3 Historical Life: 1775-1860 (continued 2)

In 1816, an American Colonization Society was formed which was granted permission by the Congress of the United States to send emancipated volunteer Negro slaves to Liberia, Africa where they could organize an independent country of their own. The Virginia legislature heartily supported this project. Bushrod Washington, a nephew of George Washington, served as one of the presidents of this national colonization society. John Marshall was the first president of the state branch at Richmond. The capital of Liberia, an independent republic since 1847, is Monrovia, named in honor of James Monroe, who personally urged the establishment of this independent country for Negroes.

On March 4, 1825, the "Virginia Dynasty" ended, and President Monroe returned to his home state, Virginia, where he remained until the death of his wife. Virginia had earned the title of "Mother of Presidents" because it had furnished four of the first five Presidents of the United States: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe. By 1825, Virginia had lost its first rank in population to New York State, primarily because of the large number of immigrants in the North. The population of Virginia, however, had passed the million mark.

During Monroe's presidency, an ex-President of the United States undertook a task in his home state which he had patiently waited to perform. In 1819, the Virginia legislature passed an act establishing a state university in Virginia. Jefferson had worked very hard to get this personal ambition of his realized because he believed that a state has the obligation of educating its citizens. He constantly discussed his idea with influential men of the time and was elated when the University of Virginia was finally created by law. Jefferson personally recommended the accepted site of Central College in Charlottesville, drew up the plans for the university building and grounds, chose the materials for construction, selected the workmen and then assumed the responsibility of personally supervising and directing the actual building project. One of the outstanding architectural characteristics of the University grounds is the famous Serpentine Wall designed and built by Jefferson himself. Jefferson's interest did not cease with the supervision and construction of the buildings but extended to the intellectual area with his outlining the course of study which was followed carefully at the University for several years. The University of Virginia was opened for students for the first time in 1825 with an enrollment of forty students and seven faculty members. It has continued to be an outstanding institution for higher education in the United States. This institution, unlike the former ones in America, was independent of a church and was the first institution to offer the elective system of subject matter, allowing students to make their choice with music and liberal arts first included in any curriculum of higher education. Jefferson thus participated significantly in the education field in addition to making political, historical and inventive contributions.

In 1829 the citizens of Virginia voted for a special state convention to be held for the purpose of drafting a new state constitution. When the delegates met in Richmond on October 5, ex-President James Madison was selected as President of this Virginia Convention. Other notables present included ex-President Monroe, Chief Justice Marshall and John Randolph. It was soon obvious that there were two distinct types of delegates: the eastern "conservatives" and the western "reformers." Debates and discussions became so heated that this convention is often compared to the federal convention of 1787 which exposed sharp differences between the North and the South as separate sections. Governor William B. Giles, A. P. Upshur, Benjamin Leigh, John Randolph and Littleton Waller represented the east or Tidewater section while Alexander Campbell, John R. Cooke, Philip Doddridge and Charles Faulkner represented the western or mountainous counties. The most objectionable features of the State Constitution of 1776, in the opinion of the western counties delegates, were the following: (1) the voting requirement of freehold land tenure, (2) the election of the Governor by the state legislature rather than by the voters themselves, (3) the actual carrying out of some of the Governor's duties by a nine-man Council of State, (4) the equal representation in the House of Delegates from each county regardless of population, and (5) a procedure in the local and state courts which often resulted in favoritism. The easterner combatted the criticism about representation with the fact that he paid much higher taxes on his land (in some instances as much as nine times more per acre). After lengthy discussions, the new state constitution was finally written and recommended for adoption. The following changes were included: (1) voting was extended to leaseholders and householders, (2) the Governor was chosen by a joint ballot of the Senate and the House of Delegates, (3) the power and the responsibility of the Governor was increased and the number of men and the powers of the Council of State were decreased, (4) the representation of the western counties in the Assembly was increased slightly, and (5) state courts were slightly revised but county courts were practically unchanged. The Constitution of 1829 was adopted, and John Floyd was the first Governor elected under the new system.

The strong feeling of states' rights in Virginia became apparent once more. When President Andrew Jackson threatened to use armed force upon South Carolina in his attempt to coerce South Carolina into paying Federal taxes, according to the Tariff of 1828 ("The Tariff of Abominations"), Virginians became very alarmed. John Randolph, a sick man at the time, traveled throughout the country denouncing Jackson's coercive attitude. Virginia then sent Benjamin Watkins Leigh to South Carolina to try to bring peace within the Union again and to prevent South Carolina from seceding from the Union. Governor John Floyd of Virginia stated that federal troops would meet armed opposition if President Jackson ordered them to march through Virginia to South Carolina and to force South Carolina to pay the exorbitant tariff rates. Henry Clay's compromise tariff law providing for gradually reduced tariff rates prevented possible secession from occurring at this time.

In August 1831, a Negro preacher of Southampton County, Nat Turner, started a local slave insurrection by persuading the Negro slaves that it was time to kill the white people. Sixty whites, mostly women and children, were killed before the rebellion could be suppressed. Nat Turner and twelve of his accomplices were hung. Many Virginians believed that Nat Turner's Rebellion took place as a direct result of the writings of William Lloyd Garrison of Massachusetts who published the "Liberator," a newspaper which demanded the immediate abolition of slavery. The southerners, in general, were so aroused by this rebellion that southern legislatures passed laws prohibiting slaves from being taught to read. In fact, a reward was offered for Garrison himself. Many southern states passed resolutions requesting the northern states to forbid the publication of abolitionist papers. In 1832 at a regular session of the Virginia General Assembly, an act was proposed whereby all slaves born after July 4, 1840 were to be free and to be removed from the State of Virginia. The act was defeated in the House of Delegates by a close vote of 67 to 60.

In 1831, Cyrus Hall McCormick of Rockbridge County invented the "Virginia Reaper," a mechanical harvester which could harvest wheat at a much faster rate than previously harvested by hand with a sickle or a cradle. He did not get it patented, however, until three years later. This was a most significant invention for the State of Virginia as well as for the nation as a whole. The Virginia Reaper affected grain, as the cotton gin had affected cotton, by making it possible for grain to be grown and harvested in much larger quantities. When Virginians first used the reaper, Virginia's total wheat production increased so rapidly that Virginia ranked fourth among the wheat-raising states in 1840. However, the climate and soil of the West were more conducive to wheat-raising than in Virginia, and, when the western farmers heard about the Virginia Reaper, they were anxious to acquire such a machine for their own use. The usual journey for such reapers included a wagon trip from Rockbridge County over the Blue Ridge Mountains to Scottsville, a canal trip from there to Richmond, a boat trip from Richmond down the James River to the Atlantic Ocean, from Norfolk an ocean trip to New Orleans and then a boat trip up the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers to their specific destination in Kentucky or Ohio—a water trip of approximately 3,000 miles. Since the demand for his invention was much greater in the West, McCormick moved from Virginia to Chicago to build his factory in order that he could reduce his shipping costs considerably. However, one may still see one of the original binders at Walnut Grove, the restored McCormick homestead located near Midway, Virginia.

In 1836, Samuel Houston, a native Virginian of Rockbridge County who had migrated to Texas, became the heroic leader at the Battle of San Jacinto in the Texas Revolt from Mexico. General Houston with a small group of Texans captured Santa Anna, President of Mexico, in this battle and forced him to grant Texas its independence from Mexico. Houston became the first President of the Republic of Texas and, later, the first Governor of the State of Texas after its annexation to the United States. The City of Houston was named in his honor.

On November 11, 1839, the Virginia Military Institute, the first state military school in the United States, was founded at Lexington. This school was located adjacent to the Washington Academy which is now known as Washington and Lee University. The Virginia Military Institute was greatly appreciated because it was no longer necessary for the Southern young men to travel to West Point for military training and discipline. V. M. I. opened originally with twenty-three cadets and two teachers: Francis Smith and J. T. L. Preston, a lawyer who is accredited with having the concept of a state military institute. It became the first normal school in the state because during the first year of its existence, the state legislature passed a law stating that the training of teachers was to be considered as its chief objective. When the War between the States took place, V. M. I. supplied the Confederate forces with many of its military leaders, earning for itself the title, "The West Point of the Confederacy." At the Battle of New Market in 1864, V. M. I. cadets led by General John C. Breckinridge defeated the Union Army by the remarkable capture of a Union battery.

From 1822 to 1850 thirteen additional counties had been created: Alleghany (formed from Bath, Botetourt and Monroe Counties and named for the Indian word, "Alleghany" meaning "Lost"), Page (formed from Rockingham and Shenandoah Counties and named in honor of John Page, Virginia Governor [1802-1805]), Floyd (formed from Montgomery County and later, part of Franklin County and named for John Floyd, Virginia Governor [1830-1834]), Smyth (formed from Washington and Wythe Counties and named for Alexander Smyth, Inspector-General of the Army in 1812 and a Congressman), Rappahannock (formed from Culpeper County and named for the Rappahannock Indian tribe which lived along the Rappahannock River which flows in this county), Clark (formed from Frederick and named for General George Rogers Clark), Warren (formed from Shenandoah and Frederick Counties and named for Major General Joseph Warren who died in the Battle of Bunker Hill), Roanoke (formed from Botetourt County and named for the term, "Roanoke," which was used by the colonists to indicate the shell-beads which the Indians used for money and for decoration), Greene (formed from Orange County and named for General Nathaniel Greene of the Revolutionary War), Pulaski (formed from Montgomery and Wythe Counties and named for Count Casimir Pulaski, Revolutionary War Polish Patriot), Carroll (formed from Grayson County and named in honor of Charles Carroll of Carrollton), Appomattox (formed from Buckingham, Prince Edward, Charlotte and Campbell Counties and named from the Indian word, "Appomattox," meaning "tobacco plant country") and Highland (created from Pendleton and Bath Counties and named for the extremely high altitude of this mountainous area).

In 1841, William Henry Harrison became the ninth President of the United States and John Tyler became the Vice-President of the United States. Both were born in Charles City County, approximately twenty-four miles from Richmond. William Henry Harrison had successfully defeated the Indian chief, Tecumseh, and his brother, "The Prophet," at Tippecanoe River in Indiana. From this experience he earned the title, "Old Tippecanoe" which became a part of the 1840 presidential campaign slogan: "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." William Henry Harrison has a most unique distinction in the history of the United States in that he served the shortest term of any President—March 4, 1841 to April 4, 1841. Upon his death from pneumonia, believed contracted during the inauguration ceremonies, the other Virginian, John Tyler, succeeded to the Presidency. Tyler had been a Congressman, a state legislator, a Governor of Virginia and a United States Senator before becoming President. During his term of office, the United States and Canada agreed upon a final boundary in the Treaty of Washington. Tyler approved the annexation of Texas to the Union near the end of his Presidential administration.

The annexation of Texas to the United States caused bitter feeling between Mexico and the United States. In the Mexican War which followed, two Virginians, General Zachary Taylor of Orange County and General Winfield Scott of Dinwiddie County, participated in an outstanding manner: the former, in charge of the campaign at Monterey and at Buena Vista and the latter, in charge of the campaign at Vera Cruz and Mexico City. Other Virginians who received first-hand military experience during the Mexican War were Robert E. Lee, Thomas J. Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston.

On September 7, 1846, the land including the town of Alexandria (originally Belhaven) which Virginia had ceded to Congress in 1789 was retroceded to Fairfax County. In the following year, Alexandria County was formed from that part of the District of Columbia which had formerly been a part of Fairfax County and the town of Alexandria became the county seat. Five years later, the town of Alexandria became the city of Alexandria through a charter regulation of the General Assembly, and its status as an independent city (not subject to county jurisdiction) was granted.

While Alexandria was changing from a town to a city, another Virginian was elected President of the United States. Zachary Taylor, a native of Orange County, became the twelfth President of the United States. He had achieved national fame during the Mexican War and had earned the title "Old Rough and Ready." He defeated his military colleague, General Winfield Scott, at the Whig convention by winning the presidential candidacy and proceeded to defeat Martin Van Buren for the Presidency. After serving only sixteen months of his term, he died of typhus on July 9, 1850. The most important issue during his administration was the slavery controversy.

As in the slavery issue in 1820, Henry Clay once more proposed a compromise measure in an attempt to prevent, or at least postpone, a secession movement. The Compromise of 1850 was eventually passed and is often referred to as the "Omnibus Bill" because it included many miscellaneous provisions, namely: (1) California was to be admitted as a free state, (2) slavery limitation in the Mexican cession land was to be decided upon by the residents of the particular area involved, (3) Texas was to pay ten million dollars for giving up its claim to territory west and north of its present boundary, (4) slave trade but not slavery was to be prohibited in the District of Columbia, and (5) a more effective fugitive slave law was to be passed and to be enforced.

While the United States government had numerous national problems with which to cope during this period, Virginia had several governmental problems. In 1850-1851, a second state constitutional convention was held. The age-old feud concerning representation, voting qualifications and election of the Governor continued until, finally, a compromise was reached. Main provisions of the compromise were: (1) every white male citizen, except the insane, minors, paupers and criminals, was to be allowed to vote from that time forward, (2) the Governor was to be elected directly by the voters themselves rather than by the General Assembly and his term was to be extended from three to four years, (3) the Council of State was to be abolished, (4) membership in the House of Delegates was to be selected upon the basis of population, thereby giving the western counties a majority number; membership in the Senate was to be based upon population and property, thereby giving the eastern counties a majority, and (5) the voters were to be allowed to vote for judges, county officials and members of the Board of Public Works. In addition, the General Assembly was to meet every other year instead of annually. The 1851 State Constitution was ratified by the voters by an overwhelming majority at the next election. The western counties of Virginia had finally been recognized as an important area whose ideas and opinions were to be considered seriously. Although the economic and social life of the inhabitants of the western part of Virginia were different from those of the inhabitants of the eastern part of Virginia, this Constitution which granted the western counties most of their desired reforms fostered better unity within the state.

In 1855, a dreadful epidemic of yellow fever spread throughout Norfolk and approximately one tenth of its total population succumbed. A Negro gravedigger, nicknamed "Yellow Fever Jack," was considered the hero of this situation because he painstakingly kept burying the dead until he too died from the fever. A monument has been erected in his honor in the Norfolk Cemetery.

In 1857 James Ethan Allen Gibbs, a native of Rockbridge County, secured a patent to make a "twisted loop rotary hook sewing machine," an invention which he had created as a result of watching his mother sew by hand. He was unaware at the time of Elias Howe's sewing machine invention of 1846. After a few years, James A. Willcox added some improvements to Gibbs' sewing machine, and their combined efforts resulted in the Willcox and Gibbs Sewing Machine.

On October 16, 1859, John Brown, a freesoiler and an ardent white abolitionist of Kansas and Ohio, led his five sons, eight northern white men and a group of five Negroes on a raid of the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now located in West Virginia). Rifles were made and stored here. John Brown had decided to show these slaves how to revolt against their masters. Therefore, he equipped them with arms, ammunition and with steel-tipped pikes which he had brought with him from Kansas. After they had seized the arsenal, he urged them to start an insurrection. They captured many of the gentlemen slaveholders of this area, and then John Brown suggested that they use their pikes to "strike for freedom!" The Negroes of this area and those of the south in general did not respond to his encouragement. His band killed five people including the mayor of Harper's Ferry and a free Negro porter of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. On October 18, Colonel Robert E. Lee of the United States Army, who was a native Virginian, was placed in charge of the situation. James Ewell Brown Stuart (later, commonly known as "J. E. B." Stuart) was appointed aide-de-camp to Lee. Stuart was assigned the task of presenting the summons to John Brown to surrender after one hundred United States Marines had surrounded the arsenal and had captured the raiders. Stuart successfully performed his task and was admired by many Americans for his staunch courage in this action because John Brown was such an unpredictable individual. Lee then sent John Brown to Charlestown, Virginia (now located in West Virginia) where he was tried by a Virginia Circuit Court for treason and for murder because of the capture of guns and supplies belonging to the government, was found guilty and was hanged on December 2, 1859. Ten of his followers were also killed. This incident caused hostile feelings between the sections to increase and made the Virginians very angry upon finding out the extent to which some individuals would conspire to incite Negro hatred for their masters.

By 1860, the population of Virginia had reached over one and a half million including 490,865 slaves and 58,042 free Negroes. From 1851 to 1861, four counties were added: Craig (formed from Botetourt, Giles, Monroe and Roanoke Counties and named for Robert Craig, a Virginia Congressman), Wise (formed from Lee, Scott and Russell Counties and named for Henry Alexander Wise, Governor of Virginia, 1856-1860), Buchanan (formed from Tazewell and Russell Counties and named in honor of President James Buchanan) and Bland (formed from Giles, Wythe and Tazewell Counties and named for Richard Bland, a Virginia statesman during the Revolutionary War Period).

SUMMARY

After Virginia had furnished many leaders for the First Continental Congress, another special Virginia convention was held in Richmond where a resolution for military preparedness was passed and delegates were elected to the Second Continental Congress. Three additional special conventions were later held in the Virginia colony alone which resulted in the abdication of the last colonial Governor of the colony, the declaration of Virginia as a free and independent State, the writing of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, the adoption of an official State seal and motto, the creation and adoption of a State Constitution establishing the Commonwealth of Virginia, the adoption of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom and the eventual ratification of the United States Constitution. In the political field, the names of Patrick Henry, Peyton Randolph, George Washington, George Mason, George Wythe, Edmund Pendleton, James Madison, Edmund Randolph, Archibald Cary, Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe suggest numerous contributions made by Virginians during the period, 1775-1860.

Virginians also had major roles in the military history of our country during this same period: George Washington, John Mühlenberg, Henry Lee, Jack Jouett, Andrew Lewis, Daniel Morgan, John Paul Jones, Samuel Houston, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Winfield Scott and Robert E. Lee. In the meantime, the capital had been moved from Williamsburg to Richmond, Virginia had ceded its Northwest Territory to the new national government and Yorktown had become internationally famous as the area where the British had surrendered to the Americans. It is a unique historical fact that the site where the British armies were forced to surrender in 1781 was located only a few miles from the site where the first permanent English settlement in America was established.

The Presidency of George Washington started the so-called "Virginia Dynasty" of Presidents. By 1861, the Commonwealth had furnished the United States with seven Virginia-born Presidents: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler and Zachary Taylor. For this achievement, Virginia has earned the title of "Mother of Presidents."

During the period of 1775 to 1860, many significant activities of Virginians took place at both the state and federal levels of government: the "Leopard-Chesapeake" Affair, Jeffersonian Democracy, John Marshall's role as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, the consent of Virginia allowing Kentucky County to become an independent state in the Union, the Lewis and Clark Expedition to the Northwest, the role of Norfolk, Hampton and Falls Church during the War of 1812, the Monroe Doctrine, the efforts of Henry Clay ("The Great Compromiser"), the historical connotation of the capital city, Monrovia, in Liberia, the creation of a non-sectarian state university and of the first state military school in the country, the attitude of Virginians toward the sectional issues of tariff, secession and slavery, the inventions of the McCormick Virginia Reaper and the Willcox-Gibbs Sewing Machine and the active participation of Virginians in the Texan Revolt and the Mexican War. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry increased sectionalism and intensified the slavery problem. By 1860, the population of Virginia had reached over one and one-half million people, including approximately 500,000 slaves.