G.

GABION, in fortification, is a kind of basket, made of ozier-twigs, of a cylindrical form, having different dimensions, according to what purpose it is used for. Some gabions are 5 or 6 feet high, and 3 feet in diameter: these serve in sieges, to carry on the approaches under cover, when they come pretty near the fortification. Those used in field-works are 3 or 4 feet high, and 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet diameter. There are also gabions, about 1 foot high, 12 inches diameter at top, and from 8 to 10 at bottom, which are placed along the top of the parapet, to cover the troops in firing over it, they are filled with earth.

In order to make them, some pickets, 3 or 4 feet long, are struck into the ground, in form of a circle, and of a proper diameter, wattled together with small branches, in the manner of wattled fences. Batteries are often made of gabions. See Battery.

Gabions.—Small gabions of 3 feet high, and 2 feet diameter, are made with least trouble, and are easiest carried. The pickets for them must be 1¹⁄₂ or 2 inches thick, and 4 feet long. Large gabions are 6 feet high, and 3 feet in diameter; and require two men to carry them. The smallest gabions or baskets are formed of pickets, 1 inch in thickness, and 1 foot long: they are 12 inches in diameter at top, and 10 at bottom. The small gabions have 7 or 8 pickets, the large ones 9 or 10.

To make them—The pickets are first to be fixed in the ground in a circle, the size or the bottom of the intended gabion; then a few twigs are to be wove through the upper ends, to keep them from flying out; afterwards the work must be begun at the bottom and continued upwards; and the whole being well driven down with a mallet, the edges must be secured by twigs, wattled up and down. The twigs of willow, birch, hazle, alder, poplar, and beech are proper for this purpose. The top of the gabion must be made very even, because that becomes the bottom when finished. Four men are usually employed on each gabion, with a billhook, a mallet, a spade, and two axes. Two collect the wood, while the other two form the gabion. A 3 foot gabion ought to be made in half an hour.

Stuft-Gabions, in fortification, are made in the same manner as the former: they are only filled with all sorts of branches and small wood, and are 4 or 6 feet long: they serve to roll before the workmen in the trenches to cover them in front against musquet-shot.

Gabion farci, Fr. a stuft gabion.

GABIONADE, Fr. a term made use of when a retrenchment is suddenly thrown up and formed of gabions, for the purpose of covering the retreat of troops, who may be obliged to abandon a work, after having defended it to the last extremity. Every parapet that is made of gabions is generally called gabionade.

GABIONNER, Fr. to cover or secure with gabions.

GAFFLES, the steel lever with which the ancients bent their cross-bows.

GAGES, Fr. wages. Among the French this phrase signified the fruits or compensations which were derived by individuals from appointments given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial nature, or for service done at sea or by land.

GAIN is frequently used in a military sense, as they gained the day, &c.

To Gain ground. See Ground.

GAINE de flamme, Fr. a sort of linen sheath or cover, into which the staff of a flag or pendant is put.

Gaine de pavilion, Fr. a cloth, or linen-band, which is sewed across the flag, and through which the different ribands are interlaced.

Gaines de girouettes, Fr. bands, or pieces of linen, with which the vanes are tied to the staff.

GAITERS, a sort of cover for the leg, usually made of cloth, and are either long as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reaching just above the ancle; the latter are termed half-gaiters.

Galeries Capitales, Fr. are those galleries which lie under the capitals in works of fortification.

Galerie tranversale, Fr. is a gallery in fortification which cuts the capital in a perpendicular direction.

Galerie meurtriére ou de premiere envelope, Fr. a gallery which runs under the whole extent of the covert-way, and is frequently carried close to the counterscarp, in order to afford a circulation of air.

Galerie d’envelope, Fr. a gallery which is constructed at the extremity of the glacis, and is commonly made parallel to the magistral or principal line of fortification. The envelope is the chief gallery in a fortress or garrison-town, and serves as a path of communication or covered way to all the rest.

It is of the utmost consequence to the besieged to secure this gallery from every approach of the enemy; and if any impression should be made, to repair the injury without delay. From this gallery the garrison always direct their attacks, whenever it is necessary to keep the assailants out of the covert-way.

Galerie d’écoute, Fr. a gallery in front of the envelope. Ecouter, which signifies to listen, sufficiently explains the purpose for which these galleries are erected.

Petites Galeries, ou rameaux, Fr. small galleries, branches, or arraignées, in fortification, which issue from the counter-mine, and at the extremities of which the furnace or chamber for the lodgment of gunpowder is constructed. There is not any established or fixed rule to direct the height to which small galleries, branches, or arraignées ought to be carried; in general they should have the least possible elevation.

When galleries are built of mason-work their height is from five to six feet, their breadth from three to four, and sometimes only three.

Galeries de mines, Fr. galleries in mining differ from counter-mines, in as much as that they are supported by coffers resting upon frames, which are covered with earth three feet in depth; that is, two feet and a half from one frame to another. These galleries are usually built three feet and a half high, and two and a half broad; and whenever there is a necessity to work in the rameau or arraignée, the galleries in that case are reduced to smaller proportions.

Galerie magistrale, Fr. in mining signifies any covered avenue or gallery which is parallel to the magistral or principal line of the place, and exists under the whole or part of the front of the fortifications. This gallery is usually as thick as the enemy’s mason-work against which the counter-mine is directed. By means of this work, the besieged generally endeavour to interrupt every attempt which the besiegers may make in the passage of the fossé or ditch.

Galerie à passer un fossé, a gallery constructed for the purpose of crossing a ditch. It is a small passage made of timber-work, having its beams or supporters driven into the bottom of the ditch, and being covered at top with boards that are again covered with earth, sufficiently strong to bear the miner, and to withstand the effect of artificial fire, or the weight of stones which the enemy might direct against them. This sort of gallery is sometimes called the traverse, or cross way.

These galleries have been out of use for some years. The miner gets at the body of the place which is attacked, either through a subterraneous gallery that is dug beneath the ditch, when the nature of the ground will permit the attempt, or under cover of the epaulement, which covers the passage of the ditch. When the ditch is full of water, and the miner has made considerable progress under it, he instantly makes the best of his way to the breach, either by swimming, or by supporting his body on a raft of timber; as soon as he has reached the spot, he works into the earth among the ruins of the wall, and completes the object of his enterprize.

Galeries de communication, Fr. are subterraneous galleries, by means of which, the garrison of a besieged town or place may, without being perceived by the enemy, communicate from the body of the place, or from the counterscarp, with the different outworks.

Galeries souterraines des anciens, Fr. Subterraneous galleries as originally invented by the ancients. The author of the Dictionnaire Militaire in his last edition of that work enters upon the explanation of these galleries by the following curious assertion.

“I must, he observes, in this place, assert with the chevalier Folard, that it would be absurd to deny the superiority which the ancients possessed over us in the essential knowlege and requisites of war, and that they pushed the different branches of that science to as high a pitch of perfection as it was possible to raise it.

“The only inventions which the moderns can boast of, are those of fire-arms, mines, and furnaces. But then, on the other hand, we stand indebted to them for our lines of circumvallation and of contravallation, our approaches or trenches which are effected from a camp to its different batteries, together with the construction of those batteries; our parallel entrenchments or places of arms, the descent into, or the filling up of the ditch, our covered saps in mining, and our open galleries; we owe to them, in fact, the original art of throwing up works and of creating obstacles, by which we are enabled to secure ourselves, or by various stratagems to annoy our enemies. The ancients were indeed superior to us, in the means of defence.

“The origin of subterraneous galleries or passages in mining, is totally unknown to us; a circumstance which proves their antiquity. We read in the History of Josephus, that the Jews frequently made use of them; so that neither the Greeks nor the Romans, who, in many instances arrogate to themselves the exclusive glory of invention, were the authors of this discovery.

“The method which was pursued by the ancients in their passages of mines, resembled the one that is invariably followed by the moderns. But the latter possess a considerable advantage over the former, in this sort of attack and defence, which advantage consists wholly in the invention of gunpowder.

“The ancients, it is well known, could only undermine in one way; namely under the terraces or cavaliers, or under the towers and battering-testudo-machines (tortues bélieres,) and in order to do any execution, they were obliged, in the first place, to construct a spacious high subterraneous chamber, to carry away and raise the earth, to support the remainder by powerful props, and afterwards to fill the several chambers with dry wood and other combustible materials, which were set fire to in order to reduce the towers and various machines that were placed above, into one common heap of ruins. But this attempt did not always succeed; for owing to the magnitude of the undertaking and the time it required, the enemy might either trace the miners, cut off their communication with the main body of the place, or get into the chambers before they could be finished, or be properly prepared for inflammation.

“The ancients constructed their galleries on a larger scale than we adopt. They were wider, but less elevated; whereas those that we use require less trouble; our chamber mines being more contracted, and having an advantage of access by means of the different branches. One or two small chambers are sufficient with us to blow up the whole face of a bastion. But the ancients only sapped in proportion to the extent of wall which they were determined to demolish. This was a tedious operation; for when the besieger had reached the foot of the wall, it became necessary to run a gallery along the whole extent of what he proposed to demolish. Subsequent to this, he had to operate upon the entire front, during which the besieged found time and opportunities to open subterraneous passages, and to discover those which the assailants were practising against them. In the latter, indeed they seldom failed.

“The Romans were extremely partial to subterraneous galleries. By means of these secret passages they took Fidenæ, and Veiæ; and Darius, king of Persia, by the same method took Chalcedon. That species of gallery which is run out under the soil of an encampment, and pushed forward into the very body of a town, has been known from time immemorial. The Gauls were likewise very expert in their management of subterraneous galleries. Cæsar mentions the use of them in five or six places of his Commentaries.”

Galerie de pourtour, Fr. in architecture, a sort of gallery which is raised either in the inside, or on the outside, and surrounds the whole or part of a building.

GALEA, -

GALIOT,

a low built vessel for the conveyance of troops and stores, having both sails and oars.

GALION, Fr. a name which was formerly given to French ships of war that had three or four decks. The term, however, is in disuse, except among the Spaniards, who call vessels galions, that sail to Santa Marguerita, to Terra Firma, Carthagena, Porto-Bello, &c.

GALIOTE à bombes, Fr. a bomb-ketch. A vessel built of very strong timber, with flat ribs and half decks. It is used for the carriage of mortars, that are placed upon a false deck which is made in the hold. Chevalier Renau first invented this species of naval battery, and submitted it to the French government. The Dey of Algiers having declared war against France, this ingenious man naturally imagined, that the most effectual method which could be adopted to strike terror into the barbarians, would be to bombard their capital, and this, he knew, could not be done, except from the decks of ships. His proposal was at first treated with extreme neglect, and was considered in full council, as the project of a visionary madman.

This disheartening circumstance, however, (which as Monsieur Belidor has very justly remarked, almost always attends original plans and inventions) did not check the warm mind of Chevalier Renau. His known abilities had secured some powerful partisans in his favor, and the French government at last consented, that he should construct two galiotes à bombes at Dunkirk, and three at Havre de Grace. Having completed them, he sailed for Algiers; and after having braved the most tempestuous weather, got before the place with five vessels of that description. The town was bombarded during the whole of the night; and so great was the consternation of the inhabitants, that they rushed out of the gates, to avoid the dreadful effects of so unexpected an attack. The Algerines immediately sued for peace, and as M. de Fontenelle has shrewdly remarked, the Chevalier Renau returned to France with his galiotes à bombes, having obtained a complete triumph, not only over the Algerines, but over the petty cavillers against his invention.

Orders were instantly issued to construct others after the same model, and the king gave directions, that a new corps of artillery officers should be formed, for the specific purpose of doing duty on board the galiotes or bomb-ketches.

GALLERY, a passage of communication to that part of a mine where the powder is lodged. See Galerie.

GALLET. Fr. See Jalet.

GALLIVATS are large row-boats, used in India. They are built like the grab, but of smaller dimensions, the largest rarely exceeding 70 tons; they have two masts, of which the mizen is very slight; the mizen mast bears only one sail, which is triangular and very large, the peak of it, when hoisted, being much higher than the mast itself. In general the gallivats are covered with a spar deck, made for lightness of bamboos split, and these carry only patteraroes, which are fixed on swivels in the gunnel of the vessel; but those of the largest size have a fixed deck, on which they mount six or eight pieces of cannon, from two to four pounders; they have forty or fifty stout oars, and may be rowed four miles an hour.

GALLOPER, a piece of ordnance of small calibre.

GAMACHE, Fr. See Gaiters.

GAMBESON, Fr. a term which the French formerly applied to a coat of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It was likewise called cotte gamboisée. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed worsted.

GAMBLING. Every species of chance play, such as hazard, &c. should be strictly forbidden in the army. The non-commissioned officers and private soldiers are severely punished when found guilty of this mischievous practice; and in some services the officers are treated with equal severity.

GAMELLE, Fr. a wooden or earthen bowl used among the French soldiers for their messes. It generally contained the quantity of food which was allotted for three, five, or seven men belonging to the same room. The porridge-pots for the navy were made of wood, and held a certain allowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and volunteers were frequently punished for slight offences by being sent to the gamelle, and excluded their regular mess, and put upon short allowance, according to the nature of their transgression.

GANTELET, Fr. See Gauntlet.

GANGES, a considerable river in India in Asia. It rises in the mountains which border on Little Thibet, in 82 degrees of east longitude, and 32 degrees 45 minutes of north latitude. According to the ingenious author of the History of Indostan, it disembogues itself into that country through a pass called the straights of Kupele, which are distant from Delhi, about 30 leagues, in the longitude of 96, and in the latitude of 30° 2′. These straights are believed by the Indians, who look very little abroad, to be the sources of the Ganges; and a rock 15 miles distant from them, bearing some resemblance to the head of a cow, has joined in the same part of the country two very important objects of their religion; the grand image of the animal which they almost venerate as a divinity, and the first appearance of that immense body of holy water, which is to wash away all their sins.

GANTLET, -

GAUNTLET,

in ancient military history, a large kind of glove, made of iron, and the fingers covered with small plates: it was formerly worn by cavaliers, or single knights of war, when armed at all points, but is now in disuse.

Gantlet or gantelope, denotes a kind of military punishment, in which the criminal running between the ranks receives a lash from every man. See Run the Gantlet.

GAP. See Breach.

GAR, the general term used by the Saxons, for a weapon of war.

GARCON-Major, Fr. an officer so called in the old French service. He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the aid-majors in the general detail of duty.

GARDE d’une Place, Fr. the garrison of a place. See Garrison.

Garde du l’armée, Fr. the grand guard of an army. Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts: Guard of Honor, Fatigue Guard, and the General’s Guard. That was called a guard of honor in which the officers and men were most exposed to danger; for the quintessence of military honor is to be often in peril, and either to fall courageously in the discharge of duty, or to return from the field after having exhibited proofs of valor, prudence and perseverance. A fatigue guard belonging to a garrison or to a camp. A general’s guard was mounted before the door or gate of the house in which the commanding officer resided. For a more specific account of guards in general see Guard.

Gardes de corps, Fr. the body guards. Under the old government of France they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers whose immediate duty was to attend the king’s person. They were divided into four companies, under as many captains, whose tour of duty came every quarter. They took rank above the Gens-d’armes and the king’s light cavalry.

The first and most ancient of the four companies was called the Scotch company.

In 1423 Charles VII. of France established this body of gentlemen or cavaliers, for the purpose of shewing the great confidence which he placed in the Scots; who were not a little indebted for this mark of distinction to the service which their countryman Lord Buchan, eldest son to the Duke of Albany, rendered the French in 1421 at the battle of Bangé en Anjou, where the English army was completely routed. In order to preserve the remembrance of their behaviour, and in token of their gratitude to the Scotch nation, the French king gave orders that whenever the roll-call took place in the Scotch company, each individual instead of answering Me voila! should say I am here! or here!

Gardes-feux, Fr. wooden cases or boxes used to hold cartridges.

Gardes fous, Fr. the rails of a bridge.

Garde imperiale, Fr. The only guard of honor which at present exists in France.

Gardes Francoises, Fr. the French Guards—In 1563 Charles IX. King of the French, raised a regiment for the immediate protection of the palace. The colonel or the gardes Francoises was on duty throughout the year, and was entitled to the baton de commandement in common with the four captains of the body guards. Peculiar privileges were attached to every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the French guards. The age at which men were enlisted was above 18 and under 50 years. The height 5 French feet 4 inches and upwards. The serjeants were strictly forbidden to exercise any trade or business, and many of them got the Croix de St. Louis.

In the revolution of 1789 the French guards took a very active and leading part.

Gardes-magazins, Fr. In the old French service there were two sorts of magazine guards:—one for the military stores and the other for the artillery. The first was subject to the grand master, and the second was appointed by the secretary at war.

Garde-general d’artillerie, Fr. An officer was so called under the old government of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all ammunition, &c. and his bills were paid by the treasurer general of the artillery.

Gardes provinciaux, Fr. Provincial guards, were persons appointed to superintend, take charge of, and be responsible, for the artillery belonging to Paris, Metz, Chalons, Lyons, Amiens, Narbonne, and Calais.

Gardes particuliers des magazins d’artillerie, Fr. Officers appointed by the grand master of the ordnance for the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, &c. Their pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with which they were entrusted. They enjoyed some particular privileges, and were lodged at the expence of government.

Garde magazin d’un arsenal de marine, Fr. An officer in France appointed to take charge and to keep a register of all warlike stores, &c. for the service of the navy.

Gardes de la porte, Fr. A company so called during the monarchy of France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is made of the gardes de la porte in the oldest archives or records belonging to the king’s household, in which service they were employed, without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies were.

This company consisted of one captain, four lieutenants, and fifty guards. The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the baton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in guarding the principal gate belonging to the king’s apartments. Their guard-house was within the palace, which they occupied from six o’clock in the morning until six in the evening; when they were relieved by the body guards. They delivered the keys to a brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison.

Gardes Suisses, Fr. The Swiss guards. This body originally consisted of a certain number of companies which were taken into the French service in consequence of the close alliance that subsisted between the Swiss cantons and France; but they were not distinguished from other troops by the appellation of guards, until a considerable period had elapsed from their first establishment. The zeal, fidelity, and attachment which they uniformly evinced whenever they were entrusted with this distinguished part of the service, induced the crown in 1616 to bestow upon them this additional name.

The regiment was composed of twelve companies of two hundred effectives each. Some consisted of half companies complete in men. They were commanded by the three following officers, subordinate to each other, and created in 1689, viz. One colonel general of the nation, one particular colonel of the regiment, and one lieutenant colonel. The Swiss guards received double the pay which was given to the French guards. It is somewhat remarkable, that one hundred and three years after the regular establishment of the regiment under the three mentioned field officers, this brave body of men should have fallen victims to their attachment to the monarchy of France. On the 10th of August, 1792, they withstood the Parisian populace, and defended the palace in the Louvre until almost every man was killed. During the resistance which the Swiss guards made, Louis the XVIth, with his family escaped, and took shelter in the national assembly.

Gardes (cent) Suisses du corps du Roi, Fr. One hundred Swiss guards immediately attached to the king’s person. They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king, and were formed into a regular troop. Louis XIV. during several sieges which he personally attended, gave directions, that the head of the trench should be guarded by a detachment of this troop; so that the hundred Swiss guards might properly be ranked as military men, although their officers did not wear any uniform, and in the last periods of the monarchy of France, the principal duties of the hundred Swiss guards consisted in domestic and menial attendance.

Garde qui monte, Fr. The new guard.

Garde qui descend, Fr. The old guard.

Gardes ordinaires des lignes, Fr. ordinary guards.

Garde de la tranche, Fr. Guard for the trenches. Among the French, this guard usually consisted of four or six battalions. It was entrusted to three general officers, viz. one lieutenant general on the right, one major general on the left, and one brigadier general in the centre. All general officers, when on duty for the day in the trenches, remained the succeeding night, and never left them until they were regularly relieved by others of their own rank.

When it came to the tour of any particular battalion to mount the trench guard, it was the duty of the major of that battalion to examine the ground on which it was to be drawn up, to look at the piquets, and to see where the grenadiers were posted, in order to go through the relief with accuracy and expedition.

The battalion was drawn up in front of the camp; the grenadiers being stationed on the right, next to them the piquet, and on its left flank the body of the battalion. The latter was divided into different piquets, and formed in order of battle. So that instead of the several companies being posted together, the men were drafted out, and distributed in such a manner, that the whole battalion was separated into troops or companies, each consisting of forty eight men, promiscuously thrown together.

The advantage which was derived from this disposition of the battalion, and from its having been previously told off according to each company’s roster, is manifest; for when a second or third battalion piquet was wanted in the trenches, the different detachments were already formed without going into the small detail of companies. The officers in conformity to their roster were ordered to march, and the piquet moved out without a moment’s delay.

Add to this that whenever it was found necessary to make a sortie, the loss of men did not fall upon one company, but was divided among the whole battalion.

A general rendezvous or parade was fixed for all the regiments who were to do duty in the trenches; they assembled in that quarter, and were drawn up in line, with all the grenadiers on the right, and the whole of the piquets upon the same alignement. At the hour appointed the latter began to file off, and each regiment followed according to its seniority. The lieutenant general whose tour of command was in the trenches, placed himself at the head of those troops who were to attack from the right; the major general at the head of those belonging to the left, and the brigadier general took the centre; the oldest regiment headed the right, the next in seniority stood in front of the left, and the third preceded the centre.

As soon as the troops reached the tail of the trench, the men marched by Indian files, or rank entire, and each one took his post. Sentries were stationed, and the necessary detachments were made. The colors were planted upon the parapet of the trench. At night the adjutants of corps went to head quarters, to receive instructions relative to the projected attack, and got the parole and countersign from the general. The senior adjutant communicated his orders to the rest, who conveyed the same, first to their several colonels, and afterwards to the serjeants of each regiment.

When on duty in the trenches, soldiers must not, on any account, quit their firearms; and the instant the least noise is heard, it is their duty to throw themselves upon the back of the trench, and there remain till the order is given to march. When an attack is directed to be made, the execution of it is always entrusted to the grenadiers. These are supported by the different piquets, and the main body of the corps follows with the colors.

When the chamade was beat by the besieged with a view to capitulate, it was a rule among the French, that the battalions which were posted in the trenches, might refuse to be relieved, and could remain at their station until the garrison marched out. When the capitulation was signed, it fell to the oldest regiment belonging to the besieging army to take possession of the gate that was delivered up, and that corps remained in the town until a governor was named, and a regular garrison appointed.

Garde du camp, Fr. See Quarter Guard.

Garde avancée, Fr. a small body of cavalry, consisting of 15 or 20 horsemen, under the command of a lieutenant, whose station is beyond, but still in sight of the main guard. The particular duty of those men is to watch the motions of the enemy for the greater security of the camp.

During the famous crusade to the Holy Land, the Christians having taken the town of Damietta, and finding it impossible to make further progress, on account of the overflowings of the river Nile, effected a passage over, but neglected to entrench themselves according to the custom of those days. The consequence was, that the Arabs insulted them in their camp, and frequently murdered their sentries at their very tents. In order to prevent these incursions, advanced guards of the description just mentioned were resorted to. Vedettes were posted round the camp, and from hence most probably was derived their origin.

Many methods have been proposed by the military writers of all ages to secure advanced guards from surprise. Frochetta advises fires to be lighted during the night in one quarter, while the rendezvous and station of the guard are in another. His reason is this: if the enemy should approach the quarter which is lighted up, the soldiers belonging to the advanced guard may readily discover him, without being themselves exposed to a direct attack. Onosander is of the same way of thinking. Silence on these occasions is indispensably requisite. Xenophon, on the other hand, has proposed, that the station should be often changed, and that the guard should consist of different numbers. His object is to form a considerable ambuscade in front of the spot where the guard has been usually posted, so that when the enemy approaches towards it, he may be suddenly surprised by a larger body of men than he expected, and instead of carrying off the ordinary guard, be himself taken prisoner.

Garde du pont, Fr. Guard for the security of a bridge. The same author (Frochetta) proposes that one or two sentries be posted at each end of the bridge, if it be of any length. His motive is to prevent too heavy loads from being conveyed upon it, and to check bodies of cavalry who might be disposed to gallop or trot across it. If the bridge be constructed upon barges or boats, there must always be a certain number of wooden scoops to drain off the water as it rises, or gets through small apertures upon the surface. The commanding officer of the guard must order frequent rounds to be made, both night and day, lest the enemy should send divers to get under the boats and pierce the bottoms.

Foresti, the historian, relates, that the Emperor Henry III. having ordered several barges to be constructed and stationed on the Danube for the purpose of storming Posonio, his project was defeated by the bold and desperate act of an individual. One Zormonde, a Hungarian, having provided himself with a gimblet, swam under the surface of the water, and got beneath the boats, which he bored in several places, without the least suspicion or knowlege of the mariners. The boats gradually filled, and were finally sunk, which circumstance obliged the emperor to raise the siege.

Garde des travailleurs, Fr. A particular guard which is kept among the workmen and artificers during a siege. In France they had a particular roster among themselves; beginning from the eldest downwards, as well among the officers as among the men.

Garde relevée, Fr. the guard that is relieved, commonly called the old guard.

Gardes de la marine, Fr. During the existence of the old French government, several young gentlemen received brevet commissions from the king, and were permitted to serve on board ships of war. They were distributed among the fleet, and when they had acquired a knowlege of their profession, were promoted to the rank of officers. Their duty was near the admiral, when he commanded in person; and during his absence they were placed on board the different vessels, in order to assist the several officers, particularly in the discharge of their functions at the batteries.

Gardes costes, Fr. from the Spanish guarda costa, signifying ships of war that cruize along the coast to protect merchantmen, and to prevent the depredations of pirates.

Gardes costes (capitaineries), Fr. The maritime divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called.

Each division was under the immediate superintendance of a captain, named capitaine gardes-costes, who was assisted by a lieutenant and an ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to every thing that might affect the safety of the division they had in charge.

There were thirty-seven capitaineries gardes côtes in Normandy, four in Poitou, two in Guienne, two in Languedoc, and six in French Flanders, Picardy, Boulogne, Calais, &c.

The establishment of sea fencibles in Great Britain, which has taken place during the present war, most probably owes its origin to the gardes costes.

Garde d’épée, Fr. Sword-hilt.

Garde, Fr. Watch, guard, protection.

Corps de Garde du guet, Fr. Watch-house or rendezvous for the street patroles.

Garde bois, Fr. a forest-keeper.

Garde du corps, Fr. life-guard.

Garde chasse, Fr. a game-keeper.

Garde pluie, Fr. literally means a fence, or cover against rain. This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, who left his native country to avoid persecution or unmerited neglect, and submitted it to the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Other armies, however, either seem ignorant of the invention, or do not think it worthy of imitation. Belair, the author of Elemens de Fortification, in his military dictionary, (which forms a small part of that interesting work,) observes, that “these machines might be rendered extremely useful in the defence of fortresses, outposts, redoubts, or retrenchments. Under the cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effectual discharge of musquetry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence, or considerably damp the fire of the enemy. The garde pluie is capable of being much improved. Light corps ought to be particularly anxious for its adoption, as the service in which they are generally employed, exposes their arms to every change of weather; and by means of this cover, both themselves, and their rifles, or musquets, would be secured against rain.”

Attaquer la Garde, Fr. to make an attempt on the guard.

Une forte Garde, Fr. a strong guard.

Un piquete de Garde, Fr. a piquet guard.

La Garde à pied, Fr. the foot guards.

La Garde à cheval, Fr. the horse guards.

La Garde Ecossoise, Fr. the Scotch guards.

La Garde Irelandoise, Fr. the Irish guards.

Faire monter la Garde, Fr. to set the guard.

Etre de Garde, Fr. to be upon guard.

Monter la Garde, Fr. to mount guard.

Descendre la Garde, Fr. to come off guard.

Rélever ou changer la Garde, Fr. to relieve guard.

La Garde montante, Fr. the guard that mounts, or the new guard.

La Garde descendante, Fr. the guard that comes off, or the old guard.

Garde à vous, Fr. A cautionary phrase made use of in the French service. We formerly adopted the term, take care, or have a care—at present we use the word attention, which is usually pronounced ’tention.

GARDENS, in ancient military history, places of resort to practice military exercises.

GARGOUILLIS, Fr. the powder with which cannon is charged.

GARGOUSSE, Fr. a cartouch, a cartridge.

GARGOUSSIERE, Fr. a pouch for cartridges.

GARLAND, a sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. The word is formed of the French guirlande, and that of the barbarous Latin garlanda, or Italian ghirlanda. Both in ancient and modern times it has been customary to present garlands of flowers to warriors who have distinguished themselves. Among the French the practice is still familiar. A beautiful young woman is generally selected for the purpose.

GARNIR d’artillerie, Fr. to line with artillery. Un rampart garni de grosse artillerie, a rampart covered or lined with heavy ordnance.

Se GARNIR, Fr. To seize.

GARNISH-nails. Diamond headed nails, formerly used to ornament artillery carriages.

GARNISON, Fr. See Garrison.

GARNITURE. See Equipage, &c.

Garrison des Janissaires, Fr. The elite or flower of the Janissaries of Constantinople is frequently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants is doubted. The Janissaries do not indeed assist in the immediate defence of a besieged town or fortress, but they watch the motions of all suspected persons, and are subject to the orders of their officers, who usually command the garrison.

GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces, disposed in a fortress or fortified town, to defend it against the enemy, or to keep the inhabitants in subjection; or even to be subsisted during the winter season: hence garrison and winter-quarters are sometimes used indiscriminately for the same thing; while at others they denote different things. In the latter case a garrison is a place wherein forces are maintained to secure it, and where they keep regular guards, as a frontier town, a citadel, castle, tower &c. The garrison should always be stronger than the townsmen.

Winter-quarters signifies a place where a number of forces are laid up in the winter season, without keeping the regular guard. See Winter-quarters.

Garrison-town, generally a strong place in which troops are quartered, and do duty, for the security thereof, keeping strong guards at each port, and a main-guard in, or near the market-place.

Order of the GARTER, an English order of knighthood, instituted by Edward III. This order consists of 26 knights companions, whereof the king of England is the sovereign or chief.

This piece of regal mummery is not strictly military, but is inserted here as matter of curiosity.

All these officers, except the prelate, have fees and pensions. The college of the order is in the castle of Windsor, with the chapel of St. George, and the chapter-house, erected by the founder for that purpose. The habit and ensign of the order are, a garter, mantle, cap, George, and collar. The 3 first were assigned the knights companions by the founders; and the George and collar by king Henry VIII. The garter challenges pre-eminence over all other parts of the dress, because from it the noble order is denominated; that it is the first part of the habit presented to foreign princes, and absent knights, who, together with all other knights elect, are therewith first adorned; and it is of such honor and grandeur, that by the bare investiture with this noble ensign, the knights are esteemed companions of the greatest military order in the world. It is worn on the left leg, between the knee and calf, and is enamelled with this motto, Honi soit qui mal y pense: that is, “Evil be to him, who evil thinks.” The meaning of which is, that king Edward having laid claim to the kingdom of France, retorted shame and defiance upon him that should dare to think amiss of the just enterprize he had undertaken, for recovering his claim to that crown; and that the bravery of those knights whom he had elected into this order, was such as would enable him to maintain the quarrel against those that thought ill of it.

The mantle is the chief of those vestments made use of upon all solemn occasions. The color of the mantle is by the statutes appointed to be blue. The length of the train of the mantle, only, distinguishes the sovereign from the knights companions. To the collar of the mantle is fixed a pair of long strings, anciently wove with blue silk only, but now twisted round, and made of Venice gold and silk, of the color of the robe, with buttons and tassels at the end. The left shoulder of the mantle is adorned with a large garter, and device Honi soit, &c. Within this is the cross of the order, which was ordained to be worn at all times by king Charles I. At length the star was introduced, being a sort of cross irradiated with beams of silver.

The collar is composed of pieces of gold in fashion of garters, the ground enamelled blue, and the motto gold.

The garter is of blue velvet bordered with fine gold wire, having commonly the letters of the motto of the same: it is, at the time of installation, buckled upon the left leg, by two of the senior companions, who receive it from the sovereign, to whom it is presented upon a velvet cushion by Garter king at arms, with the usual reverence, whilst the chancellor reads the following admonition, enjoined by the statutes. “To the honor of God omnipotent, and in memorial of the blessed martyr St. George, tie about thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter; wear it as the symbol of the most illustrious order, never to be forgotten, or laid aside; that thereby thou mayest be admonished to be courageous, and having undertaken a just war, in which thou shalt be engaged, thou mayest stand firm, valiantly fight, and successfully conquer.”

The princely garter being thus buckled on, and the words of its signification pronounced, the knight elect is brought before the sovereign, who puts about his neck, kneeling, a sky colored riband, whereon is appendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the image of St. George on horseback, with his sword drawn, encountering the dragon. In the mean time the chancellor reads the following admonition: “Wear this riband about thy neck, adorned with the image of the blessed martyr and soldier of Christ, St. George, by whose imitation provoked, thou mayest so overpass both prosperous and adverse adventures, that having stoutly vanquished thy enemies both of body and soul, thou mayest not only receive the praise of this transient combat, but be crowned with the palm of eternal victory.”

Then the knight elect kisses his sovereign’s hand, thanks his majesty for the great honor done him, rises up, and salutes all his companions severally, who return their congratulations.

Since the institution of this order, there have been 8 emperors, and 28 kings, besides numerous sovereign princes, enrolled as companions thereof. Its origin is somewhat differently related: the common account is, that it was erected in honor of a garter of the countess of Salisbury, which she dropped dancing with king Edward, and which that prince picked up; but others think it was instituted on account of the victory over the French at Cressy, where the king ordered his garter to be displayed as a signal of the battle.

GASCONADE, a boast or vaunt of something very improbable. The term is originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony in France, who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant stories.

Gasconade, Fr. pour menterie, ródomontáde, filouterie; a lie, a ródomontáde, an imposition.

GASCONNER, Fr. to gasconade, to repeat extravagant, wild stories.

GATE, an entrance, a large door, the passage into a walled place; in a military sense, is made of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town are often of great use. The fewer ports there are in a fortress, the more you are secured against the enemy. At the opening of a gate, a party of horse is sent out to patrole in the country round the place, to discover ambuscades or lurking parties of the enemy, and to see if the country be clear.

GAUCHE, Fr. The left.

A Gauche, Fr. On the left.

GAUGE. See Standard.

GAUGES, in gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter of all kinds of shot with expedition.

GAULS, the name given by the Romans to the inhabitants of the country that now forms part of the kingdoms of Italy and France. The countries were called cisalpine, and transalpine Gaul, with reference to the position of Rome. The original inhabitants were descended from the Celtes or Gomerians, by whom the greatest part of Europe was peopled: the name of Galli or Gauls, being probably given them long after their settlement in that country.

GAUNTELOPE. -

GAUNTLET.

See Gauntelope. Run the Gauntelope.

GAZETTE, a newspaper. The word is derived from gazetta, a Venetian coin, which was the usual price of the first newspaper printed there, and which name was afterwards given to the paper itself.

The first gazette in England was published at Oxford, the court being there, in a folio half sheet, November the 7th, 1665. On the removal of the court to London, the title was changed to the London Gazette. The Oxford Gazette was published on Tuesdays, the London on Saturdays. And these have continued to be the days of publication ever since that publication has been confined to London.

All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted. The dates specified in the gazette generally agree in every point with those of the original commissions. So that by referring to the gazette, an officer may always know the precise day on which he is entitled to receive subsistence from the agent, and to assume rank in the British army. Should an erroneous statement, however, get into the gazette, or a commission be wrong dated therein, a reference to the latter will always supersede any notification in the former.

GAZONS, in fortification, are pieces of fresh earth or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long, and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth; as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, &c. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood: and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints; and so continued till the works are finished. Betwixt those sods it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weed or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.

GEAR, furniture, equipage, or caparison.

GEAT, the hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mould in casting ordnance.

GEBEGIS. Armorers among the Turks are so called.

GEBELUS. Every timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expence. He is directed to take as many with him as would annually cost three thousand aspres (each aspre being equal to two-pence farthing English) for subsistence.

GELD, in the English old customs, a Saxon word signifying money, or tribute. It also denoted a compensation for some crime committed. Hence wergeld, in the old Saxon laws, was used for the value of a man slain; and orfgeld, for that of a beast.

GELIBACH. A sort of superintendant or chief of the gebegis, or armorers among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the toppi bachi, or the grand-master of the Turkish artillery.

GENDARMERIE, Fr. the gendarmerie was a select body of cavalry that took precedence of every regiment of horse in the French service, and ranked immediately after the king’s household. The reputation of the gendarmerie was so great, and its services so well estimated by the king of France, that when the emperor Charles V. in 1552, sent a formal embassy to the Court of Versailles to request a loan of money, and the assistance of the gendarmerie to enable him to repulse the Turks; Francis I. returned the following answer: “With respect to the first object of your mission, (addressing himself to the ambassador) I am not a banker; and with regard to the other, as my gendarmerie is the arm which supports my sceptre, I never expose it to danger, without myself sharing its fatigue and glory.”

The uniform of the gendarmerie, as well as of the light cavalry, under the old French government, was scarlet, with facings of the same color. The coat was formerly more or less laced with silver according to the king’s pleasure. A short period before the revolution, it was only laced on the cuff. The waistcoat of buff leather, and the bandouleer of the same, silver laced; the hat was edged with broad silver lace. The horse-cloths and holster-caps were red, and the arms of the captain embroidered on the corners of the saddle cloths, and on the front of the holsters. In 1762, a considerable body of men was raised by order of Louis XIV. The soldiers who composed it were called gensdarmes. And in 1792, the number was considerably augmented, consisting of horse and foot, and being indiscriminately called gens d’armes; but their clothing was altered to deep blue. Their pay was greater than what the rest of the army enjoyed, and when others were paid in paper currency, they received their subsistence in hard cash (en argent sonant.) They possessed these privileges on account of the proofs they were obliged to bring of superior claims to military honor, before they could be enlisted as gendarmes. It was necessary, in fact, that every individual amongst them should produce a certificate of six or eight years service.

GENDARMES (gens d’armes) de la garde, a select body of men so called during the old government of France, and still preserved in that country; but their services are applied to different purposes. They consisted originally of a single company which was formed by Henry IV. when he ascended the throne. He distinguished them from his other troops, by stiling them hommes d’armes de ses ordonnances; men at arms under his own immediate orders. They consisted of men best qualified for every species of military duty, and were to constitute a royal squadron at whose head the king himself might personally engage the enemy, as necessity might require. He gave this squadron to his son, the Dauphin, who was afterwards king of France, under the name and title of Louis XIII.

GENERAL, in a military sense, is an officer in chief, to whom the government of a country have judged proper to entrust the command of their troops. He holds this important trust under various titles, as captain-general, in England and Spain, feldt mareschal, in Germany, or mareschal, in France.

In the British service the king is constitutionally, and in his official right, captain-general. He has ten aids-de-camp; every one of whom enjoys the brevet rank of full colonel in the army. Next to the king is the commander in chief, whom he sometimes honors with the title of captain-general. During the expedition to Holland the Duke of York was entrusted with this important charge.

The natural qualities of a General, are a martial genius, a solid judgment, a healthy robust constitution, intrepidity and presence of mind on critical occasions, indefatigability in business, goodness of heart, liberality, a reasonable age; if too young, he may want experience and prudence; if too old, he may not have vivacity enough. His conduct must be uniform, his temper affable, but inflexible in maintaining the police and discipline of an army.

Acquired qualities of a General should be secrecy, justice, sobriety, temperance, knowlege of the art of war from theory and practice, the art of commanding, and speaking with precision and exactness; great attention to preserve the lives and supply the wants of the soldiers, and a constant study of the characters of the officers of his army, that he may employ them according to their talents. His conduct appears in establishing his magazines in the most convenient places; in examining the country, that he may not engage his troops too far, while he is ignorant of the means of bringing them off; in subsisting them, and in knowing how to take the most advantageous posts, either for fighting, retreating, or shunning a battle. His experience inspires his army with confidence, and an assurance of victory; and his good qualities, by creating respect, augment his authority. By his liberality he gets intelligence of the strength and designs of the enemy, and by this means is enabled to take the most successful measures. He ought to be fond of glory, to have an aversion to flattery, to render himself beloved, and to keep a strict discipline and regular subordination.

The office of a General is to regulate the march and encampment of the army; in the day of battle to choose out the most advantageous ground; to make the disposition of the corps; to post the artillery, and, where there is occasion, to send his orders by his aids-de-camp. At a siege he is to cause the place to be invested, to regulate the approaches and attacks, to visit the works, and to send out detachments to secure the convoy and foraging parties.

GENERALISSIMO, a supreme and absolute commander in the field. This word is generally used in most foreign languages. It was first invented by the absolute authority of cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

General of the artillery. See Ordnance.

Generals of horse are officers next under the general of the army. They have an absolute command over the horse belonging to an army, above the lieutenant generals.

Generals of foot are officers next under the general of the army, having an absolute command over the foot of the army.

General officers. All officers above the rank of colonel in the line are so called.

General. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant generals. Those belonging to the infantry, in the imperial service, and who are of this description, are called general field zeugmeisters. In Russia they bear the title of generals in chief; of which class there are four belonging to the armies of that empire, two for the infantry and two for the cavalry. They are only subordinate to field marshals; which title or dignity is the same in Russia as was formerly that of marshal of France.

In the two imperial armies just mentioned, it is usual for generals, lieutenant generals, and major generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps, to which they were originally appointed, until they arrive at a chief command; whereas in France a major general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.

General chez les Turcs, Fr. Turkish generals.

The Turks have had brave generals. They possess experience, because from their earliest infancy they become inured to arms; because through the different stages of acknowleged service, they rise by degrees; and because their empire being very extensive, it is necessary that they should over-run several provinces for its protection, and be almost constantly engaged in skirmishes or battles. These, at least, were the original principles upon which the military code of that country was established. But abuses, the natural consequences of corruption, have since crept in amongst them; for there have been persons suddenly raised from subordinate employments under the Porte to the supreme command of armies. The primary cause of this abuse is to be found in the luxury and effeminacy of the grand signors, who are become heedless of the Mahomedan laws, and never go to war in person.

The acknowleged valor of the Turkish generals may be attributed to the following causes. To a constitution which is naturally robust, to a practical knowlege of war, and to habitual military exercises.

To these may be added the confidence with which they are inspired by the recollection of former victories; but they are influenced above all, by the secret dictates of a religion, which holds out eternal happiness to those who shall die in battle, and which teaches them to believe, that every Turk bears written on the forehead, not only the hour of his departure from this earth, but the manner of his removal.

A Turkish general possesses a power as absolute and uncontroled as that which was entrusted to the dictators of the Roman republic. He has no competitor, or equal in the charge he holds, no assistants or colleagues with whom he is directed to consult, and to whose assent or dissent, in matters of consultation, he is to pay the least regard. Not only the army under his command, but the whole country into which he marches, is subject to his orders, and bound implicitly to obey them. Punishments and rewards are equally within his distribution. If an authority so absolute as this be considered in the light of executive effect, nothing most unquestionably can so readily produce it; for the tardiness of deliberation is superseded at once by a prompt decision, before which all sorts of objections, and every species of jealousy, subside. When a project is to be fulfilled, secrecy is the natural consequence of this arbitrary system, and rational plans are not interrupted by a difference of opinion, by prejudice, or cabal.

General de bataille, -

General major,

a particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a ci-devant marshal of France. This situation is entrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major generals do, of all brigadier generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant generals. The rank of brigadier general is known in France, Russia, England, Holland, and the United States. It does not exist in Austria or Sweden.

General des galéres, Fr. Superintendant officer, or general of the gallies. This was one of the most important appointments belonging to the old government of France. The officer to whom it was entrusted commanded all the gallies, and vessels which bore what the French call voiles latines (a triangle rectangular sail) in the Mediterranean. He had a jurisdiction, a marine police, and an arsenal for constructing ships under his own immediate command, without being in the least subordinate to the French admiralty board. When he went on board he was only inferior in rank to the admiral.

The privileges which were attached to his situation, and the authority he possessed with regard to every other marine, or sea officer, were specifically mentioned in the king’s regulations, and were distinguished by the respect and compliments that were paid to the royal standard, which this general bore, not only on board his own galley, but whenever he chose to hoist it in another.

During the reign of Louis XIV. in 1669, the Duke de Vivone, marshal of France, raised the reputation of the galley service, to a considerable degree of eminence, by gaining several hard fought engagements. His son the Duke de Mortemart succeeded him in the appointment; and the chevalier d’Orleans, grand prior of France, was general of the gallies at his decease.

General des vivres, Fr. a sort of chief commissary, or superintendant general of stores, whose particular functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit for the army. There were several subordinate commissaries who watched the distribution of these stores, and saw, that the bakers gave bread of the quality they contracted for. It was likewise within the department of the superintendant general to attend to the collection of grain and flour, and to see that proper carriages and horses were always at hand to convey them to the several depots or magazines. The different camps were also supplied from the same source. See Munitionnaire.

General and staff officers are all officers as above described, whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a particular regiment or company, and who have either separate districts at home, or commands on foreign service.

Lieutenant General, this office is the first military dignity after that of a general. One part of the functions belonging to lieutenant generals, is to assist the general with counsel: they ought therefore, if possible, to possess the same qualities with the general himself; and the more, as they often command armies in chief, or succeed thereto on the death of the general.

The number of lieutenant generals have been multiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies have become numerous. They serve either in the field, or in sieges, according to the dates of their commissions. In battle the oldest commands the right wing of the army, the second the left wing, the third the centre, the fourth the right wing of the second line, the fifth the left wing, the sixth the centre, and so on. In sieges the lieutenant generals always command the right of the principal attack, and order what they judge proper for the advancement of the siege, during the 24 hours they are in the trenches, except the attacks, which they are not to make without an order from the general in chief. Lieutenant generals are entitled to two aids-de-camp.

Lieutenant General of the ordnance. See Ordnance.

Lieutenant General of artillery, is, or ought to be, a very able mathematician, and a skilful engineer, to know all the powers of artillery, to understand the attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different branches; how to dispose of the artillery in the day of battle to the best advantage; to conduct its march and retreat; as also to be well acquainted with all the numerous apparatus belonging to the train, laboratory, &c.

Major General, the next officer to the lieutenant general. His chief business is to receive orders from the general, or in his absence from the lieutenant general of the day; which he is to distribute to the brigade-majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, convoys, detachments, &c. On him the whole fatigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the major general of the day who is charged with the encampment of the army, who places himself at the head of it when it marches, who marks out the ground of the camp to the quarter-master-general, and who places the new guards for the safety of the camp.

The day the army is to march, he dictates to the field officers the order of the march, which he has received from the general, and on other days gives them the parole.

In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging, with reconnoitring the ground for it, posting the escorts, &c.

In sieges, if there are two separate attacks, the second belongs to him; but if there be only one, he takes either from the right or left of the attack, that which the lieutenant general has not chosen.

When the army is under arms, he assists the lieutenant general, whose orders he executes.

If the army marches to an engagement, his post is at the head of the guards of the army, until they are near enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps; after which he retires to his own proper post; for the major generals are disposed on the order of battle as the lieutenant generals are, to whom however, they are subordinate, for the command of their divisions. The major general has one aid-de-camp and one brigade major.

Brigadier General, is the next rank to that of major general, being superior to all colonels, and having frequently a separate command.

General of a district, a general officer who has the charge and superintendance of a certain extent of country, in which troops are encamped, quartered, or cantoned. He is entitled to have three aids-de-camp and one brigade major.

He receives reports, &c. from the major general, respecting the troops in his district; reviews and inspects them, likewise orders field days of the whole, brigaded, or by separate corps, when and in what part he pleases, making the necessary reports to the war-office, commander in chief, &c.

Colonel General, an honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus the prince of the peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.

Brigade major General. As England and Scotland have been divided into different districts, each district under the immediate command of a general officer, it has been found necessary, for the dispatch of business, to establish an office, which shall be solely confined to brigade duties. The first brigade major general was appointed in 1797. Since which period all orders relative to corps of officers, which are transmitted from the commander in chief to the generals of districts, pass through this channel of intermediate communication.

By the British regulations, it is particularly directed, that all general officers commanding brigades, shall very minutely inspect the internal œconomy and discipline of the several regiments under their order. They are frequently to visit the hospitals and guards. On arriving in camp they are never to leave their brigades till the tents are pitched, and the guards posted; they must always encamp with their brigades, unless quarters can be procured for them immediately in the vicinity of their camp. General officers must not at any time change the quarters assigned them, without leave from head quarters.

All general officers should make themselves acquainted, as soon as possible, with the situation of the country near the camp, with the roads, passes, bridges, &c. leading to it; and likewise with the out-posts, that in case they should be ordered suddenly to sustain, or defend any post, they may be able to march without waiting for guides, and be competent, from a topographical knowlege of the country, to form the best disposition for the service. They should instruct their aids-de-camp in these particulars, and always require their attendance when they visit the out-posts.

All general officers, and others in considerable command, must make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the country, the quality of the roads, every circuitous access through vallies or openings, the relative height of the neighboring hills, and the course of rivers, which are to be found within the space entrusted to their care. These important objects may be attained by maps, by acquired local information, and by unremitting activity and observation. And if it should ever be the fate of a country, to act upon the defensive, a full and accurate possession of all its fastnesses, &c. must give each general officer a decided advantage over the commanding officer of an enemy, who cannot have examined the ground upon which he may be reduced to fight, and must be embarrassed in every forward movement that he makes. Although guides may serve, and ought always to be used in the common operations of marches, there are occasions where the eye and intelligence of the principal officers must determine the movements of troops, and enable them to seize and improve every advantage that occurs as the enemy approaches.

General officers on service abroad, or commanding districts at home, may appoint their own aids-de-camp and brigade majors. The latter, however, are to be considered as officers attached to their several brigades, not personally to the officers commanding them. The former are their habitual attendants and domestic inmates. In the selection of aids-de-camp and brigade majors, too much attention cannot be given to their requisite qualifications; and that general would not only commit an act of injustice against the interests of his country, but deserve the severest censure and displeasure of his sovereign, who through motives of private convenience, family connexion, or convivial recommendation, could so far forget his duty, as to prefer an unexperienced stripling, to a character marked by a knowlege of the profession, a zeal for the service, and an irreproachable conduct.

In the day of battle the station of a general is with the reserve, where he remains so situated that he can see every thing which is going forward; and by means of his own observation, or through the communications of his aids-de-camp, is enabled to send reinforcements, as the exigencies of the conflict may require.

The celebrated Marshal Saxe has made the following remarks on the necessary qualifications to form a good general. The most indispensible one, according to his idea, is valor, without which all the rest will prove nugatory. The next is a sound understanding with some genius; for he must not only be courageous, but be extremely fertile in expedients; the third is health and a robust constitution.

“His mind must be capable of prompt and vigorous resources; he must have an aptitude, and a talent at discovering the designs of others, without betraying the slightest trace of his own intentions. He must be seemingly communicative, in order to encourage others to unbosom, but remain tenaciously reserved in matters that concern his own army; he must, in a word, possess activity with judgment, be able to make a proper choice of his officers, and never deviate from the strictest line of military justice. Old soldiers must not be rendered wretched and unhappy, by unwarrantable promotions, nor must extraordinary talents be kept back to the detriment of the service, on account of mere rules and regulations. Great abilities will justify exceptions; but ignorance and inactivity will not make up for years spent in the profession.

“In his deportment he must be affable, and always superior to peevishness, or ill-humor; he must not know, or at least seem to know, what a spirit of resentment is; and when he is under the necessity of inflicting military chastisement, he must see the guilty punished without compromise or foolish humanity; and if the delinquent be from among the number of his most intimate friends, he must be doubly severe towards the unfortunate man. For it is better, in instances of correction, that one individual should be treated with rigor (by orders of the person over whom he may be supposed to hold some influence,) than that an idea should go forth in the army, of public justice being sacrificed to private sentiments.

“A modern general should always have before him the example of Manlius; he must divest himself of personal sensations, and not only be convinced himself, but convince others, that he is the organ of military justice, and that what he does is irrevocably prescribed. With these qualifications, and by this line of conduct, he will secure the affections of his followers, instil into their minds all the impulses of deference and respect; he will be feared, and consequently obeyed.

“The resources of a general’s mind are as various as the occasions for the exercise of them are multiplied and chequered; he must be perfectly master of the art of knowing how to support an army in all circumstances and situations, how to apply its strength, or be sparing of its energy and confidence; how to post all its different component parts, so as not to be forced to give, or receive battle in opposition to settled plans. When once engaged, he must have presence of mind enough to grasp all the relative points of disposition and arrangement, to seize favorable moments for impression, and to be thoroughly conversant in the infinite vicissitudes that occur during the heat of a battle; on a ready possession of which its ultimate success depends. These requisites are unquestionably manifold, and grow out of the diversity of situations, and the chance medley of events that produce their necessity.

“A general to be in perfect possession of them, must on the day of battle be divested of every thought, and be inaccessible to every feeling, but what immediately regards the business of the day; he must reconnoitre with the promptitude of a skilful geographer, whose eye collects instantaneously all the relative portions of locality; and feels his ground as it were by instinct; and in the disposition of his troops, he must discover a perfect knowlege of his profession, and make all his arrangements with accuracy and dispatch. His orders of battle must be simple and unconfused, and the execution of his plan be as quick as if it merely consisted in uttering some few words of command; as, the first line will attack! the second will support it! or such a battalion will advance and support the line.

“The general officers that act under such a general, must be ignorant of their business indeed, if, upon the receipt of these orders, they should be deficient in the immediate means of answering them, by a prompt and ready co-operation. So that the general has only to issue out directions according to the growth of circumstances, and to rest satisfied, that every division will act in conformity to his intentions; but if, on the contrary, he should so far forget his situation as to become a drill serjeant in the heat of action, he must find himself in the case of the fly in the fable, which perched upon a wheel and foolishly imagined, that the motion of the carriage was influenced by its situation. A general, therefore, ought on the day of battle to be thoroughly master of himself, and to have both his mind and his eye rivetted to the immediate scene of action. He will by these means be enabled to see every thing; his judgment will be unembarrassed, and he will instantly discover all the vulnerable points of the enemy. The instant a favorable opening offers, by which the contest may be decided, it becomes his duty to head the nearest body of troops, and, without any regard to personal safety, to advance against his enemy’s line. [By a ready conception of this sort, joined to a great courage, general Desaix determined the issue of the battle of Marengo.] It is, however, impossible for any man to lay down rules, or to specify, with accuracy, all the different ways by which a victory may be obtained. Every thing depends upon variety of situations, casualties of events, and intermediate occurrences which no human foresight can positively ascertain, but which may be converted to good purposes by a quick eye, a ready conception, and a prompt execution.

“Prince Eugene was singularly gifted with these qualifications, particularly with that sublime possession of the mind, which constitutes the essence of a military character.

“Many commanders in chief have been so limited in their ideas of warfare, that when events have brought the contest to issue, and two rival armies have been drawn out for action, their whole attention has devolved upon a straight alignement, an equality of step, or a regular distance in intervals of columns. They have considered it sufficient to give answers to questions proposed by their aids-de-camp, to send orders in various directions and to gallop themselves from one quarter to another, without steadily adhering to the fluctuations of the day, or calmly watching for an opportunity to strike a decisive blow. They endeavor, in fact, to do every thing, and thereby do nothing. They appear like men, whose presence of mind deserts them the instant they are taken out of the beaten track, or are reduced to supply unexpected calls by uncommon exertions; and from whence continues the same sensible writer, do these contradictions arise? from an ignorance of these high qualifications without which the mere routine of duty, methodical arrangement, and studied discipline must fall to the ground, and defeat themselves. Many officers spend their whole lives in putting a few regiments through a regular set of manœuvres; and having done so, they vainly imagine, that all the science of a real military man consists in that acquirement. When, in process of time, the command of a large army falls to their lot, they are manifestly lost in the magnitude of the undertaking, and from not knowing how to act as they ought, they remain satisfied with doing what they have partially learned.

“Military knowlege, as far as it regards a general or commander in chief, may be divided into two parts, one comprehending mere discipline and settled systems for putting a certain number of rules into practice; and the other originating a sublimity of conception, that method may assist, but cannot give.

“If a man be not born with faculties that are naturally adapted to the situation of a general, and if his talents do not fit the extraordinary casualties of war, he will never rise beyond mediocrity.

“It is, in fact, in war as it is in painting, or in music. Perfection in either art grows out of innate talents, but it never can be acquired without them. Study and perseverance may correct ideas, but no application, no assiduity will give the life and energy of action; those are the works of nature.

“It has been my fate (observes the Marshal) to see several very excellent colonels become indifferent generals. I have known others, who have distinguished themselves at sieges, and in the different evolutions of an army, lose their presence of mind and appear ignorant of their profession, the instant they were taken from that particular line, and be incapable of commanding a few squadrons of horse. Should a man of this cast be put at the head of an army, he will confine himself to mere dispositions and manœuvres; to them he will look for safety; and if once thwarted, his defeat will be inevitable, because his mind is not capable of other resources.

“In order to obviate in the best possible manner, the innumerable disasters which must arise from the uncertainty of war, and the greater uncertainty of the means that are adopted to carry it on, some general rules ought to be laid down, not only for the government of the troops, but for the instruction of those who have the command of them. The principles to be observed, are: that when the line or the columns advance, their distances should be scrupulously observed; that whenever a body of troops is ordered to charge, every proportion of the line should rush forward with intrepidity and vigor; that if openings are made in the first line it becomes the duty of the second instantly to fill up the chasms.

“These instructions issue from the dictates of plain nature, and do not require the least elucidation in writing. They constitute the A, B, C, of soldiers. Nothing can be more simple, or more intelligible; so much so, that it would be ridiculous in a general to sacrifice essential objects in order to attend to such minutiæ. His functions in the day of battle are confined to those occupations of the mind, by which he is enabled to watch the countenance of the enemy, to observe his movements, and to see with an eagle’s, or a king of Prussia’s eye, all the relative directions that his opponents take. It must be his business to create alarms and suspicions among the enemy’s line in one quarter, whilst his real intention is to act against another; to puzzle and disconcert him in his plans; to take advantage of the manifold openings, which his feints have produced, and when the contest is brought to issue, to be capable of plunging with effect, upon the weakest part, and of carrying the sword of death where its blows is certain of being mortal. But to accomplish these important and indispensible points, his judgment must be clear, his mind collected, his heart firm, and his eyes incapable of being diverted, even for a moment, by the trifling occurrences of the day.

“I am not, however, an advocate for pitched battles, especially at the commencement of a war. A skilful general might, I am persuaded, carry on a contest between two rival nations during the whole of his life, without being once obliged to come to a decisive action. Nothing harrasses and eventually distresses an enemy so much as this species of warfare. He must, in fact, be frequently attacked, and by degrees, be broken and unnerved; so that in a short time he will not be able to shew himself.

“It must not generally be inferred from this opinion, that when an opportunity presents itself, whereby an enemy may be crushed at once, the attack should not be made, or that advantage should not be taken of the errors he may commit; all I mean to prove is, that war can be carried on without leaving any thing to chance; and in this consists the perfection and highest point of ability belonging to a general. But when a battle is risked, the triumphant party ought well to know all the advantages which may be derived from his victory. A wise general, indeed, will not remain satisfied in having made himself master of the mere field of battle. This, I am sorry to observe, is too often the custom; and, strange to say, that custom is not without its advocates.

“It is too much the practice of some governments, and as often the custom of generals, to follow the old proverb, which says, that in order to gain your ends, you must make some sacrifices, and even facilitate the retreat of your enemy. Nothing can be more impolitic or more absurd. An able surgeon might as well tamper with a mortification, and by endeavoring to save an useless limb, run the hazard of destroying all the vital parts.

“An enemy, on the contrary, ought to be vigorously pushed, harrassed night and day, and pursued through every winding he can make. By a conduct of this sort, the advancing army will drive him from all his holds and fastnesses, and the conclusion of his brilliant retreat, will ultimately turn out a complete and total overthrow. Ten thousand well trained and disciplined troops, that are sent forward from the main army, to hang upon the rear of a retiring enemy, will be able to destroy an army of an hundred thousand men, when that army has once been forced to make retrograde movements. A want of confidence in their generals, added to many other disheartening circumstances, will naturally possess the minds of the latter, while implicit faith and warm affection must influence the former. A first defeat well followed up, almost always terminates in a total rout, and finishes the contest. But some generals do not wish to bring war to a speedy issue. Public misfortunes too frequently produce private emoluments, and the accumulation of the latter is too endearing to suffer itself to be superseded by the former.”

In order to substantiate what he thus advances with much good sense, the Marshal cites the following particular instance, from among an infinity of others.

“When the French army, at the battle of Ramillies, was retiring in good order over an eminence that was rather confined, and on both sides of which there were deep ravines, the cavalry belonging to the allies followed its track leisurely, without even appearing to wish to harrass or attack its rear. The French continued their march with the same composure; retreating upon more than twenty lines, on account of the narrowness of the ground.

“On this occasion, a squadron of English horse got close to two French battalions, and began to fire upon them. The two battalions, naturally presuming that they were going to be attacked, came to the right about, and fired a volley at the squadron. What was the consequence? the whole of the French army took to its heels; the cavalry went off full gallop, and all the infantry, instead of patiently retiring over the heights, threw itself into the ravines in such dreadful disorder, that the ground above was almost instantly abandoned, and not a French soldier was seen upon it.

“Let any military man consider this notorious event, and then praise the regularity of a retreat and the prudent foresight of those who, after an enemy has been vanquished in the field, relax in their exertions, and give him time to breathe. I do not, however, pretend to maintain, that all the forces of a victorious army should be employed to follow up the pursuit; but I am decidedly of opinion, that large bodies should be detached for that purpose, and that the flying enemy should be annoyed as long as the day lasts. This must be done in good order. And let it be remembered, that when an enemy has once taken to his heels in real earnest, you may drive him before you by the mere noise of empty bladders.

“If the officer who is detached in pursuit of an enemy, begins to manœuvre after prescribed rules and regulations, and operate with slowness and precaution, he had better be recalled; for the sole purpose of his employment is to push on vigorously, to harrass and distress the foe. Every species of evolution will do on this occasion; if any can be defective, the regular system might prove so.

“I shall conclude these observations by saying, that all retreats depend wholly upon the talents and abilities of generals, who must themselves be governed by circumstances and situations; but I will venture to assert, that no retreat can eventually succeed, unless it be made before an enemy who acts with extreme caution; for if the latter follow up his first blow, the vanquished army must soon be thrown into utter confusion.”

These are the sentiments of Marshal Saxe, as far as they relate to the qualifications which the general of an army should indispensibly possess. And no man we are persuaded was better enabled to form an opinion on so important a subject; for as baron Espagnac has justly observed in his Supplément aux Rêveries de ce Mar, p. 166, he possessed uncommon courage, was fertile in expedients and resources; he knew how to distinguish and to make use of the abilities of individuals, was unshaken in his determinations; and when the good of the service required chastisement or severity, was not influenced by private feelings, or hurried away by a sanguinary temper; he was uncommonly attentive to his men, watchful of their health, and provident to supply their wants; sparing of their blood in the day of battle, and always inspiring them, by the liveliness of his mind, tempered by experience, with confidence and attachment to his measures. He knew the cast of each man’s character, particularly so of his officers; and whilst he directed the former with consummate knowlege and consequent success, he never lost sight of the merits of the latter, when they co-operated with his designs. If the natural vivacity of his mind sometimes led him into temporary neglect, good sense and a marked anxiety to be just, soon made amends for apparent slights, by rendering the most important services; he was ingenious and subtle in all his manœuvres before an enemy, skilful in his choice of camps, and equally intelligent in that of posts; he was plain in his instructions previous to an engagement, simple in his disposition of the order of battle; and he was never known to lose an opportunity, through the want of prompt decision, whereby a contest might be ended by a bold and daring evolution. When it appeared necessary to give weight to his orders, and to turn the balance of fortune by personal exposure, no man became less fearful of his own destiny, than Marshal Saxe. On these occasions he was daring to an extreme, heedless of danger, but full of judgment, and a calm presence of mind. Such, in our humble opinion, are the outlines of a real general, how well they were exemplified and filled up by the subject of this article, time and the concurring testimony of events have proved.

General’s Guard. It was customary among the French, for the oldest regiment to give one captain, one lieutenant, one ensign, two serjeants, and fifty privates, as a general’s guard. Whenever the marshals of France were on service under the immediate orders of the king, or of the princes belonging to the royal household, they always retained the rank of general.

General d’armée, Fr. the commander in chief of any army.

Battre la General, Fr. to beat the general. See Drum.

General court-martial. See Courts martial.

General formations of the battalion, are from line into column, and from column into line by echellon; to either flank, to the front, or on a line oblique to any given point front or rear.

General, is also used for a particular beat of the drum. See Drum.

GENETTE, Fr. a particular sort of snaffle, which is used among the Turks; it resembles a large ring, and serves to confine the horse’s tongue.

GENIE, Fr. The art of engineering. It consists in a knowlege of lines so as to be able to trace out all that is requisite for the attack or defence of places, according to established rules in fortification. Marshal Vauban and the marquis of Louvois, have particularly distinguished themselves in this art.

GENIUS, in a military sense, a natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well, and easily, that which others can do but indifferently, and with a great deal of pains.

From the diversity of genius, the difference of inclination arises in men whom nature has had the precaution of leading to the employment for which she designs them, with more or less impetuosity, in proportion to the greater or lesser number of obstacles they have to surmount, in order to render themselves capable of answering this occasion. Thus the inclinations of men are so very different, because they follow the same mover, that is the impulse of their genius. This is what renders one officer more pleasing, even though he trespasses against the rules of war; while others are disagreeable notwithstanding their strict regularity.

GENOUILLIERE, Fr. the lower part of the embrasure of a battery. The genouilliere is about 2¹⁄₂ or 3 French feet high from the platform to the opening of the embrasure. It lies immediately under the arch of the fortification. Its thickness, which usually consists of fascines well put together, is of the same dimensions that merlons bear; namely from 18 to 22 feet. The term genouilliere is derived from genou, signifying the knee, to the height of which it is generally raised.

GENS, Fr. a word in much desultory use among the French, signifying in a general acceptation of it, folks, people, servants, soldiers, &c.

Gens d’armes. See Gendarmes.

Gens de guerre, Fr. men attached to a military profession.

Mes Gens, Fr. an affected phrase, which was formerly used among the French, to signify their servants or attendants. It seems to have been an arrogant and foolish imitation of mon peuple, my people. During the monarchy of France, this term was in much vogue at Paris, and was afterwards adopted by almost all the petits maitres, or coxcombs belonging to the church, state, and army.

Gens de sac et de corde, Fr. an opprobrious term which the French apply to men that deserve chastisement. In former times, the cord or rope, and the sack, were the common instruments and means of punishment. The ropes served to hang up malefactors: and the sack was used to contain their bodies when it was ordained that they should be thrown into a river.

Gens de mer, Fr. sea-faring men.

Gens de l’équipage, Fr. men belonging to the train of artillery.

Gent. Fr. Nation. It is only used in poetry, viz. La gent, qui porte le Turban. The Turkish Nation. In the plural number it is only accepted according to the following significations.

Le droit des Gens, Fr. the rights of nations.

Violer le droit des Gens, Fr. to infringe or violate the rights of nations.

Respecter le droit des Gens, Fr. to respect the rights of nations.

Un traité du troit des Gens, Fr. a treatise on the rights of nations.

The following phrases are in familiar use among the French, viz.

Gens de marque, Fr. men of distinction.

Gens de condition, Fr. men of condition.

Gens d’honneur, Fr. men of honor.

Gens de qualité, Fr. men of fashion, or quality.

Gens de coeur, Fr. men of spirit.

Gens d’epée, Fr. this term is used among the French, to distinguish officers, gentlemen, &c. who wear swords, from those who do not, particularly so in opposition to gens de la robe, or lawyers.

Gens de main, Fr. executive characters.

Gens de service, Fr. useful men, persons of exertions.

Gens de pied, Fr. The same as fantassins, foot soldiers, or men who serve on foot.

Gens de cheval, Fr. cavalry, or men who serve on horseback.