M.

MAALER, Ind. A certificate, which is attested by the principal inhabitants of a town or village.

MACE. A heavy blunt weapon, having a metal head: a club.

MACHICOULIS, or Masse-coulis, Fr. In ancient, and sometimes in modern fortification, that upper part of the wall which is sustained by brackets or corbels, jets out and overlooks the gate or ditch.

When a place is besieged, detached parties of the garrison may be posted in the several machicoulises. Through the intervals of the corbels, or supporting brackets, they may easily observe every thing that passes at the foot of the wall; and if the besiegers should be hardy enough to penetrate as far, they may easily overwhelm them by throwing down large stones, combustible materials, hand-grenades or bombs. These brackets or supporters, which in ancient fortification were of a slight construction, might be made of solid materials. The machicoulis, in fact, is susceptible of great improvement; and in many instances might be adopted in order to defend the lower parts of angular forts or turrets.

MACHINES. Machines, Fr.

Machines used in war by the ancients. Every species of instrument or machine, which was employed before the invention of fire-arms, for the purpose of demolishing the fortifications of an enemy, or of rendering them accessible to the besieger, came under the denomination of machine. For a full and elaborate explanation of the different machines that were adopted by the ancients, we refer our military readers to the second volume of the Recueil Alphabetique, page 73.

Machines Infernales, Fr. Infernal machines. Although the first idea of these machines has been attributed to France, the invention, nevertheless, is by no means new. Frederic Jambelli, an Italian engineer, was the first that used them, when Alexander, of Parma, besieged Antwerp. The prince of Orange likewise had recourse to the destructive effects of an infernal machine, in order to bombard Havre-de-Grace, and to set it on fire. The Dutch and English, in conjunction, attempted to destroy St. Malo by the same means. The first instance, however, upon record, in which the French made use of this machine, was when Louis the XIVth ordered a vessel, carrying an enormous shell, full of every species of combustible matter, to be dispatched to Algiers, for the purpose of demolishing its harbor. This, the English say, suggested to other nations the adoption of fire-ships, and other destructive machines, which have frequently been used against maritime places, although they had been in use a century before.

The author of Oeuvres Militaires, tom. xxii. page 222, speaking of the infernal machines, observes, that if he were to be in a situation which required the use of so dreadful an explosion, especially to destroy a bridge, he would prefer having the machine made simply with different strong pieces of wood joined together, so as to be in the shape of an egg, or of a cone reversed. The whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round it. This method, in his opinion, is not only the best, but can be executed in the most easy and expeditious manner. He further adds, that in order to burn and blow up wooden bridges, and even to destroy such as are constructed upon arches, several sorts of barges or boats might be used, which should be filled with fireworks, bombs, petards, &c. It would likewise be extremely easy to construct these machines upon floating rafters, carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder, which might be confined within strong pieces of wood, put together in the manner already described.

These machines should be piled one above the other, and long iron bars must be thrown across the floats, or be fixed like masts, so that when the whole of the combustible materials is beneath the centre of the bridge, the rafters may be stopped. Great care must be taken to dispose the matches in such a manner that no fire may be communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact spot which is to be destroyed.

MACHINE, in general, whatever hath force sufficient to raise or stop the motion of a heavy body.

Machines are either simple or compound: the simple ones are the seven mechanical powers, viz. lever, balance, pully, axis, and wheel, screw, and inclined plane. See Mechanical Powers.

If the given power is not able to overcome the given resistance when directly applied, that is, when the power applied is less than the weight or resonance given; then the thing is to be performed by the help of a machine, made with levers, wheels, pullies, screws, &c. so adjusted, that when the weight and power are put in motion on the machine, the velocity of the power may be at least so much greater than that of the weight, as the weight and friction of the machine, taken together, is greater than the power; for on this principle depends the mechanism or contrivance of all mechanical engines used to draw or raise heavy bodies, or overcome any other force; the whole design of these being to give such a velocity to the power, in respect of the weight, as that the momentum of the power may exceed the momentum of the weight: for if machines are so contrived, that the velocity of the agent and resistant are reciprocally as their forces, the agent will just sustain the resistant, but with a greater degree of velocity will overcome it. So that if the excess of motion or velocity in the power is so great as to overcome all that resistance which commonly arises from the friction or attraction of contiguous bodies, as they slide by one another, or from the cohesion of bodies that are to be separated, or from the weights of bodies that are to be raised: the excess of the force remaining, after all these resistances are overcome, will produce an acceleration of motion thereto, as well in the parts of the machine, as in the resisting body.

Compound Machines, are formed by various combinations, and serve for different purposes; in all which the same general law takes place, viz. that the power and weight sustain each other, when they are in the inverse proportion of the velocities they would have in the directions wherein they act, if they were put in motion. Now, to apply this law to any compound machine, there are four things to be considered: 1. The moving power, or the force that puts the machine in motion; which may be either men or other animals, weights, springs, the wind, a stream of water, &c. 2. The velocity of this power, or the space it moves over in a given time. 3. The resistance, or quantity of weight to be removed. 4. The velocity of this weight, or the space it moves over in the same given time.

The two first of these quantities are always in the reciprocal proportion of the two last; that is, the product of the first two must always be equal to that of the last; hence, three of these quantities being given, it is easy to find the fourth; for example, if the quantity of the power be 4, its velocity 15, and the velocity of the weight 2, then the resistance, or quantity of the weight, will be equal to 4 × 152 = 602 = 30.

The following rules will direct the mechanic how he may contrive his machine, that it may answer the intended purpose, to the best advantage.

1. Having assigned the proportion of your power, and the weight to be raised, the next thing is to consider how to combine levers, wheels, pullies, &c. so that working together they may be able to give a velocity to the power, which shall be to that of the weight something greater than in the proportion of the weight to the power. This done, you must estimate your quantity of friction; and if the velocity of the power be to that of the weight still in a greater proportion than the weight and friction taken together are to the power; then your machine will be able to raise the weight. And note, this proportion must be so much greater, as you would have your engine work faster.

2. But the proportion of the velocity of the power and weight must not be made too great: for it is a fault to give a machine too much power, as well as too little; for if the power can raise the weight and overcome the resistance, and the engine perform its proper effect in a convenient time and work well, it is sufficient for the end proposed; and it is in vain to make additions to the engine to increase the power any farther; for that would not only be a needless expence, but the engine would lose time in working.

3. As to the power applied to work the engine, it may either be a living power, as men, horses, &c. or an artificial power, as a spring, &c. or a natural power, as wind, water, fire, weights, &c.

When the quantity of the power is known, it matters not, as to the effect, what kind of power it is; for the same quantity of any sort will produce the same effect; and different sorts of powers may be applied in an equal quantity a great variety of ways.

The most easy power applied to a machine is weight, if it be capable of effecting the thing designed. If not, then wind, water, &c. if that can be conveniently had, and without much expence.

A spring is also a convenient moving power for several machines: but it never acts equally as the weight does; but is stronger when much bent, than when but a little bent, and that in proportion to the bending, or the distance it is forced to; but springs grow weaker by often bending or remaining long bent: yet they recover part of their strength by lying unbent.

The natural powers, wind and water, may be applied to vast advantage in working great engines, when managed with skill and judgment.—The due application of these has much abridged the labors of men; for there is scarce any labor to be performed, but an ingenious artificer can tell how to apply these powers to execute his design, and answer his purpose; for any constant motion being given, it may, by due application, be made to produce any other motions we desire. Therefore these powers are the most easy and useful, and of the greatest benefit to mankind. Besides, they cost nothing, and do not require any repetition nor renewing, like a weight or a spring, which require to be wound up. When these cannot be had, or cannot serve our end, we have recourse to some living power, as men, horses, &c.

4. Men may apply their strength several ways in working a machine. A man of ordinary strength, turning a roller by the handle, can act for a whole day against a resistance equal to 30 pounds weight; and if he works ten hours in a day, he will raise a weight 30lb. 3¹⁄₂ feet in a second; or if the weight be greater, he will raise it so much less in proportion.

But a man may act, for a small time, against a resistance of 50lb. or more.

If two men work at a windlass or roller, they can more easily draw up 70lb. than one man 30lb. provided the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to that of the other: and with a fly or heavy wheel applied to it, a man may do ¹⁄₃d part more work; and for a little while act with a force, or overcome a continual resistance of 80lb. and work a whole day when the resistance is but 40lb.

Men used to carrying weighty burdens, such as porters, will carry some 150lb. others 200lb. or 250lb. according to their strength.

A man can draw but about 70 or 80lb. horizontally; for he can but apply half his weight.

If the weight of a man be 140lb. he can act with no greater force in thrusting horizontally, at the height of his shoulders, than 27lb.

A horse draws to greatest advantage, when the line of direction is a little elevated above the horizon, and the power acts against his breast: and can draw 200lb. for eight hours in a day, at two miles and an half an hour. If he draws 240lb. he can work but six hours, and not quite so fast; and, in both cases, if he carries some weight he will draw better than if he carried none. And this is the weight a horse is supposed to be able to draw over a pully out of a well. In a cart a horse may draw 1000lb. The most force a horse can exert is when he draws something above a horizontal direction.

The worst way of applying the strength of a horse, is to make him draw or carry up a hill: and three men with 100lb. on their backs, will climb up a steep hill faster than a horse with 300lb.

A round walk for a horse to draw in at a mill, &c. should not be less than 40 feet diameter.

5. Every machine should be made of as few parts, and those as simple as possible, to answer its purpose; not only because the expence of making and repairing will be less, but it will also be less liable to be put out of order.

6. If a weight is to be raised but a very little way, the lever is the most simple, easy, and ready machine; or, if the weight be very great, the common screw is most proper; but if the weight is to be raised a great way, the wheel and axle is a proper power, but blocks and pullies render the labor still more easy: the same may be done by the perpetual screw.

Great wheels, to be wrought by men or cattle, are of most use and convenience when their axles are perpendicular to the horizon; but if by water, &c. then it is best to have their axles horizontal.

7. As to the combination of simple machines to make a compound one, though the lever when simple cannot raise a weight to any great height, and in this case is but of little service; yet it is of great use when compounded with others. Thus the spokes of a great wheel are all levers perpetually acting; and a beam fixed to the axis to draw the wheel about by men or horses, is a lever. The lever also may be combined with the screw, but not conveniently with pullies or with the wedge. The wheel and axle is combined to great advantage with pullies: but the perpetual screw, with the wheel is very serviceable. The wedge cannot be combined with any other mechanical power; and it only performs its effect by percussion; but this force of percussion may be increased by engines.

Pullies may be combined with pullies, and wheels with wheels. Therefore if any single wheel would be too large, and take up too much room, it may be divided into two or three more wheels and trundles, or wheels and pinions, as in clock work, so as to have the same power, and perform the same effect.

In wheels with teeth, the number of teeth that play together in two wheels, should be prime to each other, that the same teeth may not meet at every revolution: for when different teeth meet, they by degrees wear themselves into a proper figure: therefore they should so be contrived that the same teeth meet as seldom as possible.

8. The strength of every part of the machine should be made proportional to the stress it is to bear: and therefore let every lever be made so much stronger, as its length and the weight it is to support are greater; and let its strength diminish proportionally from the fulcrum, or point where the greatest stress is to each end. The axles of wheels and pullies must be so much stronger as they are to bear greater weight. The teeth of wheels, and the wheels themselves, which act with greater force, must be proportionally stronger; and in any combination of wheels and axles, make their strength diminish gradually from the weight to the power, so that the strength of every part be reciprocally as its velocity. The strength of ropes must be according to their tension; that is, as the squares of their diameters: and, in general, whatever parts a machine is composed of, the strength of every particular part of it must be adjusted to the stress upon the whole; therefore in square beams the cubes of the diameters must be made proportional to the stress they bear: and let no part be stronger or bigger than is necessary for the stress upon it; not only for the ease and well going of the machine, but for diminishing the friction; for all superfluous matter in any part of it, is a dead weight upon the machine, and serves only to impede its motion: hence he is the most perfect mechanic, who not only adjusts the strength to the stress, but who also contrives all the parts to last equally well, so that the whole machine may fall together.

9. To have the friction as little as possible, the machine should be made of the fewest and simplest parts. The diameters of the wheels and pullies should be large, and the diameters of the arbors or spindles they run on, as small as can be consistent with their strength. All ropes and cords must be as pliable as possible, and for that end rubbed with tar or grease: the teeth of wheels must be made to fit and fill up the openings, and cut into the form of epicycloids. All the axles, where the motion is, and all teeth where they work, and all parts that in working rub upon one another, must be made smooth: and when the machine goes, must be oiled or greased.

10. When any motion is to be long continued, contrive the power to move or act always one way, if it can be done, for this is better and easier performed than when the motion is interrupted, and the power is forced to move first one way, and then another; because every change of motion requires a new additional force to effect it. Besides, a body in motion cannot suddenly receive a contrary motion, without great violence: and the moving any part of the machine contrary ways by turns, with sudden jerks, tends only to shake the machine to pieces.

11. In a machine that moves always one way, endeavor to have the motion uniform.

12. But when the nature of the thing requires that a motion is to be suddenly communicated to a body, or suddenly stopped: to prevent any damage or violence to the engine by a sudden jolt, let the force act against some spring, or beam of wood, which may supply the place of a spring.

13. In regard to the size of the machine, let it be made as large as it can conveniently; the greater the machine, the more exact it will work, and perform all its motions the better; for there will always be some errors in the making, as well as in the materials, and consequently in the working of the machine. The resistance of the medium in some machines has a sensible effect; but all these mechanical errors bear a less proportion in the motion of great machines, than in that of little ones; being nearly reciprocally as their diameters, supposing they are made of the same matter, and with the same accuracy, and are equally well finished.

14. For engines that go by water, it is necessary to measure the velocity, drop in pieces of sticks, &c. and observe how far they are carried in a second, or any given time.

But if it flows through a hole in a reservoir, or standing receptacle of water, the velocity will be found from the depth of the whole below the surface.

Thus let s = 16¹⁄₁₂; v = velocity of the fluid per second; B = the area of the hole; H = the height of the water; all in feet. Then the velocity of v = √2 s H; and its force = the weight of the quantity vv2sB or H B of water, or = 62¹⁄₂112H B hundred weight: because a cubic foot = 62¹⁄₂ lb. avoirdup. Also a hogshead is about 8¹⁄₂ feet, or 531lb. and a tun is 4 hogsheads.

When you have but a small quantity of water, you must contrive it to fall as high as you can, to have the greater velocity, and consequently more force upon the engine.

15. If water is to be conveyed through pipes to a great distance, and the descent be but small, much larger pipes must be used because the water will come slow.

Water should not be driven through pipes faster than four feet per second, by reason of the friction of the tubes; nor should it be too much wire-drawn, that is, squeezed through smaller pipes, for that creates a resistance, as water-way is less in narrow pipes.

16. When any thing is to be performed by a water-wheel, moved by the water running under it and striking the paddles or ladle-boards, the channel it moves in ought to be something wider than the hole of the adjutage, and so close to the floats on every side as to let little or no water pass; and when past the wheel, to open a little, that the water may spread. It is of no advantage to have a great number of floats or paddles; for those past the perpendicular are resisted by the back water, and those before it are struck obliquely. The greatest effect that such a wheel can perform, in communicating any motion, is when the paddles of the wheel move with one-third the velocity of the water; in which case, the force upon the paddle is four-ninths only; supposing the absolute force of the water against the paddle, when the wheel stands still, to be 1: so that the utmost motion which the wheel can generate, is but ⁴⁄₂₇ths of that which the force of the water against the paddles at rest would produce.

MADRAS. Fort St. George. A town and fort on the Coromandel coast, in the East Indies, belonging to the English. The town is called Madras by the inhabitants, but by the natives, Chilipatam. It is divided into two towns, the one called the White, and the other the Black town; the former being inhabited by Europeans, and the latter by Gentoos. The diamond mines of Golconda are a week’s journey from this place. The town is governed by a mayor and aldermen, with other officers. It is 63 miles north of Pondicherry, lat. 13, 5, N. long. 80, 34, E. It may not be irrelevant to state, that the establishments belonging to Great Britain, on the coast of Coromandel, is divided into several governments, independent of each other. Bombay commands the factories on the western side of the peninsula, commonly called the Malabar coast; together with those in Guzzerat: the establishments and possessions on the eastern or Coromandel coast, are under the government of Madras; and those in Bengal depend on Calcutta.

MADRIERS, are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and various other purposes at a siege; also to cover the mouth of petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are not strong enough, they are doubled with plates of iron.

MAGAZIN, Fr. magazine.

Petit-Magazin. Fr. This was a sort of intermediate building, called entrepot, where stores, provisions, &c. to answer daily consumptions were deposited.

Magazin d’approvisionnement, Fr. magazine of stores.

Magazin d’artillerie, Fr. gunpowder magazines.

MAGAZINE, a place in which stores are kept, or arms, ammunition, provisions, &c. Every fortified town ought to be furnished with a large magazine, which should contain stores of all kinds, sufficient to enable the garrison and inhabitants to hold out a long siege, and in which smiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights, bakers, &c. may be employed in making every thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, waggons, &c.

Powder-Magazine, is that place where the powder is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ greatly both in regard to situation and construction; but all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. In fortifications they are frequently placed in the rampart; but of late they have been built in different parts of the town. The first powder magazines were made with gothic arches; but M. Vauban, finding them too weak, constructed them in a semicircular form, whose dimensions are, 60 feet long, within; 25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high from the foundation to the spring of the arch; the floor is 2 feet from the ground, which keeps it from dampness.

An engineer of great experience some time since, had observed, that after the centres of semicircular arches are struck, they settle at the crown and rise up at the hances, even with a straight horizontal extrados, and still much more so in powder magazines, whose outside at top is formed like the roof of a house, by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top of the arch, to give a proper descent to the rain; which effects are exactly what might be expected agreeable to the true theory of arches. Now, as this shrinking of the arches must be attended with very ill consequences, by breaking the texture of the cement, after it has been in some degree dried, and also by opening the joints of the voussoirs, at one end, so a remedy is provided for this inconvenience, with regard to bridges, by the arch of equilibration in Mr. Hutton’s book on bridges; but as the ill effect is much greater in powder magazines, the same ingenious gentleman proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them also, and to construct it when the span is 20 feet the pich or height 10, (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle) the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point above the top of the arch, equal to seven feet: this very curious question was answered in 1775 by the Rev. Mr. Wildbore, to be found in Mr. Hutton’s Miscellanea Mathematica.

Artillery-Magazine, in a siege, the magazine is made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, towards the parallels, and at least 3 feet under ground, to hold the powder, loaded shells, port-fires, &c. Its sides and roof must be well secured with boards to prevent the earth from falling in: a door is made to it, and a double trench or passage is sunk from the magazine to the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at, to prevent confusion. Sometimes traverses are made in the passages to prevent ricochet shot from plunging into them.

Magazines. The present practice is not to make large powder magazines for batteries, but to disperse the barrels of powder, or cartridges here and there in small magazines, about 6 or 7 fathoms, in the rear of the battery; as it appears better to lose a small quantity from time to time, than to run the risk of the whole being destroyed, by a single shell falling into the magazine. These small magazines or entrenchments, will hold about one or two tons of powder; and are about eight or 9 feet square. They ought to be well covered from the fire of the place, and always in the rear of one of the merlons. When they cannot be sunk in the ground, they should be secured by sand bags or gabions. They should be made with attention, as should the communication from them to the battery. Two magazines of this kind will be required for a battery of six pieces.

Permanent powder magazines. According to Vauban’s plan, powder magazines are commonly made 10 fathoms long, and 25 feet wide, in the clear. The foundation of the longest sides, is 9 or 10 feet thick, and 6 feet or more deep, according to the nature of the ground. The side walls raised upon these are 8 or 9 feet thick; and if there is not to be an upper story, 8 feet will be sufficient height above the foundation. By this means the flooring may be raised above the ground, free from damp, and there will remain 6 feet from the floor to the spring of the arch. The arch is formed of layers of bricks, arched one over the other, and ought to be 3 feet thick at the top. The exterior surface of the arch terminates with an angle at top, like a roof; which angle must be of such magnitude as to make a thickness of 8 feet over the key stone of the arch. The foundation at the gable ends is 5 feet thick, and the same depth as the sides; these ends are built up 4 feet thick, from the foundation to the top of the roof. The long sides are supported by counterforts, 6 feet thick and 4 feet long; and placed 12 feet asunder. The ventilators are placed, one in the centre of each space between the counterforts, and are made with a die across them of 1¹⁄₂ feet. These ventilators are also closed with plates of iron. The magazine is lighted by a window in each end, high up, which are opened and shut by means of a ladder. These windows are secured, each by two shutters, made of plank 2 or 3 inches thick; and the outer one covered with sheet iron, and both fastened with strong bolts. The entrance to the magazine is closed by two doors, one of which opens inwards, and the other outwards; the outward one is covered with sheet iron. The entrance of the magazine should, if possible, be placed towards the south. A wall of 1¹⁄₂ feet thick, and 10 feet high, is built round the magazine at 12 feet distance. A magazine of the above dimensions will contain about 94,800 lbs. of powder, in piles of 3 barrels each; for a greater number piled above each other destroys the barrels, damages the powder, and occasions accidents.

MAGNITUDE, or quantity, any thing locally continued, or that has several dimensions. Its origin is a point, which though void of parts, yet its flux forms a line, the flux of that a surface, and of that a body, &c.

MAGNA CHARTA, the great charter of liberties granted to the people of England in the 9th year of Henry III. and confirmed by Edward I. It is so called on account of the supposed excellence of the laws therein contained; or according to some writers, because another lesser charter, called Charter de Foresta, was established with it; or because it contained more than any other charter, &c. or in regard of the remarkable solemnity in the denouncing excommunications against the infringers of it. It is nevertheless a code of barbarity characteristic of the age; and to which imposture has given it all the consequence which ignorance ascribes to it.

MAHONNE, Fr. a species of galeas or double galley which the Turks use. The Venetian galeasses are larger and stronger built.

MAIDEN, an edged instrument used at Edinburgh in former times for the decapitation of criminals. The original invention is by some attributed to an inhabitant of Halifax, in Yorkshire. The guillotine, so called from a French physician of that name, and by which the unfortunate Louis the Sixteenth was executed, January 21st, 1793, owes its origin to the Maiden.

MAIL, primarily denotes the holes or meshes in a net: it likewise signifies a round iron ring. Hence

Coat of Mail, a coat of armor or steel net-work, anciently worn for defence.

MAILLET, Fr. a mallet. The French formerly made use of this instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements.

In 1351 the mallet was used at the famous battle des Trente (of thirty) which derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side.

This extraordinary combat, holds a distinguished place in the history of Britanny, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois, and the king of France on one side, and by the count Montfort and the king of England on the other.

Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the arsenal, took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were afterwards called Maillotins.

In the days of Louis XII. the English archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.

MAILLOTIN, Fr. an old French term; which signified, an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France was distinguished by the appellation of Maillotins.

MAIN Armée, Fr. Armed force.—Entrer a main armée dans un pays, is to enter into a country with armed men.

Main. Venir aux mains, Fr. To come to close action.

MAIN-BATTLE. See Battle-Array.

MAIN-BODY of the army, the body of troops that march between the advance and rear-guards. In a camp, that part of the army encamped between the right and left wings.

MAIN-GUARD, or grand-guard, a body of horse posted before a camp for the security of an army. In garrison, it is a guard generally mounted by a subaltern officer and about 24 men. See Guard.

Main-Guard. The French observed the following general maxims, with respect to their Grandes-Gardes or main-guards. In the first place, every main-guard on foot or horseback, must be so posted as to remain secure of not being surprised and carried off, nor easily forced to abandon its position. In order to accomplish these two objects, it must constantly be within the reach of the different piquets; and, if necessary, those piquets should be readily supported by the army itself.

MAINTAIN, when any body of men defend a place or post, against the attacks of an adverse party, they are said to maintain it.

MAJOR. A superior officer in the army, whose functions vary according to the nature of the service on which he is employed.

Major of a regiment of foot, the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldest captain: he is to take care that the regiment be well exercised, to see it march in good order, and to rally it in case of being broke in action: he is the only officer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horseback in time of action, that he may the more readily execute the colonel’s orders.

The Major of a regiment of horse as well as foot, ought to be a man of honor, integrity, understanding, courage, activity, experience, and address: he should be master of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regiment in every particular: he should be skilled in horsemanship, and ever attentive to his business: one of his principal functions is, to keep an exact roster of the officers for duty; he should have a perfect knowlege in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his post to instruct others, &c.

Town-Major, the third officer in order in a garrison, and next to the deputy-governor. He should understand fortification, and has a particular charge of the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.

Brigade-Major, is a particular officer appointed for that purpose, only in camp: or attached to a brigade when an army is brigaded; he goes every day to head quarters to receive orders from the adjutant general: from thence he goes and gives the orders, at the place appointed for that purpose, to the different majors or adjutants of the regiments which compose his brigade, and regulates with them the number of officers and men which each are to furnish for the duty of the army; taking care to keep an exact roster, that one may not give more than another, and that each march in their tour; in short, the major of brigade is charged with the particular detail in his own brigade, in much the same way as the adjutant-general is charged with the general detail of the duty of the army. He sends every morning to the adjutant-general an exact return, by battalion and company, of the men of his brigade missing at the retreat, or a report, expressing that none are absent: he also mentions the officers absent with or without leave.

As all orders pass through the hands of the majors of brigade, they have infinite occasions of making known their talents and exactness.

Major of Artillery, is also the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel. His post is very laborious, as the whole detail of the corps particularly rests with him; and for this reason all the non-commissioned officers are subordinate to him, as his title of serjeant-major imports; in this quality they must render him an exact account of every thing which comes to their knowlege, either regarding the duty or wants of the artillery and soldiers. He should possess a perfect knowlege of the power of artillery, together with all its evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive orders from the brigade-major, and communicates them with the parole to his superiors, and then dictates them to the adjutant. He should be a very good mathematician, and be well acquainted with every thing belonging to the train of artillery, &c.

Major of engineers, should be very well skilled in military architecture, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He should know how to fortify in the field, to attack and defend all sorts of posts, and to conduct the works in a siege, &c. See Engineer.

Aid-Major, is on sundry occasions appointed to act as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the same denomination. Our horse and foot guards have their guidons, or second and third majors.

Serjeant-Major, is a non-commissioned officer, of great merit and capacity, subordinate to the adjutant, as he is to the major. See Serjeant.

Drum-Major, is not only the first drummer in the regiment, but has the same authority over his drummers as the corporal has over his squad. He instructs them in their different beats; is daily at orders with the serjeants, to know the number of drummers for duty. He marches at their head when they beat in a body. In the day of battle, or at exercise, he must be very attentive to the orders given him, that he may regulate his beats according to the movements ordered.

Fife-Major, is he that plays the best on that instrument, and has the same authority over the fifers as the drum-major has over the drummers. He teaches them their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.

Major-General. See General.

MAJOR, Fr. The French considered this term, in a military sense, under the following heads:—

Major-Général d’une Armée, Fr. Major-general generally so called, which see.

Major-Général de l’Infanterie Francoise, Fr. Major-general of the French infantry. This appointment was made under Francis the 1st in 1515.

Major-Général des Dragons, Fr. a major-general of dragoons. His functions were similar to those exercised by the Maréchal-géneral des logis de la Cavalerie; and nearly the same as those of the major-general of infantry.

Major de Brigade, Fr. Brigade-major.

Major d’un Régiment de Cavalerie, Fr. Major in a regiment of cavalry.

Major d’un Régiment d’Infanterie, Fr. Major of a regiment of infantry. Under the old government of France all majors of infantry regiments, were styled sergent-majors, or serjeant-majors in their commissions. They were not permitted to have any company of their own: because it was reasonably judged, that their own interest might render them more partial to that company, and the service be thereby injured.

Major d’une Place de Guerre, Fr. Town-major.

Major, des quatres compagnies des Gardes du corps, Fr. A rank which was exclusively given to an officer belonging to the old French guards. This was an appointment of considerable trust under the old government of France. He was lieutenant in each of the companies; and had the right of seniority over all lieutenants younger than himself in date of commission.

Major sur un vaisseau de guerre, Fr. An officer on board a ship of war, whose duty it was to see the guard regularly mounted, and the sentries posted.

Etat-Major, Fr. A comprehensive French term, in which is included every thing that can be conveyed under the word staff, as applicable to the British service. In a very recent publication, intituled, Manuel des Adjudans-Généraux et leurs Adjoints, the particular duties of the etat-major are accurately explained, of which an entire translation is incorporated with the American Military Library. Another work on the same subject, was published in 1809, by general Grimoard, entitled Traité sur le Service des Armées contenant son organisation, et ses fonctions sous les rapports administratifs et Militaires, with plates. The author began this work in 1778, and part of it was published in 1797, in the Encyclopédie Methodique. This work has superceded the work of Thiebault, only on account of its being more comprehensive; their views and principles are the same.

Major-Dome, Fr. An officer belonging to the gallies, who has the chief superintendance of provisions.

MAJORITY, the office, charge, or appointment of a regimental major.

MAIRE, Fr. Under the old government of France the person so called was invested with the first dignity of the kingdom. Charles Martel, of whom so much is said in the history of the French kings, was Maire of the palace. He was, in fact, grand master of the king’s household, and had an entire control over the officers belonging to that establishment.

The appellation of Maire du Palais, or mayor of the palace, was given in lieu of Maitre du Palais, or master of the palace. This name was borrowed from the Roman emperors, who had each a grand master of the palace. Du Tillet, a French author, in page 12 of his book, pretends that the word is derived from Mer, which signifies Præfect. At first he had only the care and superintendance of the king’s household, so that his functions were nearly similar to those that were exercised by the grand master of the king’s household previous to the Revolution. During the reign of Clotaire the Second, the power of the Maires increased very considerably. Their influence grew greater through the weakness and effeminacy of the last kings of the second race; so much so, that they maintained an uncontroled power over the royal expenditure, and had the sole management of the king’s affairs. Pepin added the dignity and functions or Maire to the royal prerogative; but he did not suppress them wholly. He merely limited his functions to what they were originally; which however were soon restored, in consequence of the fall and extinction of the second race. As the Maires possessed an unlimited control over the finances and judicature of the country, and had more over the entire management of the war department, they found little difficulty in assuming a superiority over all the officers belonging to the crown. They took precedence of all dukes and counts who were the governors of provinces. On which account they were called Ducs des Ducs, or dukes of France. Hugh Capet was duke of France at the time he proclaimed himself king of the country; but the kings belonging to the third race, being convinced that the authority which was thus vested in one person, must eventually prove extremely dangerous, abolished the office of Maire du Palais, or duke of France. They divided the functions, and created the four great officers that were immediately attached to the crown. The command and superintendance of the army, were entrusted to the constable; the administration of civil justice was vested in the chancellor; the management of the finances was given to the grand treasurer, and the care of the king’s household devolved upon the seneschal, who was afterwards styled grand master.

MAISON-du-Roi, Fr. The king’s household. Certain select bodies of troops were so called during the monarchy of France, and consisted of the gardes du corps or body-guards, the Gendarmes, Chevaux legers or light horse, Mousquetaires or musqueteers, la gendarmerie, grenadiers à cheval or horse-grenadiers, the regiments belonging to the French and Swiss guards, and the cent Suisses or hundred Swiss guards. The Maison-du-Roi or king’s household, was not considered as a separate establishment from the rest of the army, until the reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their body guard.

Maison Meurtriere, Fr. This term was formerly given to casemates.

MAITRE des armes, Fr. Master at arms. An officer, during the existence of the Grecian empire, who took precedence of the Maitre de la milice, or commander of the militia.

Maitre d’armes, Fr. A term in general use among the French, signifying a fencing master. Every regiment has a maitre d’armes attached to it.

MAKE-Ready, a word of command in the firing, on which the soldier brings his piece to the recover, at the same time cocking it ready for firing.

MAL d’armée, Fr. A sort of contagious disorder which sometimes rages in an army, and is occasioned by too much fatigue, or by bad food.

Mal-de-Mer, Fr. Sea-sickness.

Mal-de-Terre, Fr. The scurvy is so called by the French.

MALABAR GUNS, Ind. Heavy pieces of ordnance, which are made in the Malabar country, and are formed by means of iron bars joined together with hoops. They are very long, and extremely unwieldy.

MALADES, Fr. The sick.

Soldats-Malades, Fr. Soldiers on the sick list.

MALANDRINS, Fr. a set of free-booters, who under the reign of Charles V. infested France. During the 14th century, these plunderers made their appearance twice in considerable bodies. They consisted chiefly of discharged soldiers who formed themselves into marauding parties, and pillaged with impunity all the travellers they met. Abbé de Choisi, relates that it was extremely hazardous to oppose them in their first onset. These pillagers, whom the inhabitants called Malandrins, assembled in different cantons, chose their own leaders, and observed a sort of discipline in their depredations.

They usually contrived to station themselves in such a manner, that it was impossible to attack them.

They plundered or destroyed many places and buildings through which they passed, and paid no regard to church or state. Their principal and most notorious leaders, were the Chevalier de Vert, brother to the count d’Auxerre, Hugues de Caurelée, Mathieu de Gournar, Hugues de Varennes, Gauthier Huet, and Robert Lescot, who all belonged to some order of knighthood. Bertrand du Guesclin cleared the country of these dangerous and unprincipled men, by leading them into Spain under a pretence of fighting the Moors, when in reality his object was to attack Peter the cruel. See French Hist. de Charles V. liv. 1. page 86.

MALINGERER, (from the French) one who feigns illness to avoid his duty.

MALINGRE, Fr. peaking, sickly.

MALL. See Maul.

MALLET, a wooden hammer, to drive the pegs into the ground, by which a tent is fastened; it is likewise used on various other occasions, especially in fortification and artillery.

MALLEABLE, in the art of founding, a property of metals, whereby they are capable of being extended under the hammer.

MALTA. The strongest place in the Mediterranean, taken by the French troops during the present war, from the knights of that order, and since re-taken by the British. The island of Malta may be considered as a key to the Levant. See Military orders.

MAMMILLIARIA, (Mammellieres, Fr.) a word corrupted from the Latin, signifying a sort of armor, or that part of armor which formerly covered the chest and nipples. Etienne de la fontaine, who was silver smith to the French court, mentions among other articles two sets of Mammillieries, in an account which was delivered in the year 1352.

MAMALUKES, (Mammelucs, Fr.) Some writers assert that they were Turkish and Circassian slaves, originally purchased from the wandering tartars by Meliesaheh, and amounting in number to one thousand men. They were trained and disciplined to war, and some were raised to the first places of trust in the empire. Other writers say that the mamelukes were generally chosen out of christian slaves, and may be considered in the same light as the Turkish janizaries are; others again assert, that they originally came from Circassia, and attracted public notice by their valor, &c. in 869. See D’Herbelot, page 545. The mamelukes have made a considerable figure during the present war, especially in their contest against Bonaparte, for the defence of Egypt. They afterwards joined the French, and formed a considerable part of their cavalry.

MAN, to man the works, is to post the soldiers on the lines so as to be ready for their defence, &c. In the plural number it means soldiers, as an army consisting of 12,000 men.

Flank-front-rank-Man. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the first line or rank of any given body of troops is so called.

Flank-rear-rank-Man. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the last line or rank of any given body of troops.

When a company or battalion is drawn up three deep, the two men who stand at the extremities of the centre line may be called flank-centre-rank-men.

MANCELLE, Fr. a small chain which is fixed to the collars of carriage or dray horses, and which terminates in a large iron ring, that is attached to the shaft. It likewise means the ring itself.

MANCHE d’un Bataillon, Fr. literally means the sleeve of a battalion.—This word originally signified any small body consisting of 40 or 60 men, which were drawn out of the main-body of a battalion, and were posted by files upon the corners or angles of the same battalion.

At present the word manches means the wings of a battalion, the centre of which was composed of pikemen, whilst pikes were in use. Thus there were right and left wings, which were again divided into half-wings, quarter-wings, and half-quarter-wings.

Any battalion may defile or break off by wings, half-wings, or by the other proportions.

The term manche, or wing, was undoubtedly adopted for the express purpose of distinguishing several small corps, which, though at times connected and standing together, could suddenly detach themselves, and act against the enemy without occasioning the most trifling fluctuation or movement in the main body. The Greeks and Romans must have had a term synonimous to manche, in order to shew the several little portions into which the phalanx of the former, and the legion of the latter, were at times divided, when there was occasion for either to manœuvre upon the same principles that we do by wings.

Gardes de la Manche, Fr. Men belonging to the old French body guards, who on particular occasions, as at the Royal Chapel, &c. stood on each side of the king, dressed in hoquetons, and armed with pertuisanes or lances.

La Manche, Fr. The channel.

La Manche Britannique, Fr. The British channel.

La Manche de Bristol, Fr. The Bristol channel.

Manche d’outil, Fr. The handle of any utensil.

MANDARIN. A name which the Portuguese originally gave to the Chinese nobility. According to a French author, the Mandarins are divided into nine orders, each having a peculiar mark of distinction to ascertain its rank.

Civil Mandarins. (Mandarins lettrés, Fr.) These were able and scientific men who had the management of the different branches belonging to civil government.

Military Mandarins. (Mandarins militaires, Fr.) A certain proportion of the body of mandarins is selected by the emperor of China, to superintend and command the militia of the country, these are called military mandarins.

The mandarins are considered as noblemen, but their rank is not hereditary. Every mandarin undergoes a severe and close examination respecting his natural and acquired talents, before he receives a civil or military appointment; and there are public schools or seminaries to which the natives of the empire may repair to obtain the requisite qualifications for such important and honorable stations.

MANDILION, (Mandille, Fr.) the soldier’s coat is so called by the Italians. It does not, however, bear that meaning either amongst us or among the French; Mandilion and Mandille signifying a footman’s great coat.

MANEGE, in horsemanship, the exercise of riding the great horse, or the ground set apart for that purpose; which is sometimes covered, for continuing the exercise in bad weather; and sometimes open, in order to give more liberty and freedom both to the horseman and horse.

MANGAN, Fr. This word is sometimes written MANGON, (See Gun). A warlike machine which was formerly used. The term itself, indeed, was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes; whether it was practised to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, &c. It was likewise called balista, from the Greek; tormentum from the Latin à torquendo; and sometimes petraria, because stones weighing upwards of three hundred and sixty pounds, were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. According to a French writer, one of these machines may still be seen at Basle.

MANGANELLE, Fr. See Mangonneau.

MANGONNEAU, Fr. A word originally derived from the Greek, which, according to Potter, seems to signify any engine designed to cast missive weapons. With respect to that particular engine, which the French have called mangan, manganelle, and mangonneau, there is not any specific term for that famous engine, out of which, stones of a size not less than mill-stones, were thrown with such violence, as to dash whole houses in pieces at a blow:—it was called indeed by the Romans, balista; but this name though of Grecian original, appears not to have been used in Greece; this engine, however, was known there, and was the same with that used by the Romans, the force of which is thus expressed by Lucan:—

MANIEMENT des armes, Fr. manual exercise. Although it might be thought superfluous to enter into a minute explanation of the manual as practised by the French, it will not be deemed entirely useless to the military man, to make him master of the different terms. With this view, we shall likewise give the words of command used in the platoon exercise &c. The French manual differed from the English in many points; essentially so in the commencement of it, as, (extreme bad weather excepted) the soldiers in the former service, regularly appeared upon parade with fixed bayonets; so that the first word of command was,

Presentez vos armes.—Present arms.

Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

Reposez sur vos armes.—Order arms.

Posez vos armes à terre.—Ground arms.

Relevez vos armes.—Take up arms.

Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

L’arme au bras.—Support arms.

Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.

Presentez la baïonnette.—Charge bayonet.

Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

The other words of command which do not belong to the manual, but are occasionally practised, consist of

Baïonnette au canon.—Fix bayonet.

Tirez la baguette.—Draw ramrod.

Baguette dans le canon.—Spring ramrod.

L’arme à volonté.—Slope arms.

L’arme au bras gauche.—Secure arms.

Armes au faisceau.—Pile arms.

Repos.—Rest.

Portez les armes comme sergent.—Advance arms.

Remettez la baguette.—Return ramrod.

Remettez la baïonnette.—Return or unfix bayonet.

Ouvrez le bassinet.—Open pan.

Fermez le bassinet.—Shut pan.

Port arms is not practised among the Trench. When a guard is dismissed, instead of porting arms, the soldier receives the following word of command, haut les armes! which is somewhat similar to recover arms.

MANIEMENT des armes, Fr. The platoon exercise is so called in the French service, and is distinguished from their manual by the additional caution of charge en douze tems, or prime and load in twelve motions.

Chargez vos armes.—Prime and load.

Ouvrez le bassinet.—Open pan.

Prenez le cartouche.—Handle cartridge.

Déchirez la cartouche.—Bite cartridge.

Amorcez.—Prime.

Fermez le bassinet.—Shut pan.

L’arme à gauche.—Cast over.

Cartouche dans le canon.—Load.

Tirez la baguette.—Draw ramrod.

Bourez.—Ram down cartridge.

Remettez la baguette.—Return ramrod.

Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

Firing after the manual.

Apprétez vos armes.—Make ready.

Joue.—Aim.

Feu.—Fire.

Chargez.—Prime and load.

Le chien au repos.—Half-cock firelock.

Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.

Presentez vos armes.—Present arms.

Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

Reposez sur vos armes.—Order arms.

Repos.—Rest.

Inspection d’armes.—Inspection of arms.

Baïonnette au canon.—Fix bayonet.

Baguette dans le canon.—Spring ramrod.

In the British service the ramrod is rammed down the barrel without any further word of command.

Vos armes à terre.—Ground arms.

Relevez vos armes.—Take up arms.

Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

L’arme au bras.—Support arms.

L’arme à volonté.—Slope arms.

L’arme au bras.—Support arms.

Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.

L’arme sous le bras gauche.—Secure arms.

Rortez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.

Croisez la baïonnette.—Charge bayonet.

Croiser la baïonnette likewise signifies to cross bayonet in such a manner as to form a sort of cheval de frise to resist the attack of cavalry from either flank. This has been adopted since the French revolution, and consists in placing the shoulder of the bayonet of the second man behind the shoulder of the first man’s bayonet; and so of every succeeding two from right to left.

Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.

Charge précipitée.—Prime and load quick; in four motions.

Chargez vos armes.—Load.

Deux.—Two.

Trois.—Three.

Quatre.—Four.

Charge à volonté.—Independent or running fire.

Chargez vos armes.—Prime and load.

Platoon Firing.

Peloton.—Platoon.

Armes.—Ready.

Joue.—Aim.

Feu.—Fire.

Charges.—Prime and load.

Roulement.—Roll.

Fin de roulement.—Cease to roll.

Feu à volonté.—Independent firing.

Peloton.—Platoon.

Armes.—Ready.

Commencez le feu.—Commence firing.

Roulement.—Roll.

It is here necessary to explain to the English reader, that the words of command Roulement and Fin de Roulement are only used in the drill, or when there is not any drum to beat the prescribed roll.

MANIER, Fr. to handle. This word is generally used among the French, in a military sense, whenever they speak of portable fire-arms, &c. Hence maniement des armes.

Manier les armes, Fr. To handle the fire-lock, or handle arms.

Manier la hallebarde, Fr. To handle, or salute with the halbert.

Manier le sponton, Fr. To handle, or salute with the spontoon.

Manier l’épée, Fr. To be a swordsman.

Manier le drapeau, Fr. To furl or unfurl the colors.

Manier l’épée à deux mains, Fr. To be able to use your sword with either hand.

MANIFESTO (manifeste, Fr.) A public declaration which is made by a prince or state, containing motives and reasons for entering into a war. The formality of a manifesto has been considerably reduced in modern times. Among the ancients, on the contrary, it was particularly attended to. Potter, in his Grecian Antiquities, observes, that invasions without notice were looked upon rather as robberies than lawful wars, as designed rather to despoil and make a prey of persons innocent and unprovided, than to repair any losses, or damages sustained, which for ought the invaders knew, might have been satisfied for in an easier way. It is therefore no wonder, as Polybius (lib. iv.) relates of the Ætolians, that they were held as common outlaws and robbers in Greece, it being their manner to strike without warning, and to make war without any previous and public declaration, whenever they had an opportunity of enriching themselves, with the spoil and booty of their neighbors. Yet there want not instances of wars begun without previous notice, even by nations of better repute for justice and humanity: but this was only done upon provocations so great and exasperating, that no recompence was thought sufficient to atone for them: whence it came to pass, that such wars were of all others the most bloody and pernicious, and fought with excess of rage and fury; the contesting parties being resolved to extirpate each other, if possible, out of the world.

Before the Grecians engaged themselves in war, it was usual to publish a declaration of the injuries they had received, and to demand satisfaction by ambassadors; for however prepared, or excellently skilled, they were in the affairs of war, yet peace, if to be procured upon honorable terms, was thought more eligible: which custom was observed, even in the most early ages, as appears from the story of Tydeus, whom Polynices sent to compose matters with his brother Eteocles king of Thebes, before he proceeded to invest that city, as we are informed by Statius, (Thebaid. lib. ii. v. 368.) and several others. See Potter, page 64 and 65.

The Romans, on the other hand, used abundance of superstition in entering upon any hostility, or closing in any league or confederacy; the public ministers who performed the ceremonial part of both these were the Feciales, or heralds. The ceremonies were of this nature. When any neighboring state had given sufficient reason for the senate to suspect a design of breaking with them; or had offered any violence or injustice to the citizens of Rome, which was enough to give them the repute of enemies; one of the Feciales, chosen out of the college upon this occasion, and habited in the vest belonging to his order, together with his other ensigns, and habiliments, set forward for the enemy’s country. As soon as he reached the confines, he pronounced a formal declaration of the cause of his arrival, calling all the Gods to witness, and imprecating the divine vengeance on himself, and his country if his reasons were not just. When he came to the chief city of the enemy, he again repeated the same declaration, with some addition, and withal desired satisfaction. If they delivered into his power the authors of the injury, or gave hostages for security, he returned satisfied to Rome: if otherwise they desired time to consider; he went away for ten days, and then came again to hear their resolution, and this he did, in some cases, three times: but, if nothing was done towards an accommodation in about thirty days, he declared that the Romans would endeavor to assert their right by their arms. After this the herald was obliged to return, and to make a true report of his embassy before the senate, assuring them of the legality of the war, which they were now consulting to undertake; and was then again dispatched to perform the last part of the ceremony, which was to throw a spear into (or towards the enemy’s country) in token of defiance, and, as a summons to war, pronouncing at the same time a set form of words to the like purpose. Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, book iv. page 229.

The British have within the last century totally changed the usages of war; and appear to court the opprobrium bestowed by history upon the Carthaginians for their perfidiousness and cruelty; and upon the Ætolians for their treachery and rapacity; by making war first, and issuing their manifesto afterwards; as in the attack on Copenhagen in 1806.

MANIGLIONS, the two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance. See Cannon.

MANIPLE. See Manipulus.

MANIPULARIS (manipulaire,) Fr. from Maniple, a handful or bottle of straw. The chief officer in a part of the Roman infantry called manipulus, was so called. This officer was likewise ordinary, ordinaire, Fr.

MANIPULA, Fr.. See Manipulus.

Manipule Pyrotechnique, Fr. a certain quantity of iron or brass petards, which may be thrown by the hand upon an enemy. These petards and the method of making them, are particularly described by Casini in his work on artillery. See Petards.

MANIPULUS (manipule, Fr.) A small body of infantry originally so called among the Romans, during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a hand on the end of a staff.

It consisted of one hundred men, and in the days of the consuls and first Cæsars, of two hundred. Three manipuli constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two officers called centurions, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. A centurion among the Romans, may be considered in the same light, as we view a captain of a company in modern service. Every manipulus made two centuries or Ordines. This, however, cannot be said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the manipulus; for according to Varro and Vegetius, it was the smallest body of men employed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a century. Spartian in his life of Sexennius Niger, says, it consisted only of ten soldiers. We have already observed, that it takes its name from manipulus, which signifies a handful of straw; the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, une poignée de gens. Vegetius, on the other hand says, it comes from manus, which signified a small body or handful of men collected together, and following the same standard; and Modestus as well as Varro, state it to have been so called, because, when they went into action, they took one another by the hand, or fought all together. A French writer conceives, that manipulus may be considered as one of those parts of a modern battalion, which are distributed in different rooms, &c. and which is called une chambrée, or a company that messes together.

Manipulus, so called from its standard or flag, which was made of cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion, which was an eagle of massive metal.

MANOEUVRE, (Manoeuvre, Fr.) Manœuvres of war consist chiefly in habituating the soldier to a variety of evolutions, to accustom him to different movements, and to render his mind familiar with the nature of every principle of offensive or defensive operation. The regular manœuvres of the British army have been reduced to nineteen, though these are not competent to every exigency of service the skilful officer will know how to manœuvre as the ground he is upon requires.

The word manœuvre is frequently used in the French artillery to express the method with which a piece of ordnance or mortar is raised and placed upon its carriage by several hands, assisted by the crab or any other machine. In a general acceptation of the term, manœuvre means that mechanical process by which any weight is lifted.

To Manœuvre, is to manage any body or armed force in such a manner as to derive sudden and unexpected advantages before the enemy, from a superior talent in military movements. It consists in distributing equal motion to every part of a body of troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their position, in the most expeditious and best method, to answer the purposes required of a battalion, brigade, or line of cavalry, infantry, or artillery.

The use of all manœuvres and of all discipline is the same, to habituate men to the word of command, to perform what is commanded, and in the shortest time, in the best manner. The idea therefore of reducing manœuvres to 18 or 19, or any given number, manifests a misconception of the military art, that is truly surprizing; for it must be perceived by a practical man, that the principles of all manœuvres are few and simple; although manœuvres are as susceptible of infinite variety and of real use, as arithmetical numbers. The ability of the officer is shewn in the choice of manœuvre, and its adaptation to the ground manœuvred upon, the end proposed to be obtained by the manœuvre, the position of the enemy, and the exactness and celerity with which it is performed. The great perfection of manœuvre is when troops at a single word of command perform movements of different kinds at the same instant, but all to accomplish the same object; that is to accomplish together the end proposed by the commander. Soldiers should be so exercised as to be competent to move in any manner or direction on the instant; a fixt number of manœuvres is calculated to defeat this end. The Austrians have attempted to follow the French, and practise their methods of manœuvre, which are not so much for parade as for practice. In the United States, the prejudice against, or the ignorance of manœuvre is excessive.

It has always been lamented, that men have been brought on service without being acquainted with the uses of the different manœuvres they have been practising; and having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the parade, instantly fall into disorder and confusion when they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is a pity to see so much attention confined to show, and so little given to instruct the troops in what may be of use to them on real service.

Manœuvre when executed in the presence of the enemy, must be protected by some light troops, riflemen or horse artillery.

Grand Manœuvre de Guerre, Fr. This expression is peculiarly French, and may be said to signify the dispositions of war upon a large scale. According to marshal Saxe these dispositions consist chiefly in drawing troops up in such a manner, that the cavalry and infantry may support each other; but he objects to that arrangement by which companies or platoons of infantry are intermixed with squadrons of horse; for, as he justly observes, if the latter should be beaten, the foot soldiers must unavoidably be thrown into confusion by the enemy’s cavalry, and be cut to pieces. For further particulars on this important article, see Saxe’s Reveries, where he treats of La Grande Manœuvre de Guerre, and the supplement to them by baron d’Espagnac, page 69.

Warlike Manoeuvres, (Manoeuvres de Guerre, Fr.) Warlike manoeuvres, or the different exercises, &c. by which men are taught the military profession: these exercises, from the earliest periods of history, have been infinitely diversified. Vegetius, an ancient writer, remarks, that the Romans, in order to enure their raw troops to the fatigues of war, had specific regulations drawn up, by which every recruit was regularly practised in martial exercises. These regulations were originally formed during the existence of their republic, and were afterwards confirmed by the emperors Augustus and Adrian.

It was particularly ordained, that the cavalry as well as the infantry should be walked out (être mené à la promenade) three times every month. The foot were obliged to go ten miles beyond the lines of their encampment. On these occasions they were originally drawn up. But their movements both in going and returning were frequently altered; being sometimes obliged to march at a moderate rate, and at others to increase their pace and run. The same regulation held good with respect to the cavalry, which was armed and divided into certain proportions, called turmæ. The troops on horseback went the same distance, and practised different evolutions on the road. Sometimes advancing to attack, and at others suddenly wheeling round, to return to the charge with greater impetuosity. These exercises were not, however, confined to open roads, or a level country: both horse and foot were frequently ordered to make their way through intricate passes, over cragged hills, &c. and to accustom themselves to every possible obstacle that might occur in military movements.

This species of manoeuvre or practising exercise, has at last obtained in modern times. It was till lately thought sufficient to teach a raw recruit the use of the firelock, and to make him master of a certain number of movements, by the knowlege of which he was held fit to make a part of a well disciplined corps. How to march against and attack an enemy, or to meet his attack with skill and steadiness; these principally constituted the system of modern manoeuvres, and are better understood by the name of evolutions. In the British service there is a specific number of manoeuvres or evolutions to which every regiment must conform, and with the particular practice of which every officer and soldier must be made intimately acquainted. See Am. Mil. Library.

MANOEUVRER, Fr. To manoeuvre. This verb in the French language may be applied two ways; as, manoeuvrer les voiles, to manage the sails and tackle of a vessel.

Manoeuvrer des Troupes, to make soldiers go through their different manoeuvres. Ces troupes ont bien manoeuvré, those soldiers have ably manoeuvred.

Bien ou mal MANOEUVRER, Fr. signifies to manoeuvre well or ill; as, un tel gênéral ou officier a bien manoeuvré à tel passage, à tel endroit, such a general manoeuvred well at such a passage or quarter: mais un tel à mal manoeuvré à la defense ou à l’attaque de tel poste, but such an officer manoeuvred extremely ill in his defence or attack of such a post. The word manoeuvre is originally derived from the Latin Manûs Opus.

MANOEUVRIER, Fr. any officer who is perfectly acquainted with the art of manoeuvring.

Manoeuvrier, Fr. A sea phrase, which is frequently used among the French, to signify that an officer not only understands all the different words of command, but can thoroughly manoeuvre his ship. It is common to say, il est un des meilleurs manoeuvriers qui soient sur mer, he is one of the ablest sea officers in the service.

MANTEAU, Fr. This word, which literally signifies a cloak, is frequently used among the French to express the covering that hussars or light infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, &c. and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occasionally halt, and take a position.

MANTELETS, in a military sense, are either single or double, composed of great planks of wood, of about 5 feet high, and 3 inches thick. The single ones are sometimes covered with tin, made musquet-proof, which the pioneers generally roll before them, being fixed upon wheels, to cover them from the enemy’s fire, in opening the trenches, or carrying on the sap, &c. The double ones form an angle, and stand square, making two fronts, which cover both the front and flank of the sappers, &c. when at work: these have double planks with earth rammed in between them: they are 5 feet high and 3 in breadth, sometimes covered with plates of iron; they may with propriety be called a moving parapet, having a shaft to guide them by.

MANTONET, Fr. A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for the purpose of hanging any thing upon it. The pegs in soldier’s rooms are sometimes so called.

MANUAL.—In a general acceptation of the word, means any thing done by the hand.

MANUAL Exercise, in the British service, is the exercise of the musquet, independent of powder and ball, and consists in seven motions of the firelock; 5 of which are essentially different from each other, viz. order arms, fix bayonets, shoulder arms, present arms, shoulder arms, charge bayonets, and shoulder arms.

I. Order Arms. (3 motions.) Bring the firelock to the trail in two motions as usual, seizing it at the first at the lower loop, just at the swell, at the 2d, bring it down to the right side, the butt within an inch of the ground: at the 3d, drop the butt on the ground, placing the muzzle against the hollow of the right shoulder, and the hand flat upon the sling; the thumb behind the barrel.

II. Fix Bayonets.—At the word, fix, grip the firelock; as soon as the word of command is fully out, push the firelock a little forward, at the same time drawing out the bayonet with the left hand, and fixing it with the utmost celerity. The instant this is done, return as quick as possible, to the order, as above described, and stand perfectly steady.

III. Shoulder Arms.—As soon as the word shoulder is given, grip the firelock with the right hand, as in fixing bayonets, and, at the last word, arms, the firelock must be thrown, with the right hand, in one motion, and with as little appearance of effort as possible, into its proper position on the left shoulder; the hand crosses the body in so doing, but must instantly be withdrawn.

IV. Present Arms. (3 motions.)—1st. Seize the firelock with the right hand, under the guard, turning the lock to the front, but without moving it from the shoulder.

2d. Bring it to the poize, seizing it with the left hand, the fingers easily round the stock, the wrist upon the guard, and the point of the left thumb of equal height with the eyes.

3d. Bring down the firelock with a quick motion, as low as the right hand will admit without constraint, drawing back the right foot at the same instant, so that the hollow of it may touch the left heel. The firelock in this position is to be totally supported in the left hand; the body to rest intirely on the left foot; both knees to be straight; the firelock in front of the left eye, and the butt in front of the left thigh.

V. Shoulder Arms. (2 motions.)—1st. By a turn of the right wrist, bring the firelock to its proper position on the shoulder, as described above, the left hand grasping the butt.

2d. Quit the right hand, bring it briskly down to its place by the side.

VI. Charge Bayonets. (2 motions.)—1st. At one motion throw the firelock from the shoulder across the body, to a low diagonal recover, a position known by the name of porting arms, or preparing for the charge, in which the lock is to be turned to the front, and at the height of the breast; the muzzle slanting upwards, so that the barrel may cross opposite the point of the left shoulder, with the butt proportionally depressed; the right hand grasps the small of the butt, and the left holds the piece at the swell, close to the lower pipe, the thumbs of both hands pointing towards the muzzle.

2d. Make a half-face to the right, and bring down the firelock to nearly a horizontal position, with the muzzle inclining a little upwards, and the right wrist resting against the hollow of the thigh, just below the hip.

N. B. The first motion of the charge is the position which the soldier will either, from the shoulder, or after firing, take, in order to advance on an enemy, whom it is intended to attack with fixed bayonets; and the word of command for that purpose is “prepare to charge.” The second position of the charge is that which the front rank takes when arrived at a few yards distance only from the body to be attacked. The first motion of the charge is also that which sentries are to take when challenging any persons who approach their posts.

VII. Shoulder Arms. (2 motions.)—1st. Face to the front, and throw up the piece into its position on the shoulder, by a turn of the right wrist, instantly grasping the butt, as before described, with the left hand.

2d. Quit the firelock briskly with the right hand, bringing it to its proper place by the side.

The men are taught likewise to support arms at three motions, throwing the first and second nearly into one: at the first motion they seize the small of the butt, under the lock, with the right hand, bringing the butt in the front of the groin, and keeping the lock somewhat turned out: at the second, they bring the left arm under the cock: at the third, they quit the right hand. In carrying arms from the support, the motions are exactly reversed.

In marching any distance, or in standing at ease, when supported, the men are allowed to bring their right hand across the body, to the small of the butt, which latter must in that case, be thrown still more forward; the fingers of the left hand being uppermost, must be placed between the body and the right elbow; the right hands are to be instantly removed when the division halts, or is ordered to dress by the right.

Time.—The motions in the manual exercise to be performed slow, leaving three seconds between each motion, except that of fixing bayonets, in which a longer time must be given.

The manual is not to be executed by one word, or signal, but each separate word of command is to be given by the officer who commands the body performing it.

In regard to the motions of securing, grounding, and trailing, as well as those of piling, &c. it will be sufficient for the soldiers to be taught to perform them in the most convenient and quickest method. Returning bayonets is to be done from the order; in the same manner as fixing them.

Sentries.—Sentries posted with shouldered arms, are permitted afterwards to support, but not to slope them. On the approach of an officer, they immediately carry their arms, and put themselves into their proper position; which is not to be done at the instant he passes, but by the time he is within twenty yards of their post, so that they may be perfectly steady before he comes up.

Corporals.—Corporals marching with reliefs, or commanding detachments, or divisions, carry their arms advanced, as formerly: for which purpose a soldier, when promoted to that rank, must be taught the position of advanced arms.

Explanation of the several Motions of the Platoon Exercise, as taught at the drill in the British service.

I. Make Ready.—As usual, bringing the firelock to the recover, and instantly cocking.

II. Aim.—1st. Slip the left hand along the sling, as far as the swell of the firelock, and bring the piece down to the present, stepping back about six inches to the rear with the right foot.

III. Fire.—After firing drop the firelock briskly to the priming position.

2d. Half cock.

IV. Handle Cartridge.—1st. Draw the cartridge from the pouch.

2d. Bring it to the mouth, holding it between the fore finger and thumb, and bite off the top of it.

V. Prime.—1st. Shake some powder into the pan.

2d. Shut the pan with the three last fingers.

3d. Seize the small of the butt with the above three fingers.

VI. Load.—1st. Face to the left on both heels, so that the right toe may point directly to the front, and the body be a very little faced to the left, bringing at the same time the firelock round to the left side without sinking it. It should, in this momentary position, be almost perpendicular (having the muzzle only a small degree brought forward), and as soon as it is steady there, it must instantly be forced down within two inches of the ground, the butt nearly opposite the left heel, and the firelock itself somewhat sloped, and directly to the front; the right hand at the same instant catches the muzzle, in order to steady it.

2d. Shake the powder into the barrel, putting in after it the paper and ball.

3d. Seize the top of the ramrod, with the fore finger and thumb.

VII. Draw ramrods.—1st. Draw the ramrod half out, and seize it back-handed exactly in the middle.

2d. Draw it entirely out, and turning it with the whole hand and arm extended from you, put it one inch into the barrel.

VIII. Ram down cartridge.—1st. Push the ramrod down, holding it as before, exactly in the middle, till the hand touches the muzzle.

2d. Slip the fore finger and thumb to the upper end, without letting the ramrod fall farther into the barrel.

3d. Push the cartridge well down to the bottom.

4th. Strike it two very quick strokes with the ramrod.

IX. Return ramrod.—1st. Draw the ramrod half out, catching it back-handed.

2d. Draw it entirely out, turning it very briskly from you, with the arm extended, and put it into the loops, forcing it as quick as possible to the bottom; then face to the proper front, the finger and thumb of the right hand holding the ramrod, as in the position immediately previous to drawing it, and the butt raised two inches from the ground.

X. Shoulder Arms.—Strike the top of the muzzle smartly with the right hand, in order to fix the bayonet and ramrod more firmly, and at the same time throw it nimbly up, at one motion to the shoulder.

N. B. Though the butts are not to come to the ground in casting about, as accidents may happen from it, yet they are permitted, while loading, to be so rested; but it must be done without noise, and in a manner imperceptible in the front.

Explanation of priming and loading quick.

Prime and Load.—1st. Bring the firelock down in one brisk motion to the priming position, the thumb of the right hand placed against the pan-cover, or steel: the fingers clenched; and the elbow a little turned out, so that the wrist may be clear of the cock.

2d. Open the pan by throwing up the steel, with a strong motion of the right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the firelock steady in the left hand.

3d. Bring your hand round to the pouch, and draw out the cartridge.

The rest as above described, excepting that, in the quick loading, all the motions are to be done with as much dispatch as possible; the soldiers taking their time, from the flugel man in front, for casting over and shouldering only.

Priming position.—In firing three deep the priming position for the front rank is the height of the waistband of the breeches: for the centre rank, about the middle of the stomach; and for the rear rank, close to the breast: the firelock, in all these positions, is to be kept perfectly horizontal.

Explanation of the Positions of each Rank in the Firings.

Front Rank, kneeling.—Bring the firelock briskly up to the recover, catching it in the left hand; and, without stopping, sink down with a quick motion upon the right knee, keeping the left foot fast, the butt end of the firelock, at the same moment, falling upon the ground; then cock, and instantly seize the cock and steel together in the right hand, holding the piece firm in the left, about the middle of that part which is between the lock and the swell of the stock: the point of the left thumb to be close to the swell, and pointing upwards.

As the body is sinking, the right knee is to be thrown so far back that the left leg may be right up and down, the right foot a little turned out, the body straight, and the head as much up as if shouldered; the firelock must be upright, and the butt about four inches to the right of the inside of the left foot.

Aim.—Bring the firelock down firmly to the aim, by sliding the left hand, to the full extent of the arm, along the sling, without letting the motion tell: the right hand at the same time springing up the butt by the cock so high against the right shoulder, that the head may not be too much lowered in taking aim; the right cheek to be close to the butt; the left eye shut, and the middle finger of the right hand on the trigger, look along the barrel with the right eye from the breech-pin to the muzzle, and remain steady.

Fire.—Pull the trigger strong with the middle finger, and, as soon as fired, spring up nimbly upon the left leg, keeping the body erect, and the left foot fast, and bringing the right heel to the hollow of the left; at the same instant drop the firelock to the priming position, the height of the right hip; half cock, handle cartridge, and go on with the loading motions, as before described.

Centre rank.—Make ready.—Spring the firelock briskly to the recover: as soon as the left hand seizes the firelock above the lock, raise the right elbow a little, placing the thumb of that hand upon the cock, with the fingers open on the plate of the lock, and then, as quick as possible, cock the piece, by dropping the elbow, and forcing down the cock with the thumb, step at the same time with the right foot a moderate pace to the right, and keeping the left fast, seize the small of the butt with the right hand: the piece must be held in this position perpendicular, and opposite the left side of the face, the butt close to the breast, but not pressed, the body straight and full to the front, and the head erect.

Aim.—As in the foregoing explanation for the front rank.

Fire.—Pull the trigger strong with the middle finger, and, as soon as fired, bring the firelock to the priming position, about the height of the stomach: the rest, as in the explanation of priming and loading, with this difference only, that the left foot is to be drawn up to the right, at the same time that the firelock is brought down to the priming position, and that immediately after the firelock is thrown up to the shoulder, the men spring to the left again, and cover their file leaders.

Rear rank.—Make ready.—Recover and cock, as before directed for the centre rank, and, as the firelock is brought to recover, step briskly to the right a full pace, at the same time placing the left heel about six inches before the point of the right foot. The body to be kept straight, and as square to the front as possible.

Aim.—As in explanation for the centre rank.

Fire.—As in explanation for the centre rank; after firing and shouldering, the men step as the centre rank does.

In firing with the front rank standing, that rank makes ready, &c. as specified in the article relative to the platoon exercise.

Officers.—In giving words of command, as well in as out of the ranks, officers are to stand perfectly steady, and in their proper position; their swords held firmly in the full of the right hand, with the upper part of the blade resting against the shoulder, the right wrist against the hip, and the elbow drawn back.

Firing by platoons.—Officers, &c.—The officers, instead of giving the words platoon, make ready, aim, fire, are to pronounce the words short, as for instance, ’toon, ready, aim, fire.

In firing by platoons, or divisions, the officers commanding them are to step out one pace, on the close of the preparative, and face to the left towards their men; they there stand perfectly steady till the last part of the general, when they step back again into their proper intervals, all at the same time. After a division has fired, the right hand man of it steps out one pace, in front of the officer, but still keeping his own proper front, and gives the time for casting about and shouldering, after which he falls back again into his place in the front rank.

The flugle man of a battalion is also to keep his front, in giving the time of exercise.

In firing by grand divisions, the centre officer falls back, on the preparative, into the fourth rank, and is replaced by the covering serjeant.

MANUBALISTE, Fr. From the Latin manubalista. A cross bow.

MANUFACTURES d’armes, Fr. Places appropriated for the manufacturing of arms. During the old government of France, three places were appropriated for the manufacturing of arms; one at Maubeuge, one at Charleville and Nourzon, and the third at St. Etienne en Foret. These were called royal manufactories of arms for public service. A director general superintended the whole, to whom every person concerned in the undertaking was subject, and who was himself subordinate to those artillery inspectors and comptrollers, that were severally appointed by the grand master of the ordnance and the secretary at war.

The United States have manufactories of arms at Harpers ferry, on Potomac; at Springfield, Massachusetts; at Washington City; and at Rocky Mount, S. Carolina.

MAP, in a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure, representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of perspective; distinguishing the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, &c.

In maps these three things are essentially necessary. 1. That all places have the same situation and distance from the great circles therein, as on the globe, to show their parallels, longitudes, zones, climates, and celestial appearances. 2. That their magnitudes be proportionable to the real magnitudes on the globes. 3. That all places have the same situation, bearing, and distance, as on the earth itself.

Maps are either universal, which exhibit the whole surface of the earth; or partial, which exhibit some particular part thereof: each kind is called geographical or land-maps, in contradistinction to hydrographical or sea-maps, representing the seas and sea-coasts, properly called charts.

As a map is a representation of some part of the surface of the earth delineated upon a plane, the earth, being round, no part of the spherical surface of it can be accurately exhibited upon a plane; and therefore some have proposed globular maps. For this purpose a plate of brass might be hammered, or at a less expence a piece of paste-board might be formed into a segment of a sphere, and covered on its convex side with a map projected in the same manner as the papers of the common globe are. A map made in this method would show every thing in the same manner, as it would be seen upon a globe of the same diameter with the sphere upon the segment of which it was delineated: and, indeed, maps of this sort would in effect be segments of such a globe; but they are not in common use.

The ancients described all parts of the known earth in one general map. In this view one of them compares the shape of the earth to the leather of a sling, whose length exceeds its breadth: the length of the then known parts of the earth from east to west was considerably greater than from north to south; for which reason, the former of these was called the longitude, and the other the latitude.

The modern general maps are such as give us a view of an entire hemisphere, or half of the globe; and are projected upon the plane of some great circle, which terminates the projected hemisphere, and divides it from the other half of the globe, at the equator, the meridian, or horizon of some place. From the circle the projection is denominated, and said to be equatorial, meridionial, or horizontal.

Particular maps are such as exhibit to us less than an hemisphere; of this sort are maps of the great quarters into which the earth is divided, as Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; or maps of particular nations, provinces, countries, or of lesser districts.