meis = that I had strength to gasp forth.—Ramsay.

7 Curios = Curiatios.

Horatia pila: see pp. 67-68.

8 Aemilia, i.e. of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B.C. over Perseus of Macedon.

10 versos . . . deos, i.e. the solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius, Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods turned a ready ear (versos).

12 fuisse, dependent on cecini l. 7.

Iovem, i.e. Iovis Capitolini templum. See p. 84.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C. (1)

A. Capua aspires to rival Rome.

Horace, Epod. xvi. 1-10.

5 Aemula virtus Capuae. In 216 B.C. Capua was, after Rome, the richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she aspired to dominion over Italy.

Spartacus acer, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B.C.

6 novis rebus infidelis = faithless to revolution, because they assisted in betraying Catiline’s plot 63 B.C.—Wickham.

9 impia . . . aetas = we an impious generation whose blood is foredoomed (i.e. there is a curse on us) shall destroy (Rome).

B. Decius Magius defies Hannibal.

Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendique Decium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cum manente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectae catenae, ducique ante lictorem 15 in castra est iussus. Quoad capite aperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undique multitudinem vociferans: ‘Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis: foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundus vinctus ad mortem 20 rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Ite obviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, ut hunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis.’

Livy, xxiii. 10.

Context. After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entry into the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magius and his son, poured out to meet him.

11 in templo magistratuum = on the magistrates’ bench, (or tribunal).

12 Decium Magium, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome.

14-15 negaret . . . posse = urged that by the terms of the treaty (i.e. between the Capuans and H.) this could not be insisted on.—Church and Brodribb.

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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C. (2)

A. ‘Capua,’ it is said, ‘became Hannibal’s Cannae.’

Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma Campaniam Tarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeo ut vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictum Alpibus, indomitum armis Campani—quis 5 crederet?—soles et tepentes fontibus Baiae subegerunt.

Florus, II. vi. 21-22.

2 Campaniam Tarentumque, once the two most fertile districts in Italy.

4 Capuam . . . fuisse. Ihne says: ‘Whatever may have been the pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal’s troops in Capua, their military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent history of the war sufficiently demonstrates.’

7-8 tepentes fontibus Baiae, on a small bay west of Naples and opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs.

B. The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B.C.

Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobiles Campani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes in custodias 10 dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civium Campanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit, quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam. Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem 15 omni fertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servata est, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudo incolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omnis et tecta publica populi Romani facta. 20

Livy, xxvi. 16.

10 sociorum Latini nominis = sociorum ac Latini nominis, which includes all the Italian allies. ‘The Nomen Latinum were the members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338 B.C. after the Latin War.’—Rawlins.