M. (continued 5)
Reading edition
Memoir is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war or military economy.
MEMORIAL, an address to the government on any matter of public service.
BATTALION-MEN. All the soldiers belonging to the different companies of an infantry regiment are so called, except those of the two flank companies.
Camp-Color MEN. Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quarter-master of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, &c. to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, &c. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call Jalonneurs. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties.
Drag-rope MEN. In the old artillery exercise, the men attached to light or heavy pieces of ordnance, for the purpose of advancing or retreating in action, were so called; the drag rope being exploded for the bricole, the term is preserved merely for explanation. The French servans à la prolonge are of this description.
MENACE, an hostile threat. Any officer or soldier using menacing words or gestures in presence of a court-martial, or to a superior officer, is punishable for the same.—See the Articles of War.
MENSURATION, in general, denotes the act or art of measuring lines, superficies, and solids.
Mensuration, in military mathematics, is the art or science which treats of the measure of extension, or the magnitude of figures; and it is, next to arithmetic, a subject of the greatest use and importance, both in affairs that are absolutely necessary in human life, and in every branch of mathematics: a subject by which sciences are established, and commerce is conducted; by whose aid we manage our business, and inform ourselves of the wonderful operations in nature; by which we measure the heavens and the earth, estimate the capacities of all vessels and bulks of all bodies, gauge our liquors, build edifices, measure our lands and the works of artificers, buy and sell an infinite variety of things necessary in life, and are supplied with the means of making the calculations which are necessary for the construction of almost all machines.
It is evident that the close connection of this subject with the affairs of men would very early evince its importance to them; and accordingly the greatest among them have paid the utmost attention to it; and the chief and most essential discoveries in geometry in all ages, have been made in consequence of their efforts in this subject. Socrates thought that the prime use of geometry was to measure the ground, and indeed this business gave name to the subject; and most of the ancients seem to have had no other end besides mensuration in view in all their labored geometrical disquisitions. Euclid’s elements are almost entirely devoted to it; and although there be contained in them many properties of geometrical figures, which may be applied to other purposes, and indeed of which the moderns have made the most material uses in various disquisitions of exceedingly different kinds; notwithstanding this, Euclid himself seems to have adapted them entirely to this purpose: for, if it be considered that his elements contain a continued chain of reasoning, and of truths, of which the former are successively applied to the discovery of the latter, one proposition depending on another, and the succeeding propositions still approximating towards some particular object near the end of each book; and when at the last we find that object to be the quality, proportion or relation between the magnitudes of figures both plane and solid; it is scarcely possible to avoid allowing this to have been Euclid’s grand object. And accordingly he determined the chief properties in the mensuration of rectilineal plane and solid figures; and squared all such planes, and cubed all such solids. The only curve figures which he attempted besides, are the circle and sphere; and when he could not accurately determine their measures, he gave an excellent method of approximating to them, by shewing how in a circle to inscribe a regular polygon which should not touch another circle, concentric with the former, although their circumferences should be ever so near together; and, in like manner, between any two concentric spheres to describe a polyhedron which should not any where touch the inner one: and approximations to their measures are all that have hitherto been given. But although he could not square the circle, nor cube the sphere, he determined the proportion of one circle to another, and of one sphere to another, as well as the proportions of all rectilineal similar figures to one another.
Archimedes took up mensuration where Euclid left it, and carried it a great length. He was the first who squared a curvilineal space, unless Hypocrates must be excepted on account of his lunes. In his times the conic sections were admitted in geometry, and he applied himself closely to the measuring of them as well as other figures. Accordingly he determined the relations of spheres, spheroids, and conoids, to cylinders and cones; and the relations of parabolas to rectilineal planes whose quadratures had long before been determined by Euclid. He hath left us also his attempts upon the circle: he proved that a circle is equal to a right angled triangle, whose base is equal to the circumference, and its altitude equal to the radius; and consequently that its area is found by drawing the radius into half the circumference; and so reduced the quadrature of the circle to the determination of the ratio of the diameter to the circumference; but which however hath not yet been done. Being disappointed of the exact quadrature of the circle, for want of the rectification of its circumference, which all his methods would not effect, he proceeded to assign an useful approximation to it: this he effected by the numerical calculation of the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons; from which calculations it appears, that the perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of 192 sides is to the diameter in a less ratio than that of 3¹⁄₇ (3¹⁰⁄₇₀) to 1, and that the inscribed polygon of 96 sides is to the diameter in a greater ratio than that of 3¹⁰⁄₇₁ to 1; and consequently much more than the circumference of the circle is to the diameter in a less ratio than that of 3¹⁄₇ to 1, but greater than that of 3¹⁰⁄₇₁ to 1: the first ratio of 3¹⁄₇ to 1, reduced to whole numbers, gives that of 22 to 7, for 3¹⁄₇ : 1 ∷ 22 : 7, which therefore will be nearly the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. From this ratio of the circumference to the diameter he computed the approximate area of the circle, and found it to be to the square of the diameter as 11 to 14. He likewise determined the relation between the circle and elipsis, with that of their similar parts. The hyperbola too in all probability he attempted; but it is not to be supposed, that he met with any success, since approximations to its area are all that can be given by all the methods that have since been invented.
Besides these figures, he hath left us a treatise on the spiral described by a point moving uniformly along a right line, which at the same time moves with an uniform angular motion; and determined the proportion of its area to that of its circumscribed circle, as also the proportion of their sectors.
Throughout the whole works of this great man, which are chiefly on mensuration, he every where discovers the deepest design and finest invention; and seems to have been (with Euclid) exceedingly careful of admitting into his demonstrations nothing but principles perfectly geometrical and unexceptionable: and although his most general method of demonstrating the relations of curved figures to straight ones, be by inscribing polygons in them, yet to determine those relations, he does not increase the number and diminish the magnitude of the sides of the polygon ad infinitum; but from this plain fundamental principle, allowed in Euclid’s elements, viz. that any quantity may be so often multiplied, or added to itself, as that the result shall exceed any proposed finite quantity of the same kind, he proves that to deny his figures to have the proposed relations, would involve an absurdity.
He demonstrated also many properties, particularly in the parabola, by means of certain numerical progressions, whose terms are similar to the inscribed figures: but without considering such series to be continued ad infinitum, and then summing up the terms of such infinite series.
He had another very curious and singular contrivance for determining the measures of figures, in which he proceeds, as it were, mechanically by weighing them.
Several other eminent men among the ancients wrote upon this subject, both before and after Euclid and Archimedes; but their attempts were usually upon particular parts of it, and according to methods not essentially different from theirs. Among these are to be reckoned Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Bryson, Antiphon, Hypocrates of Chios, Plato, Apollonius, Philo, and Ptolomy; most of whom wrote of the quadrature of the circle, and those after Archimedes, by his method, usually extended the approximation to a greater degree of accuracy.
Many of the moderns have also prosecuted the same problem of the quadrature of the circle, after the same methods, to greater lengths: such are Viera, and Metius, whose proportion between the diameter and circumference is that of 113 to 355, which is within about ³⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀₀₀ of the true ratio; but above all, Ludolph van Ceulen, who with an amazing degree of industry and patience, by the same methods extended the ratio to 20 places of figures, making it that of 1 to 3.14159265358979323846+.
The first material deviation from the principles used by the ancients in geometrical demonstrations was made by Cavalerius: the sides of their inscribed and circumscribed figures they always supposed of a finite and assignable number and length; he introduced the doctrine of indivisibles, a method which was very general and extensive, and which with great ease and expedition served to measure and compare geometrical figures. Very little new matter however was added to geometry by this method, its facility being its chief advantage. But there was great danger in using it, and it soon led the way to infinitely small elements, and infinitesimals of endless orders; methods which were very useful in solving difficult problems, and in investigating or demonstrating theories that are general and extensive; but sometimes led their incautious followers into errors and mistakes, which occasioned disputes and animosities among them. There were now, however, many excellent things performed in this subject; not only many new things were effected concerning the old figures, but new curves were measured; and for many things which could not be exactly squared or cubed, general and infinite approximating series were assigned, of which the laws of their continuation were manifest, and of some of which the terms were independent on each other. Mr. Wallis, Mr. Huygens, and Mr. James Gregory, performed wonders. Huygens in particular must be admired for his solid, accurate, and very masterly works.
During the preceding state of things several men, whose vanity seemed to have overcome their regard for truth, asserted that they had discovered the quadrature of the circle, and published their attempts in the form of strict geometrical demonstrations, with such assurance and ambiguity as staggered and misled many who could not so well judge for themselves, and perceive the fallacy of their principles and arguments. Among those were Longomontanus, and the celebrated Hobbes, who obstinately refused all conviction of his errors.
The use of infinites was however disliked by several people, particularly by sir Isaac Newton, who among his numerous and great discoveries hath given us that of the method of fluxions; a discovery of the greatest importance both in philosophy and mathematics; it being a method so general and extensive, as to include all investigations concerning magnitude, distance, motion, velocity, time, &c. with wonderful ease and brevity; a method established by its great author upon true and incontestible principles; principles perfectly consistent with those of the ancients, and which were free from the imperfections and absurdities attending some that had lately been introduced by the moderns; he rejected no quantities as infinitely small, nor supposed any parts of curves to coincide with right lines; but proposed it in such a form as admits of a strict geometrical demonstration. Upon the introduction of this method most sciences assumed a different appearance, and the most abstruse problems became easy and familiar to every one; things which before seemed to be insuperable, became easy examples or particular cases of theories still more general and extensive; rectifications, quadratures, cubatures, tangencies, cases de maximis & minimis, and many other subjects, became general problems, and delivered in the form of general theories which included all particular cases: thus, in quadratures, an expression would be investigated which defined the areas of all possible curves whatever, both known and unknown, and which, by proper substitutions, brought out the area for any particular case, either in finite terms, or infinite series, of which any term, or any number of terms could be easily assigned; and the like in other things. And although no curve, whose quadrature was unsuccessfully attempted by the ancients, became by this method perfectly quadrable, there were assigned many general methods of approximating to their areas, of which in all probability the ancients had not the least idea or hope; and innumerable curves were squared which were utterly unknown to them.
The excellency of this method revived some hopes of squaring the circle, and its quadrature was attempted with eagerness. The quadrature of a space was now reduced to the finding of the fluent of a given fluxion; but this problem however was found to be incapable of a general solution in finite terms; the fluxion of every fluent was always assignable, but the reverse of this problem could be effected only in particular cases; among the exceptions, to the great grief of the geometers, was included the case of the circle, with regard to all the forms of fluxions attending it. Another method of obtaining the area was tried: of the quantity expressing the fluxion of any area, in general, could be assigned the fluent in the form of an infinite series, which series therefore defined all areas in general, and which, on substituting for particular cases, was often found to break off and terminate, and so afford an area in finite terms; but here again the case of the circle failed, its area still coming out an infinite series. All hopes of the quadrature of the circle being now at an end, the geometricians employed themselves, in discovering and selecting the best forms of infinite series for determining its area, among which it is evident, that those were to be preferred which were simple, and which would converge quickly; but it generally happened, that these two properties were divided, the same series very rarely including them both: the mathematicians in most parts of Europe were now busy, and many series were assigned on all hands, some admired for their simplicity, and others for their rate of convergency; those which converged the quickest, and were at the same time simplest, which therefore were most useful in computing the area of the circle in numbers, were those in which, besides the radius, the tangent of some certain arc of the circle, was the quantity by whose powers the series converged; and from some of these series the area hath been computed to a very great extent of figures: Mr. Edmund Hally gave a remarkable one from the tangent of 30 degrees, which was rendered famous by the very industrious Mr. Abraham Sharp, who by means of it extended the area of the circle to 72 places of figures, as may be seen in Sherwin’s book of logarithms; but even this was afterwards outdone by Mr. John Machin, who, by means described in professor Hutton’s Mensuration, composed a series so simple, and which converged so quickly, that by it, in a very little time, he extended the quadrature of the circle to 100 places of figures; from which it appears, that if the diameter be 1, the circumference will be 3.1415926535, 8979323846, 2643383279, 5028841971, 6939937510, 5820974944, 5923078164, 0628620899, 8628034825, 3421170679+, and consequently the area will be .7853981633, 9744830961, 5660849819, 857210492, 9234984377, 6455243736, 1480769541, 0157155224, 9657008706, 3355292669+.
From hence it appears, that all or most of the material improvements or inventions in the principles or method of treating of geometry, have been made especially for the improvement of this chief part of it, mensuration, which abundantly shows, what we at first undertook to declare, the dignity of this subject; a subject which, as Dr. Barrow says, after mentioning some other things, “deserves to be more curiously weighed, because from hence a name is imposed upon that mother and mistress of the rest of the mathematical sciences, which is employed about magnitudes, and which is wont to be called geometry (a word taken from ancient use, because it was first applied only to measuring the earth, and fixing the limits of possessions) though the name seemed very ridiculous to Plato, who substitutes in its place that more extensive name of Metrics or Mensuration; and others after him gave it the title of Pantometry, because it teaches the method of measuring all kinds of magnitudes.” See Surveying, Levelling, and Geometry.
MERHAU, Ind. A deduction or abatement is so called in India.
MERIT. Desert, excellence, deserving honor or reward.
MERIT, Order of, a military distinction given to officers or soldiers, for some signal service: the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British light dragoons, for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couché, in 1794.
MERKIN. A mop to clean cannon.
MERLIN. Handspike.
MERLON. See Fortification.
MESS. It is usual and advantageous to discipline that the officers of a camp or garrison form one or more messes.
MESSENGERS of state in England, are officers under the direction of the secretaries of state, of whom there were 20 always in waiting, who were relieved monthly, and distributed in the following manner: four at court, five at each secretary’s office, two at the third office for North Britain, three at the council office, and one at the lord chamberlain’s office, who attended that office always in readiness to be sent with dispatches, either domestic or foreign; either to apprehend persons accused or suspected of high treason, or other offences against the state, being empowered by warrant from the secretaries; for the safe keeping of which, their houses are made a sort of confinement or prison; and for the maintenance of the prisoners they have a certain allowance from government. The number has been increased with the system of espionage since 1794.
Military Messengers. Confidential persons that are sent to and from head quarters, &c.
MESTRE de CAMP, Fr. The commanding officer of a regiment of cavalry was so called in the old French service. He was distinguished by this appellation on account of there being a colonel-general in the cavalry. The duty of a mestre de camp was principally confined to the following heads:—To see that the troops or companies were kept complete, that the arms were in good state and condition, the horses of a proper size, sound, and well trained. He had likewise the direction of the different guards, &c.
Mestre de Camp général, Fr. The next officer in rank, in the old French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552.
Mestre de Camp général des dragons, Fr. An appointment which first took place under Louis the XIVth. in 1684.
MESURES à poudre, Fr. Tin cases or vessels used in the artillery, to measure out gunpowder, according to the size and calibre of each piece of ordnance. See Powder Measures.
Over-METAL, (in gunnery,) when the mouth of a piece of ordnance, in disparting it, lies higher than the breech, it is then said to be laid over metal.
Under-Metal, (in gunnery) is when the mouth of a piece of ordnance lies lower than her breech.
Right with Metal, (in gunnery.) When a piece of ordnance lies truly level, point blank, or right with the mark, she is said to lie right with her metal.
Superficies of Metals, (in gunnery.) The surface or outside of a gun.
METIER, Fr. Means, literally, any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. In speaking of military matters, it is common among the French to say—Guerre sur terre est notre métier; Guerre sur mer est le métier des Anglois—The land service is our peculiar business or calling; the sea service is the peculiar business or calling of the English; meaning thereby to express their reciprocal superiority.
Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science? The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner:—La guerre est un métier pour les ignorans, et une science pour les habiles gens. War in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons, is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men, it becomes an important branch of science.
METTRE à la main, Fr. To grasp or take hold of any thing.
Mettre l’épée à la main, Fr. To draw swords. Ils mirent l’épée à la main, a figurative expression, signifying, they took their ground, and stood prepared to fight.
Mettre les armes à la main de quelqu’un, Fr. To teach a person the first rudiments of war, or lead him for the first time into action. C’est lui qui m’a mis les armes à la main. He first taught me how to fight, or I fought the first campaign under his orders.
Mettre aux arrêts, Fr. To put under arrest.
Mettre sur pied, Fr. To arm, to equip, to put troops upon an established footing.
MEURTRIERES, Fr. Small loop holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle gun or musquet, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place. See Murdresses.
MICHE. See Malingerer.
MICROMETER, (Micromêtre, Fr.) an instrument contrived to measure small spaces, as in the divisions of the worm of a screw.
MIDI, Fr. the South.
MILE, in geography, a long measure, whereby the English, &c. express the distance between places: it is of different extent in different countries. The geometrical mile contains 1000 geometrical paces, or mille passus, from whence miles are denominated.
We shall here give a table of the miles in use among the principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces, 60,000 of which, according to the English Military Dictionary, make a degree of the equator.
Geometrical paces.
Mile of Russia 750
Italy 1000
England 1200
Scotland and Ireland 1500
The old league of France 1500
The small ditto 2000
The great ditto 3000
Mile of Poland 3000
Spain and Portugal 3428
Germany 4000
Sweden 5000
Denmark 5010
Hungary 6000
Holland 3500
Mile. Comparison of the different miles, in geometric paces, each of which is equal to 5 feet French royal, 5·6719 feet Rhinland, or 6·1012 English feet.
Geometric paces.
The mile of Sweden 5761
The mile of Switzerland 4512
The mile of Denmark 4071
Common, of Germany 4000
Common, of Holland 3158
League of France 2400
League of Spain 2286
League of Scotland 1500
Mile of Italy 1000
Mile of England 868
Werste of Russia 575
MILICE, Fr. soldiery, but more particularly the militia or trained bands.
Milices gardes-côtes, Fr. A militia, somewhat similar to our sea fencibles, which existed during the old French government, and whose services were confined to the coast. Every province, contiguous to the sea, was obliged to furnish a certain proportion of its male inhabitants, from 16 to 60 years old. This militia was exempted from the regulations which governed the land militia. It was under the admiralty.
MILITANT, the state of warfare, or business of war.
MILITAR, -
MILITARY,
something belonging to the soldiery or militia, &c.
Military architecture, the same with fortification. See Fortification.
Military ways, the large Roman roads which Agrippa procured to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India; with wells and other accommodations at certain distances.
Military discipline. Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies; and unless it be established amongst them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them, than even its declared enemies. See Discipline.
Military execution, the ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.
Military first principles, is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, and for such length of time, and with such burden, as, without training, he would not be able to do.
MILITARY REGULATIONS. The rules and regulations, by which the discipline, formations, field exercise, and movements of the whole army, are directed to be observed in one uniform system. The American military system is scarcely entitled to the name of a system; and as to regulation that requires yet to be established, the worst of all is that there does not appear to be a suspicion in congress that any regulation is required. See Regulations.
MILITIA. A force whose services, in general, do not exceed the boundaries of the nation, but which may volunteer beyond them. The American militia has no coherent system, every state has power to regulate its own, and the effect is, that there is either no regulation at all, or what is worst, an imbecile mockery, the only use of which is the preservation on the statute book that there is a power though there is not a will to regulate the militia. The militia among the Romans was frequently called Agrarian soldiers. The system of our revolution though it was not complete in general was the most effectual ever established; the French system of conscription was borrowed from America, who borrowed it from the Romans.
MILL, properly denotes a machine for grinding corn, &c. but more generally all such machines whose action depends upon a circular motion. There are various kinds, though foreign to this work.
Gunpowder Mill, is that used for pounding and beating together the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed.
These ingredients being duly proportioned, and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars with water, from time to time, lest they should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹⁄₂ inches broad, armed at bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds.
MIM BASHY, Ind. A commander of one thousand horse.
MINE, in a military sense, implies a subterraneous passage dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder.
The excavation formed by the blowing up of a mine is found by experiment to be nearly a paraboloid. It was formerly supposed that the diameter of the entonnoir, or excavation, was always equal to only double the line of least resistance; but experiments have proved, that the diameter of the excavation may be increased to six times the line of least resistance; and that the diameter of the globe of compression may be increased to eight times that line; this is called the maximum of a mine, or the greatest effect that can be produced by a globe of compression. In any mine intended to produce an effect within this extent, the effects will be nearly as the charges.
The globes are to each other as the cubes of their radii. Their radii are the hypothenuse of rightangled triangles, of which the line of least resistance, and the semi-diameter of the excavation, are the other two sides. Therefore, to find the charge to produce any required diameter of the excavation, the following will be the rule, the radius being found as above:
As the cube of the radius of the globe of compression in the following table, (having the same line of least resistance as the required globe,)
Is to the cube of the radius of the required globe;
So is the charge corresponding in the following table,
To the charge required.
Table for the Charges of Mines, according to Valliere.
Line of least Resistance. Charge for the Mine. Line of least Resistance. Charge for the Mine.
Feet. lbs. oz. Feet. lbs. oz.
1 0 2 21 868 3
2 0 12 22 998 4
3 2 8 23 1140 10
4 6 — 24 1296 —
5 11 11 25 1558 9
6 20 4 26 1647 12
7 32 2 27 1815 4
8 48 — 28 2053 —
9 68 5 29 2286 7
10 93 12 30 2530 4
11 124 12 31 2792 4
12 162 — 32 3072 —
13 205 15 33 3369 1
14 257 4 34 3680 12
15 316 4 35 4019 8
16 384 — 36 4374 —
17 460 9 37 4748 11
18 546 12 38 5144 4
19 643 — 39 5561 2
20 750 — 40 6000 —
This table is calculated upon a supposition that the excavation of the mine is a paraboloid, having a base double the line of resistance; and that 10 lbs. 10 oz. of powder is sufficient for raising one cubic fathom of earth. By the rule above given may be found the charge for any mine, that shall only shake the ground, without making any excavation, by making the line of least resistance of the required globe only equal to the radius of the globe of compression.
The charges thus found by means of this table, being only for one nature of soil; viz., light earth and sand, (that for which the table is calculated) must be augmented according to the following table of Vauban’s, by one, four, five, seven, or nine elevenths of the charge found.
Table of the quantity of powder required to raise a cubic fathom, according to the soil.
1 Light earth, mixed with sand 11 pounds.
2 Common earth 12
3 Strong sand 15
4 Clay, or fat earth 16
5 Old and good masonry 18
9 Rock 20
The following rule is however laid down by Belidor, and generally adopted, if it be intended that the mine shall produce its maximum or greatest effect: multiply the line of least resistance, expressed in feet, by 300, the product will be the charge in pounds.
In making mines of any kind, the following remarks may be of service.
The best form for the chamber would be spherical; but from the difficulty of its construction, it is always made a cube, of one inch larger dimensions than the box to contain the powder.
The chamber must not be made in the prolongation of the branch of the mine, but at one side, and lower than the level of the branch, if the soil be dry; but higher if it be wet.
One cubic foot will contain 75 lbs of powder; upon which principle the size of the case to contain the powder must be regulated. The auget is generally one inch square interior dimensions, and the end of it must reach the centre of the chamber; where the saucisson must be fastened, to prevent its being easily pulled out.
The branch of the mine to be sprung must be closed in the strongest manner by doors well secured by props, and must be stopped with earth or rubbish to a distance, taken in a straight line, equal to 1¹⁄₂ times the line of least resistance.
In proportioning the length of saucisson, in order that any number of mines may be fired at the same instant, a return of a right angle is generally reckoned equal to 4 inches in a right line.
The first step in making a mine, whether for attack or defence, is to sink a shaft to the depth of the bottom of the gallery, having two of its sides in the direction of the sides of the gallery. These shafts should be where the galleries are to cross each other, or in the centre of the length of gallery to be made. These shafts should never be further apart than 40 or 50 fathoms; for it is found, that the air is not fit for respiration in the larger galleries at a greater distance from the shaft than 25 fathoms; at 20 fathoms in those of medium dimensions; and at 15 in the smallest.
The rectangular frames used in sinking a shaft are commonly placed 4 feet asunder; and in the galleries they are only 3 feet. A gallery intended to be lined with masonry, must be 7 feet high and 6 feet wide, in order that it may be when finished, 6 feet high and 3 feet wide.
Temporary galleries are only made 4¹⁄₂ feet high, and 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet wide.
The branches, at the ends of which the chambers are to be placed, are only made 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet high, and 2 feet, or 2 feet 3 inches wide.
The first of these is dug on the knees; the second sitting or lying.
The miners are divided into squads of 4 each; and the rate of the work for each squad is 3 feet of the temporary gallery in 4 hours. The first squad is relieved by a second, after having worked 4 hours, or laid one frame; which second squad is again relieved by the first, at the expiration of the same time.
In the most easy ground to work, a miner may be heard to the distance of 14 or 15 fathoms under ground; and the noise made by fixing the frames of the galleries may often be heard as far as 20 or 25 fathoms. A drum braced, standing on the ground, with a few peas or other round substances on the head, will be very sensibly affected by an approaching miner.
It is of the most essential consequence to place the entrances to the countermines beyond the reach of any surprise from the enemy.
To prevent an enemy gaining possession of the galleries of the countermines they should be well secured by strong doors, at every 15 fathoms. These should be musquet proof.
A glacis, properly countermined, and every advantage taken of it to retard the besiegers, may, with proper management, prolong a siege at least 2 months; and if the rest of the works are also countermined, and properly defended, they may add another month to the siege. Every system of countermines must depend upon the system of fortification to which they are to be adapted; the general principle for their regulation is, that the galleries should occupy situations, from which branches can be most readily run out under the most probable points of the besieger’s batteries and approaches. The general system of countermines commonly used in a place prepared before hand, is as follows: the principal or magistral gallery runs all round the work, under the banquette of the covert way, and across the places of arms, having the entrances at the re-entering places of arms. Nearly parallel to this at 20, 25 or 30 fathoms distance is another gallery, called the envellope. These two galleries are connected by galleries of communication, under the gutters of the re-entering parts of the glacis, and under the ridges of the salient parts. From the envellope are run out about 15 or 16 fathoms, galleries in directions parallel to the capitals of the works, and at 23 fathoms distance from each other. These are called listeners.
Sometimes, shafts are sunk from the end of these listeners, and by connecting these shafts, a second envellope formed. Behind the escarps of the different works, galleries are likewise made, about the level of the bottom of the ditch; from whence branches may be run out into or under the foundations of the walls; and if the ditch be dry, galleries of communication may be made from these to the magistral gallery; and from which communications branches may be run out for chambers to annoy the besiegers in their passage of the ditch. The entrances to the escarp galleries are by means of posterns, which descend from behind the interior slope of the rampart.
If a place be not countermined before hand, a great deal may be done even after the investment of the place, to prolong the siege by countermines. In this case, the first thing to be done immediately that the place is invested, is to sink a shaft in each of the places of arms of the covert way; one in each branch of the covert way opposite that part of the bastion where the breach will most probably be made; and one in the flanked angle of each bastion. Those on the covert way will be on the banquette, and sunk to about 18 inches below the bottom of the ditch. Those in the bastions to about 12 feet below the bottom of the ditch. Thus prepared, the moment the side on which the attack is to be made can be ascertained, galleries must be carried on from these shafts on the side attacked along the capitals, in the form of trefles, or double T; and advanced as far into the country as the time will admit. Communication galleries may likewise be driven between these different works on the covert way, and from them to the work in the bastion; which will prevent the enemy gaining possession of their entrances. All these works may be carried on after the investment of the place; and be in sufficient forwardness by the time the enemy gains the third parallel.
The following rules are given by Vauban for fougasses, or small mines, having the diameter of the excavation equal to double the line of least resistance. The side of the chamber must be exactly a sixth part of the depth of the shaft. The side of the box to hold the powder exactly a ninth part of the depth of the shaft.
These remarks respecting mines are principally extracted from the General Essay on Fortification before mentioned, written in French and published at Berlin, 1799.
Counter-Mines, are those made by the besieged, whereas mines are generally made by the besiegers. Both mines and counter-mines are made in the same manner, and for the like purposes, viz. to blow up their enemies and their works; only the principal galleries and mines of the besieged, are usually made before the town is besieged, and frequently at the same time the fortification is built, to save expence.
Eventer la Mine, Fr. to spring a mine. When used figuratively, this expression signifies to discover a plot, or make it known. It is likewise used to express the failure of any expedition or undertaking.
Definitions of Mines. A mine is a subterraneous cavity made according to the rules of art, in which a certain quantity of powder is lodged, which by its explosion blows up the earth above it.
It has been found by experiments, that the figure produced by the explosion is a paraboloid, and that the centre of the powder, or charge, occupies the focus.
The place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber of the mine, or fourneau.
The passage leading to the powder is called the gallery.
The line drawn from the centre of the chamber, perpendicular to the nearest surface of the ground, is called the line of least resistance.
The pit or hole, made by springing the mine, is called the excavation.
The fire is communicated to the mines by a pipe or hose, made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about one and a half inch, called a saucisson, (for the filling of which near half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot) extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner who sets fire to it may have time to retire, before it reaches the chamber.
To prevent the powder from contracting any dampness, the saucisson is laid in a small trough, called an auget made of boards, three and a half inch broad, joined together, lengthwise, with straw in it, and round the saucisson, with a wooden cover nailed upon it.
Foyer, Fr. Focus or centre of the chamber, some authors call the end of the saucisson that comes within the work, and which is to be set fire to, the foyer, or focus: but by most people, this is generally understood to be the centre of the chamber.
Galleries and chambers of Mines. Galleries made within the fortification, before the place is attacked, and from which several branches are carried to different places, are generally 4 or 4¹⁄₂ feet wide, and 5 or 5¹⁄₂ feet high. The earth is supported from falling in by arches and walls, as they are to remain for a considerable time; but when mines are made to be used in a short time, then the galleries are but 3 or 3¹⁄₂ feet wide, and 5 feet high, and the earth is supported by wooden frames or props.
The gallery being carried on to the place where the powder is to be lodged, the miners make the chamber. This is generally of a cubical form, large enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder necessary for the charge: the box is lined with straw and sand-bags, to prevent the powder from contracting dampness.
The chamber is sunk something lower than the gallery, if the soil permits; but where water is to be apprehended, it must be made higher than the gallery; otherwise the besieged will let in the water, and spoil the mine.
Quantities of powder to charge, Mines. Before any calculation can be made of the proper charge for a mine, the density and tenacity of the soil in which it is to be made, must be ascertained, either by experiment, or otherwise; for, in soils of the same density, that which has the greatest tenacity, will require the greatest force to separate its parts. The density is determined by weighing a cubic foot (or any certain quantity) of the soil; but the tenacity can only be determined by making a mine. The following table contains experiments in 6 different soils, which may be of some assistance to form a judgment of the nature of the soil, when an actual experiment cannot be had.
Nature of the soil. Density. Tenacity.
Weight of 1 cubic foot. Quantity of power to raise 1 cubic fathom.
1. Loose earth or sand 95 pds. 8 pds.
2. Common light soil 124 10
3. Loam, or strong soil 127 12 ¹⁄₄
4. Potter’s clay, or stiff soil 135 13 ¹⁄₂
5. Clay, mixed with stones 160 16
6. Masonry 205 21 ¹⁄₂
All the requisites in mining may be determined by the following problems, which admit of 4 cases; for any 3 of the articles below being given, the 4th may thence be found.
1. The nature of the soil,
2. The diameter of the excavation,
3. The line of least resistance,
4. The charge.
Problem. I.
Given the nature of the soil, the diameter of the excavation, and the line of least resistance, to find the charge.
Rules.
1. To the square of the diameter of the excavation, add the square of double the line of least resistance, and reserve the said sum.
2. Multiply the square root of the reserved sum by double the line of least resistance, and subtract the product from the same sum.
3. Multiply half the remainder by the line of least resistance, and 1.57 times the product, will give the solidity of the excavation.
4. The charge will then be determined from the nature of the soil, as in the following example.
Example I.
It is required to make a mine in the second sort of soil, mentioned in the foregoing experiments, which shall have a line of least resistance of 10 feet, and the diameter of its excavation 20 feet; what will be the proper charge?
The nature of this soil, by the table, requires 10 pounds of powder to 216 cubic feet.
Calculation.
1. The diameter of the excavation is 20, and its square 400
Double the line of least resistance is 20, and its square 400
Therefore the sum to be reserved is 800
2. The square root of 800 is 28.3 Double the line of least resistance is 20 566
Which leaves the remainder 234
3. Half the remainder is 117
Which multiplied by the line of least resistance, 10
Gives the product 1170
Which multiplied by 1.57
Gives the solidity of the excavation feet 1836.9
4. If feet.216 : lb.10 ∷ feet.1836.9 : lb.85 which is the charge required.
By Logarithms.
1. Diam. of excavation is = 20 1.301030
Diameter squared is 2.602060 400
Double the line of least resistance is = 20 and its square 400
The sum to be reserved is 2.903090 800
2. Square root of sum is 28.3 1.451545
Double the line of least resistance is = 20 1.301030
Product to be subtracted is 2.752575 566
Remainder is 2.369216 234
Line of least resist. = 10 1.000000
10 pounds of powder 1.000000
To 216 cubic feet, compl. arith. 7.665546
To which add the const. log. 9.894870
And the sum is the logarithm charge required 1.929632 = 85 lb.
Problem II.
Given the nature of the soil, the line of least resistance, and the charge, to find the diameter of the excavation.
Rules.
1. Find the solidity of the earth to be raised, by a proportion from the nature of the soil, and multiply it by 1.27.—Divide the product by the line of least resistance, and to the quotient add the square of the line of least resistance: reserve the sum.
2. Multiply the square root of the sum reserved by twice the line of least resistance, and add the product to the said sum, and from the result subtract 3 times the square of the line of least resistance; so will the square root of the remainder be the diameter of the required excavation.
Example I.
Let a mine be charged with 100 pounds of powder in a soil which requires 11 pounds of powder to raise 216 cubic feet, and let its line of least resistance be 10 feet: what will be the diameter of the excavation?
By the nature of the soil 11lb. : 216 feet ∷ 100lb. : 1964 feet, which is the solidity of the earth to be raised.
1. Therefore multiply 1964
By 1.27
The product is 2494.28
Which divided by the line of least resistance, 10, is 249.428
To which add the square of the line of least resistance 100.000
And the sum to be reserved is 349.428
2. The square root of 349.428 is 18.7, which multiplied by twice the line of least resistance, 20, gives 374.
This added to the sum reserved gives 723.428
From which subtract 3 times the square of least resistance 300.
And there will remain 423.428
The square root of which is, 20.5 feet, being the required diameter of the excavation.
By Logarithms.
Numb. Logar. Numb.
Cubic feet = 216 2.334454
Powder 11lb. co. ar. 8.958607
Charge = 100 2.000000
Line of least resist. 10 co. ar. 9.000000
Constant logarithm 0.103804
2.396865 249.4
To which add the square of line of least resistance 100.0
Sum to be reserved is 2.543323 349.4
Half of which logar. 1.271661
Twice line of least resistance, 20, 1.301030
Product to be added is 2.572691 373.8
The result is 723.2
From which subtract thrice the square of the line of least resistance 300.0
And there remains 2.626546 423.2
Half of which logar. is 1.313273 20.57 feet, the diameter of the excavation required.
Loading and stopping of Mines. The gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded, a strong box of wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber, being about ¹⁄₃d or ¹⁄₄th bigger than is required for containing the necessary quantity of powder: against the sides and bottom of the box is put some straw; and this straw is covered over with empty sand bags, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness: a hole is made in the side next the gallery, near the bottom for the saucisson to pass through, which is fixed to the middle of the bottom, by means of a wooden peg, to prevent its loosening from the powder: or that, if the enemy should get to the entrance, he may not be able to tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in sand bags, and thrown loose in the box, and covered also with straw and sand bags; upon this is put the cover of the box, pressed down very tight with strong props; and, to render them more secure, planks are also put above them, against the earth, and wedged in as fast as possible.
This done the vacant space between the props are filled up with stones and dung, and rammed in the strongest manner: the least neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine.
Then the auget is laid from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, with some straw at the bottom; and the saucisson laid in it, with straw over it: lastly, it must be shut with a wooden cover nailed upon it. Great care must be taken, in stopping up the gallery, not to press too hard upon the auget, for fear of spoiling the saucisson, which may hinder the powder from taking fire, and so prevent the mine from springing. The gallery is stopped up with stones, earth, and dung, well rammed, 6 or 7 feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of least resistance.
Globe of compression in Mines, from Belidor. If you imagine a large globe of earth homogeneous in all its parts, and, a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre, so as to produce a proper effect without bursting the globe; by setting fire to the powder, it is evident, that the explosion will act all round, to overcome the obstacles which oppose its motion; and as the particles of the earth are porous, they will compress each other in proportion as the flame increases, and the capacity of the chamber increases likewise; but the particles of earth next to the chamber will communicate a part of their motion to those next to them, and those to their neighbors; and this communication will thus continue in a decreasing proportion, till the whole force of explosion is entirely spent; and the particles of earth beyond this term, will remain in the same state as they were at first. The particles of earth that have been acted upon by the force of explosion will compose a globe, which Mr. Belidor calls the globe of compression.
MINERS, in a military sense, are generally soldiers: most of the European regiments of artillery have each a company of miners, commanded by a captain and two lieutenants. When the miners are at work in the mines, they wear a kind of hood, to keep the earth that falls out of their eyes. In the English service the artificers are ordered for that purpose.
Miners tools, consist in several sorts of spades, wheel-barrows, axes, hand-levers, chissels, sounding-augres, sledge-hammers, masons’ hammers, mattocks, augets, plummets, miner’s rule, and miner’s dial, &c.
Different sorts of Mines, are as follows:
Fougasses, are a sort of small mines, frequently made before the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces, not defended by a cross fire.
Treffle Mines, are mines with two chambers only.
T-Mines, so called from their great resemblance to that letter. They are double mines, having four lodgments.
Double T-Mines, have eight lodgments, and four doors.
Triple T-Mines, have twelve lodgments, and six doors.
Double Treffle Mines, have four lodgments, and eight doors.
Triple Treffle-Mines, have six lodgments, and twelve doors.
MINING, in the art of war, is become one of the most essential parts of the attack and defence of places; so much artillery is used, that nothing above ground can withstand its effects; the most substantial ramparts and parapets can resist but a short time; the outworks, though numerous serve only to retard for a time the surrender of the place.
History informs us, that mines were made long before the invention of gun powder; for the ancients made galleries or underground passages, much in the same way as the moderns, from without, under the walls of the places, which they cut off from the foundation, and supported them with strong props; then they filled the intervals with all manner of combustibles, which being set on fire burnt their props and the wall being no longer supported, fell, whereby a breach was made.
The besieged also made under-ground passages from the town under the besieger’s machines, by which they battered the walls, to destroy them; which proves necessity to have been the inventress of mines, as well as of other arts.
The first mines, since the invention of gunpowder, were made in 1487, by the Genoese, at the attack of Serezanella, a town in Florence; but these failing, they were for some time neglected, till Peter Navarro, being then engineer to the Genoese, and afterwards to the Spaniards in 1503, against the French, at the siege of the castle del Ovo, at Naples, made a mine under the wall, and blew it up. In consequence of which the castle was taken by storm.
M. Valliere relates the same story, but differs in the name of the engineer; he says it was Francis George, an Italian, who, serving at Naples in quality of architect, proposed to Peter Navarro, the Spanish governor to take this castle by mines.
Names of every thing used in Mining.
Auget, a kind of small trough, made of strong inch boards, about 4 inches square, in which the saucisson is laid in straw, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness.
Chamber, the place where the powder is lodged, being first put in cubical boxes made for that purpose.
Excavation, -
Entonnoir,
the pit or hole made by a mine when sprung.
Focus, the centre of the chamber where the powder is lodged.
Fougas, a kind of small mine.
Fourneau, See Chamber.
Miners’ Tools, are augers of several sorts, levers of different sorts, needles for working in rocks, rakes, spades, shovels, sledge-hammers, masons’ hammers, pick-axes, picks, mattocks, chissels, plummets, rules, a miner’s dial, &c.
Line of least resistance, is a line drawn from the centre of the space containing the powder, perpendicular to the nearest surface.
Gallery, the passage leading to the powder.
Saucisson, is a pipe or hose made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about an inch, and filled with gunpowder; then laid in a trough or auget, which extends from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, that the miner who sets fire to it, may have time to retire before it reaches to the chamber.
MINING, in military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a fortification, building, &c. by gunpowder. The art of mining requires a perfect knowlege both of fortification and geometry; and by these previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole accompanied with a thorough knowlege of the strength of all sorts of gunpowder
MINION, a piece of ordnance, of which there are two kinds, the large and ordinary: the large minion has its bore 3¹⁄₄ inches diameter, and is 1000 pounds weight; its load is 3¹⁄₄ pounds of powder; its shot three inches in diameter, and 3³⁄₄ pounds weight; its length is eight feet, and its level range 125 paces. The ordinary minion is three inches diameter in the bore, and weighs about 800 pounds weight: it is seven feet long, its load 2¹⁄₂ pounds of powder, its shot near three inches in diameter, and weighs three pounds four ounces, and shoots point blank 120 paces.
MINISTER, according to Johnson, is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own, but under another. Thus in England all ministers act under a supreme authority, which is vested in the king, lords, and commons, to whom they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war minister, before they are laid before parliament, or otherwise acted upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps, directions with respect to marching, &c. are transmitted to the secretary at war, and to the quarter-master general’s office, without previously passing through the secretary of state, or war minister.
Ministre de la guerre, Fr. Minister of the war department. The appointment of minister and secretary at war, among the French, first took place in the reign of Henry the II. in 1549. See War.
MINUTE, a hasty sketch taken of any thing in writing. Hence minutes of a general or regimental court-martial.
Minutes of council in the military department. The notification of orders and regulations, which are directed to be observed by the British army in India, is so called. These minutes receive the sanction of the governor-general in council, and are the result of previous communications from the court of directors in Europe. They answer to the French word Résultat, which was prefixed to all orders and regulations that were occasionally issued by the military boards, or conseils de guerre, for the government of the army. The term, jugement d’un conseil de guerre, corresponded with our minutes of a general or regimental court-martial, and expressed not only the minutes but the sentence of the court.
MINUTE, the 60th part of each degree of a circle; and, in computation of time, the 60th part of an hour: it also denotes a short memoir or hasty sketch taken of any thing in writing. See Measure.
La Minute, Fr. The original of a sentence or decree.
To MISBEHAVE, in a military sense, to act in any manner unbecoming the character of an officer or soldier.
To Misbehave before the enemy, to abandon the colors, or shamefully give way in action, &c. See War.
MIQUELETS, Fr. A banditti that infest the Pyrenean mountains, and are extremely obnoxious to travellers.
MIQUELETTI. A small body of mountain fusileers, belonging to the Neapolitan army.
MIRE, Fr. In the French artillery, a piece of wood about four inches thick, one foot high, and two feet and a half long, which is used in pointing cannon.
Coins de Mire, Fr. Wedges made of wood, which serve to raise or depress any piece of ordnance. They are likewise used for the same purpose in mortars.
MIRZA, Ind. Sir, lord, master.
MISCELLANEOUS, an item or charge in the estimates of the British army, so distinguished as miscellaneous services; the same as our contingent expenditures.
MISERICORDE, Fr. a short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used, for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or mercy.
MISSILE, -
MISSIVE,
any weapon which is either thrown by the hand, or which strikes at a distance from the moving power.
MITRAILLE, Fr. small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails, &c. with which pieces of ordnance are frequently loaded.
Tirer à Mitraille, Fr. To fire with grape shot. This term is frequently used by the French, to express the bribery which is practised in war time by one nation upon another, for the purpose of fomenting civil insurrections. Hence tirer à mitraille d’or.
MITRE, -
MITER,
a mode of joining two boards, or other pieces of wood together at right angles.
MOAT, A wet or dry ditch, dug round the walls of a town, or fortified place. When an enemy attacks a town, which has dry moats round it, the rampart must be approached by galleries under ground, which galleries are run beneath the moat; when the place is attempted through wet moats, your approaches must be made by galleries above ground, that is to say, by galleries raised above the surface of the water. The brink of the moat next the rampart is called the scarp, and the opposite one the counterscarp.
Dry-Moat, that which has no water. It should invariably be deeper than the one that is full of water.
Flat bottomed Moat, that which hath no sloping, its corners being somewhat rounded.
Lined Moat, that whose scarp and counterscarp are cased with a wall of mason work made aslope.
MODEL, a mould; also a diminutive representation of any thing. Thus models of warlike instruments, fortifications, &c. &c. are preserved in the British laboratory at Woolwich.
MODERN, something of our own times, in opposition to what is antique or ancient.
Modern Tactics, and Modern Art of War, That system of manœuvre and evolution, which has been adopted since the invention of gunpowder, and particularly the system improved by the French within twenty years. See Am. Mil. Lib.
Ancient Tactics, and ancient art of War. The system which was pursued by the Greeks and Romans, &c. before the invention of gunpowder and fire arms.
MOGNIONS, from the French Maignon, signifying the stump of a limb. A sort of armor for the shoulders.
MOGUL, the emperor of India, from whom the nabobs (properly Naib, a deputy,) originally received their appointments, as governors and superintendants of provinces.
Mogul Tartars, a nation so called that made considerable conquests in India.
MOHUR, Ind. A golden coin, of which there are several values, but generally goes for fifteen or sixteen rupees; a rupee half our dollar.
MOIENNE, Fr. A piece of ordnance, which is now called a four pounder, and which is ten feet long, was formerly so called.
MOINEAU, a French term for a little flat bastion, raised upon a re-entering angle, before a curtain which is too long, between two other bastions. It is commonly joined to the curtain, but sometimes separated by a fosse, and then called a detached bastion. They are not raised so high as the works of the place.
Mois Romains, Fr. a term used in Germany, to signify a particular tax or contribution, which the emperors had a right to demand on urgent occasions. This tax grew out of an old custom which originally prevailed when the emperors went to Rome to be crowned, and which served to defray their expences thither. Thus when the tax was required, it was called for as a contribution of so many Roman months; implying a certain sum for so many.
MOISSON, Fr. Harvest. This word is used in various senses by the French, particularly in two of a poetical and figurative kind, viz. Il a vu cinquante moissons; he has lived fifty years, literally, has seen fifty harvests.
Moisson de lauriers, Fr. a succession of victories, &c. literally a harvest of laurels.
Moisson de gloire, is taken in the same sense.
MOISSONNER des lauriers, Fr. To reap laurels.
Moissonner les hommes, Fr. To kill off, &c. To mow down men.
MOLLER, Fr. Literally means to wax soft. It is used figuratively among the French to signify, in a military sense, the yielding or giving way of armed men, viz. les troupes mollisent, the troops gave way.
MOLLESSE, Fr. in a figurative sense, signifies want of firmness or resolution. Je crains la mollesse de vos conseils; I mistrust the pliant tendency of your advice or counsel.
MONDE, Fr. in a military sense, means men or soldiers, viz.
Ce capitaine n’avoit que la moitié de son monde; such a captain had only half his complement of men.
On a perdue beaucoup de monde, Fr. They lost a considerable number of men.
Il a un monde d’ennemis sur les bras, Fr. he is assailed by a multiplicity of foes.
Aller à l’autre monde, Fr. This expression bears the same import in English that it does in French, viz. to die—literally, to go into the other world.
Le Nouveau Monde, Fr. This term is frequently used to denote America. Hence L’Ancien et le Nouveau Monde, means the two continents.
MONEY-matters. An expression in familiar use to express all pecuniary concerns. It cannot be too strongly recommended to every responsible military man to be scrupulously correct on this head. More than half the breaches of friendship and common acquaintance that occur in life, may be traced to irregularity: but in no instance are its effects so fatal, as when the soldier is wronged, or is induced to think so by the omissions, &c. of officers or serjeants.
Of the Monies, Weights, and Measures, of Foreign Nations respectively with those of England.
In order to the attainment of a just comparison of foreign monies with our own, the following tables are subjoined.
The first table contains the denominations of the principal foreign monies of account, and their intrinsic value in English money, calculated upon the existing proportion between gold and silver in the respective countries.
The second table shews the names of the principal foreign coins in gold, their weight, their fineness, their pure contents, and the intrinsic value of each in relation to the gold coins of Great Britain.
The third table relates to silver coins, upon similar principles to those of the second.
The comparison of the weights and measures of foreign nations with those of England is established by the following tables.
The fourth table bespeaks the names of the weights used for precious metals, the quantity which each contains in grains troy-weight, and the relation of the several foreign weights to 100 pounds troy-weight.
The fifth table denotes the names of the weights used in the sale of merchandize, the quantity which each contains in troy-weight, and the relation of foreign weights to 100 and to 112 pounds avoirdupois-weight.
The sixth table relates to the measures used in the sale of corn, to the number of English cubic inches of the internal measurement of each, and to the relation of foreign measures to 10 quarters Winchester measure.
The seventh table comprises the measures for liquids, the quantity of English cubic inches which each contains internally, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 gallons English.
The eighth table relates to cloth measures, to the length of each in lines, and to the relation of foreign measures to 100 yards and to 100 ells.
The ninth table is descriptive of measures of length for measuring masts, timber, and other solid bodies, of the number of lines contained in each, and of the proportion between foreign measures of a similar description and 100 feet English.
The tenth table refers to land measures, to the quantity of English square feet which each contains, and to the proportion between foreign measures of this description and 100 acres.
The eleventh and last table is founded upon itinerary measures, the length of each in feet, and the proportion between the measures severally adopted in different countries and a degree of the equator.
Independently of the facility which will be afforded by these tables in the comparison of the monies, weights, and measures of foreign nations with those of England, it will not be difficult to find the relation of the monies, weights, and measures of foreign countries, in respect to each other, by the guidance of the explanations at the foot of each of the tables in question.
It will be observed, that in order to avoid the multiplicity of the denominators of fractions, and to give to the several calculations a greater degree of exactitude, the unit has constantly been divided, in the following tables, into 100 parts.
Table, which shews the intrinsic Value of the monies of account of Foreign Nations expressed in pence sterling.
Monies of Account.
Pence 100
Aix la Chapelle, the specie rixdollar 42, 75
the current rixdollar 32, 25
Amsterdam, the pound Flemish banco 132, 48
the florin banco 22, 08
the pound Flemish current 126, 36
the florin current 21, 06
Arragon, the libra jaquesa 47, 80
Augsburgh, the gulden exchange money 32, 51
the gulden currency 25, 60
the gulden white money 21, 33
Barcelona, the libra catalana 27, 32
Basil, the rixdollar of exchange 48, 25
the current rixdollar 43, 40
the current livre 14, 46
Bengal, the current rupee 21,
the sicca rupee 30,
Bergamo, the lira 5, 13
Berlin, the rixdollar gold currency 39, 66
the rixdollar silver currency 35, 97
the pound banco 48, 75
Bern, the current livre 14, 67
Bologna, the scudo di cambio 48, 09
the lira di cambio 11, 31
the current livre 11, 05
Bolzano, the gulden exchange money 35,
the gulden current money 25, 66
Bombay, the current rupee 23, 63
Bremen, the rixdollar 38, 40
Breslaw, the rixdollar gold currency 39, 66
the rixdollar silver currency 35, 97
the pound banco 48, 75
Brunswick, the current thaler 38, 40
Bussorah, the mamudi 5, 50
Calcutta, the sicca rupee 30,
the current rupee 21,
the arcot rupee 24,
Canary Islands, the current real 5, 82
Cassel, the thaler 38, 40
China, the tale 80,
Cologne, the specie rixdollar 31, 71
the current rixdollar 30, 92
Copenhagen, the specie reichsthaler 55, 85
the current reichsthaler 45, 46
Curacoa, the dollar 43, 09
Dantzic, the florin 9, 14
Dublin, the pound Irish 221, 54
Elsinore, the specie rixdollar 34, 75
the crown rixdollar 32, 18
the current rixdollar 30, 92
England, the pound sterling 240,
Flanders, the florin or exchange 20, 25
the current florin 17, 37
Florence, the scudo d’oro 62, 45
the ducato 58, 29
the pezza of 8 reals 47, 88
the lira moneta buona 8, 32
France, the livre tournois 9, 49
the franc 9, 61
Francfort, the thaler 38, 40
the gulden 25, 60
Geneva, the current crown 49, 20
the current livre 40, 16
the florin 4, 68
Genoa, the scudo d’oro marche 89, 50
the scudo d’argento 73, 13
the pezza fuori di banco 48, 12
the scudo di cambio 38, 50
the lira fuori di banco 8, 37
Germany, the reichsthaler constitution money 56, 84
the thaler ditto 42, 63
the gulden ditto 28, 42
the reichsthaler convention money 51, 20
the thaler ditto 38, 40
the gulden ditto 25, 60
Hamburgh, the pound Flemish banco 138, 37
the rixdollar banco 55, 35
the marc banco 18, 45
the rixdollar currency 45,
the marc currency 15,
Hanover, the current thaler 42, 63
Konigsberg, the gulden 12, 17
Leghorn, the pezza of 8 reals 47, 88
the lira moneta buona 8, 32
the lira moneta lunga 7, 97
Leipsic, the current thaler 38, 40
Liege, the gulden 12, 96
Lubec, the reichsthaler 45, 21
the marc 15, 07
Lucca, the scudo d’oro 56, 32
the lira 7, 51
Madras, the pagoda of 36 fanams 94, 75
the Carnatic rupee of 10 fanams 26, 32
Malta, the silver crown 40, 26
the copper crown 26, 84
Martinique, the livre currency 7, 12
Mexico, the dollar 52, 60
Milan, the scudo imperiale 64, 14
the current scudo 45, 33
the lira currency 7, 88
Modena, the lira 3, 81
Morocco, the ducat 105,
Munich, the current thaler 32, 04
the current gulden 21, 36
Naples, the ducato di regno 42, 50
Navarre, the ducado of 10⁸⁄₉ reals 53, 95
the libra of 60 maravedis 8, 25
the real of 36 ditto 4, 95
Nuremberg, the current thaler 38, 40
the thaler gold money 38, 95
the thaler white money 31, 97
Pegu, the silver tical 33, 70
Persia, the toman 289, 65
Poland, the florin of Great Poland 7, 10
Poland, the florin of Little Poland 14, 20
Pondicherry, the pagoda 93, 50
the current rupee 24, 20
Portugal, the milreis 67, 50
Prague, the current gulden 25, 60
Ratisbon, the gulden white money 25, 60
Riga, the albertus rixdollar 53, 29
Rome, the scudo di stampa d’oro 80, 92
the scudo moneta 53, 16
Rostock, the thaler 45, 20
the zweydrittel 30, 13
Russia, the ruble 33, 58
St. Eustatia, the dollar 38, 25
St. Gall, the gulden exchange money 27, 90
the gulden currency 24,
Sardinia, the lira 11, 50
Siam, the gold tical 465, 50
the silver tical 39, 25
Sicily, the onza 130, 77
Smyrna, the piastre 13, 50
Spain, the pistole of exchange 153,
the ducat of exchange 52, 73
the dollar of exchange 38, 25
the real of plate 4, 78
the real of vellon 2, 54
Sweden, the riksdahler 55, 35
Surat, the rupee 25,
Surinam, the florin 25, 25
Trieste, the gulden of 60 kreitzers 25, 60
the florin of 5 lire 24, 20
Turin, the scudo of 6 lire 69, 84
the lira 11, 64
Turkey, the piastre 13, 50
United States, the dollar at par 54,
Valencia, the libra of 20 sueldos 38, 25
Venice, the lira piccoli inclusive of the agio on the zecchins 5, 12
Vienna, the current thaler 38, 40
the current gulden 25, 60
Zante, the real of 10 lire 41, 15
Zurich, the gulden exchange money 27, 50
the gulden currency 25,
The following example will shew in what manner the relation between the monies of account of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Example.
Let it be required to express, in pence Irish, the value of a marc banco of Hamburgh.
The marc being worth 18,45 pence sterling, and the pound Irish 221,54, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:
1 marc banco = x
1 marc ban. = 18 ,45 pence sterling
221 ,54 pence ster. = 1 pound Irish
1 pound Irish = 240 pence Irish
Result 19,99 pence Irish.
Table, which shews the Weight, Fineness, and pure Contents of the principal Gold Coin of foreign Nations, as well as their intrinsic Value, expressed in English Money.
Gold Coins.
Weight —— Fineness —— Pure contents —— Value ——
Grs.100 Car. grs. Grs.100 s. d.100
Bavaria, the carl 150 ,32 18 2 ⁵⁄₆ 117 ,18 20 8 ,87
the max 100 ,21 18 2 ²⁄₃ 77 ,94 13 9 ,54
Bengal, the gold mohur 176 ,50 23 3 174 ,66 30 10 ,95
Brunswick, the carl 102 ,36 21 3 92 ,76 16 5 ,02
Denmark, the ducat of 12 marcs 48 ,21 21 0 ²⁄₃ 42 ,52 7 6 ,30
England, the guinea 129 ,44 22 118 ,65 21
the half guinea 64 ,72 22 59 ,33 10 6 ,
the 7s piece 43 ,13 22 39 ,55 7
Flanders, the double souverain 171 ,50 22 157 ,20 27 9 ,79
the souverain 85 ,75 22 78 ,60 13 10 ,89
France, the louis of 1726 122 ,90 21 2 ²⁄₃ 110 ,95 19 7 ,65
the louis of 1785 117 ,83 21 2 ²⁄₃ 106 ,37 18 9 ,93
the 40 franc piece 199 ,25 21 2 ²⁄₅ 179 ,32 31 8 ,85
the 20 franc piece 99 ,62 21 2 ²⁄₅ 89 ,66 15 10 ,42
Geneva, the pistole of 1752 87 ,13 22 79 ,87 14 1 ,63
Genoa, the zecchino 53 ,80 23 3 ¹⁄₂ 53 ,52 9 5 ,67
Germany, the ducat 53 ,85 23 2 ²⁄₃ 53 ,10 9 4 ,78
Hamburgh, the ducat 53 ,85 23 2 52 ,73 9 4 ,
Hanover, the georges 103 ,03 21 3 93 ,37 16 6 ,31
the gold gulden 50 ,06 19 0 ¹⁄₃ 39 ,80 7 0 ,54
Holland, the ryder 153 ,54 22 14 ,74 24 10 ,92
the ducat 53 ,85 23 2 52 ,73 9 4 ,
Hungary, the ducat of Kremnitz 53 ,85 23 3 53 ,29 9 5 ,18
Madras, the star pagoda 52 ,75 19 2 42 ,86 7 7 ,05
Naples, the onza 68 ,10 21 59 ,59 10 6 ,56
Piedmont, the zecchino 54 , 23 3 ¹⁄₂ 53 ,72 9 6 ,09
the pistole of 1741 110 ,10 21 3 99 ,78 17 7 ,92
the doppia of 1755 148 ,50 21 3 134 ,58 23 9 ,83
Portugal, the joanese 221 ,87 22 203 ,39 36
the moidore 166 , 21 3 ³⁄₄ 151 ,30 26 9 ,35
Prussia, the frederick 103 ,03 21 3 93 ,37 16 6 ,31
Rome, the zecchino 53 ,55 23 2 52 ,43 9 3 ,36
Russia, the imperial of 1755 255 ,53 22 234 ,23 41 5 ,49
the imperial of 1763 202 ,18 22 185 ,33 32 9 ,62
the imperial of 1801 202 ,18 23 2 ¹⁄₂ 199 ,90 35 2 ,70
Saxony, the august 102 , 21 2 ²⁄₃ 92 ,08 16 3 ,57
Siam, the tical 281 ,88 19 0 ¹⁄₃ 224 ,13 39 8 ,04
Sicily, the onza 67 ,94 21 3 61 ,57 10 10 ,77
Spain, the doubloon before 1772 416 ,65 21 3 ³⁄₄ 380 ,85 67 4 ,87
the doubloon of 1772 416 ,65 21 2 ²⁄₃ 376 ,14 66 6 ,88
the doubloon of 1785 416 ,65 21 2 373 ,25 66 0 ,74
Sweden, the adolphus 102 ,95 15 1 ¹⁄₂ 65 ,77 11 7 ,70
Tuscany, the ruopono 161 ,33 23 3 ²⁄₃ 160 ,77 28 5 ,45
United States the eagle 268 ,66 22 246 ,27 43 7 ,05
Venice, the zecchino 54 , 23 3 ¹⁄₂ 53 ,72 9 6 ,09
Wirtemberg, the carl 150 ,32 18 2 ⁵⁄₆ 117 ,18 20 8 ,87
In the first column of this table is shewn the weight of each foreign coin in grains troy-weight; in the second column, the degree of the fineness in carats and grains of a carat; in the third column, the contents of fine gold in grains troy-weight; and in the fourth, the intrinsic value expressed in shillings and pence sterling.
The following example will be of guidance to ascertain the value of foreign coin in other money also foreign.
Example.
It is required to express the value of a louis d’or of France coined since 1785 in the money of Portugal.
As it is seen by the prefixed table that the louis of 24 livres tournois contains 106,37 grains of fine gold, and that the joanese of 6400 reis contains 203,39 grains of fine gold, I state the following equation:
1 louis = x
1 louis = 106 ,37 grains
203 ,39 grains = 1 joanese
1 joanese = 6400 reis
Result 3347 reis.
Table, which shews the Weight, Fineness and pure Contents of the principal Silver Coins of foreign Nations, as well as their intrinsic Value, expressed in English Money.
Silver Coins.
Weight —— Fineness —— Pure contents —— Value ——
Grs.100 Oz. dwt. Grs.100 d.100
Aix la Chapelle, the rathspræsentger 95 ,68 7 1 56 ,21 7 ,85
Arabia, the larin 74 ,17 10 17 ¹⁄₂ 56 ,84 7 ,93
Basil, the reichsthaler 436 ,89 10 10 382 ,28 53 ,38
Bengal, the sicca rupee 179 ,55 11 18 ¹⁄₂ 178 ,43 24 ,92
Bern, the patagon 417 ,63 10 348, 48 ,59
Bombay, the rupee 178 ,31 11 15 174 ,60 24 ,38
Denmark, the riksdahler 449 ,87 10 10 393 ,64 54 ,97
the krohn 344 , 8 1 230 ,77 32 ,23
England, the crown 464 ,52 11 2 429 ,68 60 ,00
the shilling 92 ,90 11 2 85 ,94 12 ,
Flanders, the ducaton 513 ,29 10 8 ³⁄₄ 446 ,46 62 ,34
the croon 456 ,91 10 8 ¹⁄₂ 395 ,71 55 ,26
the patagon 433 , 10 10 378 ,88 52 ,91
France, the ecu of 1726 452 ,50 10 18 411 ,03 57 ,40
the 5 franc piece 386 ,14 10 16 347 ,52 48 ,53
Geneva, the patagon 416 ,87 10 347 ,38 48 ,51
Genoa, the genovina 593 ,10 11 9 565 ,93 79 ,03
the St. Gianbatista 321 ,66 11 294 ,85 41 ,17
the giorgino 91 ,25 10 6 ²⁄₃ 78 ,58 10 ,97
the double madonina 140 ,19 10 1 ²⁄₃ 117 ,80 16 ,45
Germany, the reichsthaler constitution money 450 ,97 10 13 ¹⁄₃ 400 ,87 55 ,98
the gulden ditto 225 ,48 10 13 ¹⁄₃ 200 ,43 27 ,99
the reichsthaler convention money 432 ,93 10 360 ,78 50 ,38
the gulden ditto 216 ,46 10 180 ,39 25 ,19
the old zweydrittel 229 ,05 31 ,98
the new zweydrittel 200 ,42 27 ,98
Hamburgh, the rixdollar banco 450 ,52 10 13 ¹⁄₂ 400 ,47 55 ,92
the marc banco 150 ,17 10 13 ¹⁄₃ 133 ,49 18 ,64
the rix dollar lubs 124 ,41 9 318 ,30 44 ,43
the marc lubs 141 ,47 9 106 ,10 14 ,81
Holland, the ducatoon 503 ,50 11 5 472 ,03 65 ,91
the three florin piece 488 , 11 447 ,33 62 ,46
the rixdaler 433 ,17 10 10 379 ,03 52 ,93
the leeuwendaler 422 , 8 18 312 ,98 43 ,70
the gold florin 307 , 7 7 188 ,04 26 ,26
the current florin 162 ,70 10 19 148 ,46 20 ,73
Madras, the rupee 178 ,88 11 16 ¹⁄₂ 176 ,28 24 ,61
Milan, the philip 430 ,21 11 8 ¹⁄₂ 409 ,30 57 ,15
Naples, the ducat 336 , 10 19 306 ,60 42 ,81
Piedmont, the ducatoon 491 ,03 11 8 ¹⁄₃ 467 ,17 65 ,23
the scudo of 1733 459 ,88 10 19 ¹⁄₆ 419 ,96 58 ,64
the scudo of 1755 542 ,95 10 17 ¹⁄₂ 492 ,05 68 ,71
Pondicherry, the rupee 177 ,27 11 11 170 ,63 23 ,83
Poland, the tympfe 89 ,75 6 3 ¹⁄₂ 46 ,12 6 ,44
Portugal, the cruzade 265 ,65 10 15 ¹⁄₂ 238 ,54 33 ,31
Prussia, the current rixdollar 343 ,42 9 257 ,57 35 ,97
Rome, the scudo moneta 408 ,70 11 374 ,64 52 ,31
the testono 130 ,54 11 119 ,67 16 ,71
the papeta 81 ,59 11 74 ,79 10 ,44
Russia, the ruble of 1755 402 ,76 9 10 318 ,85 44 ,52
the ruble of 1763 369 ,88 9 277 ,41 38 ,74
the ruble of 1801 77 ,48 10 8 240 ,48 33 ,58
the livonina of 1757 411 ,66 9 1 ¹⁄₄ 310 ,99 43 ,41
the rixdollar albertus 433 ,17 10 10 379 ,03 52 ,93
Saxony, the old reichsthaler 450 ,97 10 13 ¹⁄₃ 400 ,87 55 ,98
the new reichsthaler 432 ,93 10 360 ,78 50 ,38
the zweydrittelstucke 212 ,14 11 6 ²⁄₃ 200 ,35 27 ,98
Spain, the hard dollar before 1772 416 ,40 10 18 ¹⁄₃ 378 ,81 52 ,90
the hard dollar since 1772 416 ,40 10 15 373 ,03 52 ,09
Sweden, the reichsthaler of 1764 451 ,56 10 10 ⁵⁄₆ 396 ,69 55 ,39
the ducatoon 484 , 11 1 ¹⁄₄ 446 ,18 62 ,30
the carolin 160 ,51 8 6 ²⁄₃ 111 ,47 15 ,56
the ten oere silver piece 108 ,30 5 6 ²⁄₃ 48 ,13 6 ,72
Tuscany, the francescono 422 ,75 11 387 ,52 54 ,11
the lanternina 420 , 11 1 386 ,75 54 ,
the livornina 402 , 11 1 370 ,18 51 ,69
United States, the dollar 409 ,79 11 375 ,64 52 ,45
Venice, the ducat 350 ,83 9 18 289 ,44 40 ,42
the scudo 489 ,54 11 448 ,75 62 ,66
the giustina 433 ,17 11 397 ,07 55 ,45
In the first column of this table is shewn the weight of each foreign coin in grains troy-weight; in the second column, the degree of fineness in carats and grains of a carat; in the third column, the contents of fine silver in grains troy-weight; and in the fourth, the intrinsic value expressed in pence sterling.
The following example will shew in what manner the value of a foreign coin in other money also foreign may be ascertained.
Example.
It is required to express the value of a Spanish hard dollar in the money of France.
As it is seen by the prefixed table that the hard dollar contains 373,03 grains of fine silver, and that the piece of 5 francs contains 347,52 grains of fine silver, I state the following equation:
1 hard dollar = x
1 hard dol. = 373 ,03 grains
347 ,52 grains = 5 franc piece
Result 5 francs 37 cents
MONIES, in a military sense, are such sums as are issued for public service, and are more specifically distinguished by the appellation of army estimates. It is usual for the secretary at war to move for the estimates of the army. The following sums shew the amount of the British military establishment on the 17th of February, 1801:—
1,615,878l. for guards and garrisons.
1,743,773l. for maintenance of troops abroad.
17,232l. for land forces for Ireland.
355,000l. for recruiting in Great Britain.
319,479l. for ditto in Ireland.
86,523l. for generals and staff officers in Great Britain.
48,197l. for ditto in Ireland.
973,433l. for militia in Great Britain.
1,338,000l. for ditto in Ireland.
57,000l. for fencibles in Great Britain.
34,451l. for contingencies in Ireland.
25,876l. for supernumerary officers.
11,628l. for officers’ clerks, &c. in Great Britain.
6,416l. for ditto in Ireland.
255,000l. for increased rates for subsistence to inn-keepers in Great Britain.
115,384l. allowance for beer.
138,979l. for reduced officers in Great Britain.
148,382l. for the in and out pensioners of Chelsea.
35,923l. for ditto of hospital at Kilmainham, near Dublin.
455,000l. for volunteer cavalry in Great Britain.
425,139l. for ditto in Ireland.
33,394l. for foreign troops in British pay.
456,000l. for the augmentation of 10,000 in Great Britain.
21,332l. for contingencies in Ireland.
To be added, 1,033,750l. for the ordnance of the current year.
30,937l. for extraordinaries not provided for in 1799.
58,756l. for ditto not provided for in 1800.
Regimental Monies. All sums issued to paymasters for the subsistence, &c. of the men belonging to a regiment, are so called; for the regular distribution of which the paymasters and captains of companies are responsible. La comptabilité, among the French, corresponds with this explanation.
Ley-Money. The money which is paid for recruiting the army, is so called.
Smart Money. The money which was paid by the person who has taken the enlisting money, in order to get released from an engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment.
Bounty Money.—See Recruiting.
MONOMACHY, (Monomachie, Fr.) a single combat, or the fighting of two, hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may be properly called Monomachy.
MONSON ou MOUSON, Fr. a word derived from the Arabic, signifying the wind of any particular season, or one that blows regularly. See Monsoons.
MONSOONS. In India the year is divided into two seasons. From the month of October to March, the winds blow from the north-western, and during the rest of the year from the south-eastern points of the compass: these seasons are by mariners called monsoons; the change from the one to the other is generally preceded by an interval of about twenty days, in which calms, or light and uncertain winds prevail: the setting in of the northern monsoons generally falls out some time in the month of September, as that of the southern in the month of April. On the coast of Coromandel the northern monsoon sometimes begins with a violent tempest or hurricane; and if the monsoon sets in with moderation, it is often productive of tempestuous weather at different intervals, until the middle of December, and sometimes later; so that it is held dangerous for any vessels to remain on the coast after the 15th of October, or to return to it before the 20th of December.
MONTAGNES, Fr. Hills, mountains, &c. In a military sense, the term is peculiarly applicable to that species of warfare which is carried on in a mountainous and intersected country. We have already given a general outline of this species of warfare under the head Guerre de Montagne: nevertheless the following observations may not appear superfluous or irrelevant in this place. The chevalier Folard has written largely, and with no inconsiderable degree of method, on that part of a war among hills, &c. where an army might run the risk of being surrounded, or shut up. He observes, that a body of men may be drawn into snares by the well concerted movements of an able and active enemy, most especially in a country which is intersected by rivers, and occasionally broken with hills and eminences. Although disasters of this sort are manifest proofs of a want of ability in the person who holds the chief command, they become infinitely more disgraceful when a general runs headlong into a snare, as Euripidas did, without having sufficient courage to attempt a daring enterprize; for it certainly remains with ourselves to determine, whether we chuse to move into an impracticable country; and it equally rests with us to avoid stratagems and snares.
All this, however, depends upon a knowlege of the country into which the war is carried; and as it is impossible to be in possession of the requisite information without some extraneous means, every general ought to lay it down as a maxim, not to advance into a mountainous country without having a good number of intelligent and faithful guides. These, in addition to some able topographers, will prevent the possibility of being surprised, and make him thoroughly master of all the passes, &c.
It is not, however, sufficient to be in possession of the heights that immediately command a valley into which an army has moved; in proportion as you advance, you must be certain, that the enemy who retreats before, is not insensibly winding round a second range of hills, to get upon your flanks, or ultimately fall upon your rear.
It moreover frequently happens, that some vallies have not any outlets, and that others become so narrow, that an army is under the necessity of marching by single files, in order to reach a more open piece of ground, or to get at some important pass for the purpose of intercepting or obstructing the march of an enemy.
When it is found necessary to retreat, or to march over a country, as Hannibal did over the Alps, it is of little consequence what steps or measures you take, with regard to those parts which you are abandoning; but when you advance against an enemy, and are determined to dispute his march through a valley or hollow way, you must adopt every precaution to secure your rear and flanks, lest, as we have already observed, your antagonist should take advantage of the various passes and intricate bye-ways, which always exists in a mountainous country; and it must always be remembered, that many coups de main, and daring enterprises, may be undertaken by four or five hundred active partisans, which an army would find impracticable.
An able general cannot have a better, or more favorable field to exercise his military genius in, than that which is afforded by a mountainous country. All the chicane and stratagem of war may be resorted to; and however weak an army might be, yet such are the manifold resources of this peculiar kind of contest, that there is scarcely any thing which may not be attempted, provided the officer, who commands, has a thorough knowlege of the country, is fertile in expedients, and has a calm determined mind. Many instances might be adduced to illustrate these observations; we shall be satisfied with stating, that the prince of Conti, in the campaign of 1744, which he so ably conducted, owes a considerable part of his reputation to the scope afforded to his talents by the locality of Piedmont. This country, indeed, as well as Switzerland, seems to have been cut out as the peculiar theatre of great military talents. But neither the prince of Conti, nor the first consul of France, Bonaparte, would have succeeded in the brilliant manner, which they most unquestionably have done, had not the science of topography seconded the natural advantages of that mountainous part of Europe. Massena, Lecourbe, Ney, Lefebvre, Soult, and Macdonald have immortalized themselves in mountain warfare.
MONTE, Fr. This word is used among the French to express what we mean by carry; as, un vaisseau monté de cinquante pièces de canon: a ship that carries fifty guns, or a fifty gun ship.
Monter la tranchée, Fr. See To Mount the Trenches.
Monter un Vaisseau, Fr. To embark on board a ship.
Monter, Fr. This word likewise means to rise from one rank to another, in the way of promotion, as from cornet or ensign to become lieutenant, from lieutenant to become captain, or from having the command of the youngest company to be promoted to that of the oldest.
MONTH, considered as a military period, in the British service, consists alternately of 30 and 31 days, commencing on the 24th, and ending on the 25th day (inclusive) of each month, properly so called.
Monthly Abstract. See Pay.
Monthly Return. See Return.
Monthly Report. See Report.
Monthly Inspection. See Regimental Inspection.
MONT-joie, Saint Denis, Fr. a national exclamation, adopted by the French in the reign of Louis, sirnamed Le Gros. See Cri des armes.
Mont-Pagnote ou Poste des invulnérables, Fr. an expression which is derived from Pagnote, a coward, a poltroon; and signifies any eminence or place from whence the operations of a siege, or the actual conflict of two armies, may be seen without personal danger to the curious observer. It is a term of reproach, C’est un Général qui voit le combat du Mont-Pagnote; he is one of those generals that look on whilst others fight. During the American war a particular body of refugees or tories who seemed to side with the British, were called invulnerables.
Mont-Pagnote, in fortification, an eminence where persons post themselves out of the reach of cannon, to see a camp, siege, battle, &c. without being exposed to danger. It is also called the post of the invulnerables.