PART II

GRAMMAR.

94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of every earnest student who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.

It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.

Alphabet.

The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars. 1–4.

N.B.—Printing offices which do not possess the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.

Alfabeto.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii, Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt, Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.

Rimarko.—Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, povas anstataŭ ili uzi ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

Rules.

I.

The Article.—There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (la), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

N.B.—The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all.

(See pars. 96–102.)

Reguloj.

I.

Artikolo nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (la), egala por ĉiuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.

Rimarko.—La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilaĵon, povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.

II.

The Substantive.—Substantives have the termination o. For the formation of the plural the termination j is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination n. The other cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by de, the dative by al, the ablative by per or other prepositions according to sense).

(See pars. 103–106.)

II.

La substantivoj havas la finiĝon o. Por la formado de la multenombro oni aldonas la finiĝon j. Kazoj ekzistas nur du: nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo per la aldono de la finiĝo n. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per de, la dativo per al, la ablativo per per aŭ aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).

III.

The Adjective.—The adjective ends in a. Cases and numbers as with the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word pli, the superlative by plej; with the comparative the conjunction ol is used.

(See pars 107–114.)

III.

La adjektivo finiĝas per a. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ĉe la substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto pli, la superlativo per plej; ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion ol.

IV.

The Numerals.—The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals, the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple—the suffix -obl, for the fractional—on, for the collective—op, for the distributive—the word po. Besides these, substantival and adverbial numerals can be used.

(See pars. 115–124.)

IV.

La numeraloj fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la finiĝon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj—la sufikson -obl, por la nombronaj—on, por la kolektaj—op, por la disdividaj—la vorton po. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj adverbaj.

V.

The Pronouns.—Personal pronouns = mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (referring to thing or animal), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.

(See pars. 125–138.)

V.

Pronomoj personaj: mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (pri objekto aŭ besto), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; la pronomoj posedaj estas formataj per la aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas kiel ĉe la substantivoj.

VI.

The Verb.—The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination -as; the past tense (the time been, or having been) -is; the future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) -os; the Conditional mood -us; the Imperative (ordering) mood -u; the Indefinite (infinitive) mood -i. Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present -ant; active past -int; active future -ont; passive present -at; passive past -it; passive future -ot. All forms of the passive are formed by help of a corresponding form of the verb esti and a passive participle of the required verb. The preposition with the passive is de.

(See pars. 159–237.)

VI.

La verbo ne estas ŝanĝata laŭ personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finiĝon -as; la tempo estinta -is; la tempo estonta -os; la modo kondiĉa -us; la modo ordona -u; la modo sendifina -i. Participoj (kun senco adjektiva aŭ adverba): aktiva estanta -ant; aktiva estinta -int; aktiva estonta -ont; pasiva estanta -at; pasiva estinta -it; pasiva estonta -ot. Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo estas formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo esti kaj participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ĉe la pasivo estas de.

VII.

The Adverb.—Adverbs end in e; degrees of comparison as with adjectives.

(See pars. 238–248.)

VII.

La adverboj finiĝas per e; gradoj de komparado kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.

VIII.

The Preposition.—All prepositions require the nominative.

(See pars. 249–261.)

VIII.

Ĉiuj prepozicioj postulas la nominativon.

IX.

Pronunciation.—Every word is read as it is written.

(See pars. 5–19.)

IX.

Ĉiu vorto estas legata, kiel ĝi estas skribita.

X.

Accent.—The accent is always on the penultimate syllable.

(See par. 17.)

X.

La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.

XI.

Compound Words.—Compound words are formed by the simple junction of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

(See pars. 39–50.)

XI.

Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.

XII.

Negation.—When another negative word is present the word ne is omitted.

(See pars. 59–62.)

XII.

Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto ne estas forlasata.

XIII.

Direction.—In order to show direction, words take the termination of the accusative.

(See par. 67.)

XIII.

Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.

XIV.

Use of Prepositions.—Every preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition je, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition je we can also use the accusative without a preposition.

(See par. 251.)

XIV.

Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion je, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio je oni povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.

XV.

Foreign Words.—The so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.

(See pars. 39, 52.)

XV.

La tiel nomataj vortoj fremdaj, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto sen ŝanĝo, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe nur la vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ĉi lasta laŭ la reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto.

XVI.

Elision.—The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.

(See pars. 56, 57.)

XVI.

La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.

COMMENTARY ON THE GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH (Parolpartoj).

95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo), Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb (Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio), Interjection (Interjekcio).

Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive terminations. If a word ends in -O, it is a noun; if in -A, an adjective; if in -E, an adverb; if in -I, -U, -AS, -IS, -OS, or -US, a verb. If it ends in -N, it is in the accusative case, and if in -J, it is plural.

Examples.—Domo = a house. Facila = easy. Feliĉe = happily. Doni = to give (Infinitive). Batu lin = beat him (Imperative and Accusative). Mi vidas la homojn = I see the men (Present tense and Accusative plural). Vi diris = you said (Past tense). Ni iros = we shall go (Future tense). Se ili estus bonaj = If they were good (Conditional mood and plural adjective).

THE ARTICLE (La Artikolo).

96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English requires it.

Examples.—Tio estas floro = That is a flower. Patrino kaj filo = Mother and son. Ĉu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo? = Do you see a bird on that tree?

97. The definite article is la = the. It is, as in English, the same for all genders, numbers, and cases.

Examples.—La patro = The father. La patrino = The mother. Donu al mi la libron = Give me the book. Ili estas la lernantoj diligentaj = They are the diligent scholars.

98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite article "the" in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite.

Examples.—En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda vilaĝo = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each defined by the article la, as they are also in English by "the." But if we omit the article the sentence runs:—En la mezo de korto mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilaĝo = In the middle of a yard I saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children might have been in any yard, and have belonged to any village in the neighbourhood of the speaker.

99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also vice versa.

(a). It is usually used before nouns denoting the totality of persons or things.

Examples.—La homo estas mortema = Man is mortal. La homoj estas mortemaj = Men are mortal. La medicino estas scienco kaj la pentrado arto = Medicine is a science and painting an art. Kelkaj kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano = Some doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. Sen la akvo nia terglobo rapide fariĝus dezerto = Without water our earth would rapidly become a desert. La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peĉo = The night was as dark as pitch. La azenoj amas la kardojn = Donkeys love thistles. La vento kaŭzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj landoj = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this case la vento means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but "To-day we shall have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: Hodiaŭ ni havos venton.) Hajlo falas = Hail is falling (viz., some hail), but La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero = Hail is very injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.

(b). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In English it is sometimes used and sometimes not.[13]

Examples.—Danubo = The Danube. Tibro = The Tiber. Mediteraneo = The Mediterranean. Alpoj = The Alps. Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj Amerikaj (or, Usono) = The United States of America.

Footnote:

(c). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word, the article is used.

Examples. La glora poeto, Dante = The famous poet, Dante. La imperiestro de Japanujo = The Emperor of Japan. La bona reĝino Viktorio = The good Queen Victoria.

100. The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a possessive pronoun.

Examples.—Li havas doloron en la kapo = He has a pain in his (the) head. Ŝi prezentis al mi la manon = She offered me her hand. Mi malkovris la okulojn = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(a)).

(a). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in speaking of one’s own relatives, la refers.

Examples.—Mi amas la patron = I love my (the) father. Iru al la patrino = Go to your (the) mother. Kie estas la kuzo? = Where is your (the) cousin? La patro staras apud la filo = The father stands by (at the side of) his (the) son.

101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood.

Example.—Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March.

(a). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also before each separate noun or adjective.

Examples.—En la vintro, or, En vintro = In the winter. En la somero, or, En somero = In the summer. La arboj, la floroj kaj la kreskaĵoj de la ĝardeno (or, La arboj, floroj kaj kreskaĵoj) = The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden.

(b). It is not generally used after ĉiuj = all, or, all the.

Example.—Mi ne vidis ĉiujn arbojn en la ĝardeno = I did not see all the trees in the garden.

(c). It is not used after da (see par. 259).

N.B.—From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be careful to use it with words defining a class or the totality of persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will carefully study the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.

In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is better to omit it.

102. Elision.—The final A of the article may be omitted in certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).

THE NOUN (La Substantivo).

103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in -O. The accusative is formed by the addition of N. In the plural it ends in -OJ, and the accusative plural is formed by adding N to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:—

Arb-o = a tree (nominative, singular).

Arb-on = a tree (accusative, singular).

Arb-oj = trees (nominative, plural).

Arb-ojn = trees (accusative, plural).

Examples.—Domo = A house. La domo = The house. La domoj = The houses. Rigardu la domojn = Look at the houses. Knabo = A boy. La knabo = The boy. Mi vidis la knabon = I saw the boy. Knabino = A girl. La knabino = The girl.

Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns.

104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz., the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is obtained from the nominative by adding N to the singular or plural. Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:—

NominativeMia bona patro= My good father.

AccusativeMian bonan patron= My good father.

Genitive or PossessiveDe mia bona patro= Of my good father, or, My good father’s.

DativeAl mia bona patro= To my good father.

AblativeDe mia bona patro= From (by, see par. 259 (9)) my good father.

Kun mia bona patro= With my good father.

Per bona glavo= With (by means of) a good sword.

Note that per = by is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by means, or aid, or use, of," and that kun = with means "in company with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in English, e.g., I held him with both hands = Mi lin tenis per ambaŭ manoj, not kun ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).

Plural.

(a). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of the plural termination J, as:—

GenitiveDe miaj bonaj filoj= Of my good sons.

AccusativeMiajn bonajn filojn= My good sons.

Examples.—La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas = The brother is writing and the sister reading. La patro donis la libron al sia filo = The father gave the book to his son. Tiu ĉi kaŭĉuka ringo (or, ringo el kaŭĉuko) estas por la infaneto = This india-rubber ring is for the baby. Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo = I saw Joseph with his cousin. Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de la mondo = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. Mi lin salutis per la mano = I saluted him by the hand. La domo estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house is covered with slates. Mi vidis vian patron kun liaj du filoj = I saw your father with his two sons. Kie estas la domo de via patro? = Where is your father’s house?

105. Ellipsis.—The case (nominative or accusative) of words in Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in a phrase, and

Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vi (konas lin) = I know him better than you (do, or know him).

Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vin (ol mi konas vin) = I know him better than you (than I know you).

Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom (li amas) Johanon = Peter loves Paul as much as (he loves) John.

Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom Johano (amas lin) = Peter loves Paul as much as John (loves him).

N.B.—In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).

Li iris tien, kiel ankaŭ vi (iris) = He went there as well as you (went).

Mi vidis lin tie, kiel ankaŭ (mi vidis) vin = I saw him there as well as (I saw) you.

Mi neniam vidis tian hundon, kia (estas) via = I never saw such a dog as yours.

105 (a). Elision.—The final O of a noun may be omitted (par. 57, and Rule 16, par. 94).

106. Possession is (a) expressed by help of the preposition de.

Examples.—La domo de la patro = The father’s house, or, the house of the father. La libro de mia patrino = My mother’s book, or, the book of my mother. La tranĉilo de Georgo = George’s knife. Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj = That is my brothers’ house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)

(b). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in ES, viz.:—ies = someone’s, somebody’s, ĉies = everyone’s, kies = whose, nenies = nobody’s, ties = that one’s, of those (see par. 154).

Examples.—Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different. Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Ĝi estas nenies domo = It is nobody’s house. Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies tranĉilo? = Is this anyone’s (someone’s) knife? (see par. 154).

(c). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we employ an apostrophe.

Examples.—Unutaga laboro (for, la laboro de unu tago) = One day’s work. La unuataga laboro (for, la laboro de la unua tago) = The first day’s work. Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo = His first day’s work was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day’s work in the house. Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon = I awaited the captain’s reply.

(d). In speaking of places, the English preposition "of" is not translated.

Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La Kolonio Natalo = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (a)).

For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of accusative with proper names, par. 69 (d); for the infinitive used as a noun, par. 180.

THE ADJECTIVE (La Adjektivo).

107. The Adjective always ends in -A in the singular. J is added to A to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the addition of N to the singular or plural termination.

Examples.—Forta = Strong. Saĝa = Wise. Brava = Brave. Forta homo = A strong man. Saĝa patro = A wise father. Saĝaj patroj = Wise fathers. La brava filo = The brave son. La bravaj filoj = The brave sons.

108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:—(a) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = put adjacent), and (b) Predicative (predikateca).

(a). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).

Examples.—Johano havas bonan panon = John has good bread. Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn = William sharpened the blunt knives.

(b). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb, denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).

Examples.—La pomo estas bona = The apple is good. Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakraj = William found the knives blunt. If the adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would be quite altered, for, Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is generally esti. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence might be as follows:—William found (that) the Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj. If we elide ke and estas, the substantive takes the accusative (tranĉilojn) and the adjective (malakraj) remains in the nominative. Other examples are:—La kutimo faris lin (ke li estu) indiferenta por tio ĉi (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri (ke vi estas) inda filo de via kara patro? (Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on ellipsis).

109. Predicative Noun.—A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35).

Examples.—La patro nomis sian filon Johano = The father named his son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the name of "John" to his son, or whether he made mention of his son whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the name, for otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (Johanon, so:—La patro nomis sian filon Johanon = The father named (made mention of) his son John. Ili nomis lin Adolfo = They called him (gave him the name of) Adolphus.

110. Nominative or Accusative.—The rule, therefore, for qualifying and predicative adjectives or nouns is:—

(a). The word will be in the accusative if the object already possesses the quality in question.

(b). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given to the object.

111. Participial Adjectives.—Participles are often used in Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are called "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj).

Examples.—Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj = John and George were lost. Ni trovis ilin mortantajn = We found them (who were) dying. Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis = We had finished when you arrived (see par. 209 (b)).

112. Comparison of Adjectives.

(a). The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = as, so ... as.

Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = John is as strong as George.

(b). The comparative of superiority is pli ... ol = more ... than.

Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = John is stronger than George.

(c). The comparative of inferiority is malpli ... ol = less ... than.

Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = John is less strong (weaker) than George.

(d). The other modes of expressing comparison are:—

tia ... kia = such, such a, such kind ... as.

sama ... kia = the same ... as.

same ... kiel = the same ... as.

Ju pli ... des pli = the more ... the more.

Ju malpli ... des malpli = the less ... the less.

Ju pli ... des malpli = the more ... the less.

Ju malpli ... des pli = the less ... the more.

Examples.—Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata = Such a house as that is rarely seen. Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via, or, Mia bastono estas same, kiel via = My stick is the same as yours. Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas = The more I know him, the more I esteem him. Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to sleep. Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi = The more I see him, the less he pleases me. Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi trinkas = The less I eat, the more I drink.

Be careful to note that the second term in a comparison is in the nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or complement, e.g., Mi amas = I love my brother more than my sister (loves him). Mia fratino is in the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mian fratinon = I love my brother more than my sister. Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly clear. In English we should have to add "does" to the first example to make the phrase clear: "I love my brother more than my sister does" (see par. 105).

113. Superlatives (Superlativoj).

(a). The superlative of superiority is la plej = the most.

(b). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = the least.

The preposition el = out of, of, is used with the superlative when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a "group," "society," etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate preposition is used.

Examples.—Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj = John is the strongest of the boys. Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj = Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. Georgo estas la malplej kuraĝa knabo en la domo = George is the least courageous boy in the house. Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis = She was the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. Tiuj ĉi estas la plej grandaj arboj en la arbaro = These are the largest trees in the wood. Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo (klubo, societo) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club, society). Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon = Put the largest glasses upon the table. Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn (malplej grandajn) = Do not throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least large).

(c). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre very, or treege = exceedingly, or troe = excessively, or some other suitable adverb.

Example.—Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa = That woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat.

114. Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the aid of the suffixes -EG- and -ET- with or without an adverb. The suffix -EG- is stronger in its application than the adverb tre = very. For instance, take the adjective bela = beautiful, or fine. Tre bela = very beautiful, or very fine; but belega = magnificent, or superb. So, the diminutive -ET- shows more diminution than the adjective malgranda = small, or little, would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero = a small river, but rivereto = a brook, or stream. The following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes tre varmega = broiling hot and tre malvarmega = intensely cold, supposing we were speaking of the weather:—

Tre varmega = Broiling hot.Tre malvarmega = Intensely cold.

Varmega = Hot.Malvarmega = Bitterly cold.

Tre varma = Very warm.Tre malvarma = Very cold.

Varma = Warm.Malvarma = Cold.

Iom varma = Warmish.Iom malvarma = Coldish.

Varmeta = Mild.Malvarmeta = Cool.

See remarks on the suffixes -EG- and -ET-, par. 277.

NUMERALS.

Cardinal Numbers (Numeraloj fundamentaj).

115. The cardinal numbers are:—

(1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses, (7) sep, (8) ok, (9) naŭ, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000) mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo.

Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-.

(a). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek before the first nine, as:—(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.

(b). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by the addition cent, or mil, as:—(101) cent unu, (102) cent du, (110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu, (1,006) mil ses, (1,114) mil cent dek kvar.

(c). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:—(20) dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900) naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil.

(d). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:—(21) dudek unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121) cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.

(e). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or number.

Examples.—La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn = The two children divided between themselves seven apples. Unu prenis tri kaj la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj = One took three and the other took four of the apples. Kvin kaj sep faras (or, estas) dek du = 5 and 7 make (are) 12.

(f). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means some. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = others.

Examples.—El ŝiaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and others bad. Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj aliajn malbonaj = He examined the apples, and found some good and others bad. Note that bonaj and malbonaj are predicative adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108 (b)).

(g). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is employed as a numeral.[14]

Example.—Ĉar ĉiu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine.

Footnote:

Ordinal Numbers (Numeraloj ordaj).

116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto, made such in the usual way by adding A to the cardinals, as:—unua = first, dua = second, tria = third, kvara = fourth, kvina = fifth, sesa = sixth, sepa = seventh, oka = eighth, naŭa = ninth, deka = tenth.

(a). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, A is added to the last only, as:—dek-unua = eleventh, dek-dua = twelfth, dek-naŭa = nineteenth, dudeka = twentieth, dudek-unua = twenty-first, cent-tridek-naŭa = hundred and thirty-ninth.

N.B.—Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens.

(b). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and number.

Examples.—Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran = Give him the third, and take the fourth. La kvinaj etaĝoj de tiuj domoj estas tre altaj = The fifth stories of those houses are very high.

(c). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours, days, months, years, kings, etc.

Examples.—Paĝo trideka = Page thirty. Vidu paĝon kvardekan (or, 40^an) = See page forty (40). Henriko kvara = Henry IV. La dek-unua horo = 11 o’clock. En la dek-sesa (tago) de Aprilo = On the 16th of April. En la jaro mil-okcent-naŭdek-naŭa = In 1899. Mil-naŭcent-kvara = 1904.

In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often used.

Examples.—Sur kioma paĝo vi vidis tion? = On what page did you see that? Kioma paĝo estas? = What page is it? Kioma horo estas? = What o’clock is it? Estas la dua = It is two o’clock. Kiun daton ni havas? = What is the date (or, day of the month)? Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (or, 27^a) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March.

117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding E to the cardinals, as:—unue, firstly, due, secondly, sepe, seventhly, etc.

118. Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding O. They have various meanings, as:—Unuo = a unit, or a one. Duo = a duet, or a two (of cards). Trio = a trio, or triplet, or a three (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = a four, etc. (of cards, etc., up to ten). Dek-duo = a dozen. Deko = half a score. Dudeko = a score. Cento = a hundred. Milo = a thousand. Miliono = a million.

Examples.—Li havas dudekojn da ĉevaloj, centojn da ŝafoj, kaj milojn da birdoj = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and thousands of birds. Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso kera = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts. Tiu cifero estas oko = That figure is an eight.

Multiples (Numeraloj multoblaj).

119. Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix -OBL- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive verbs by the suffix -IGI-, or intransitive by the suffix -IĜI-.

Examples.—Unuobla = Single. Unuoble = Singly. Duobla = Double, twofold. Duoble = Doubly. La duoblo = The double. Duobligi = To double, to duplicate. Duobliĝi = To become double. Triobla = Triple, threefold. Trioble = Trebly. La trioblo = The treble (of). Triobligi = To treble, to triplicate. Kvarobla = Fourfold, quadruple. Kvaroble = Quadruply. Kvaroblo = A quadruple. Kvarobligi = To quadruple, to make fourfold. Kvarobliĝi = To become quadruple. Sepobla = Sevenfold, septuple. Centoblo = A centuple. Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin = Five times (fivefold) 7 is 35. Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72. Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses = Four times four is 16. Dudek estas la kvaroblo de kvin = Twenty is the quadruple of five. Duobla fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla = A double thread is stronger than a single (one). Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de tri = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3.

Fractional Numbers (Numeraloj nombronaj).

120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix -ON- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun, as:—Duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1⁄2), triona = third, trione = by thirds, triono = a third (1⁄3).

Examples.—La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du, tio estas ses = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6. Unu triono = One third (1⁄3). Tri okonoj = Three eighths (3⁄8). Neniam faru ion poduone = Never do anything by halves. Duone ses estas tri = half of six is three.

The Collectives (Numeraloj kolektaj).

121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix -OP- to the cardinals, and then adding A or E to mark adjectives or adverbs, as:—Duopa = double, two together, duope = by twos, in pairs, triope = in threes, in triplets, dekope = by tens.

Example.—Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me.

Reiteratives (Numeraloj ripetaj).

122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the cardinals, as:—Unufoje = once, dufoje = twice, trifoje = thrice, kvarfoje = four times.

Examples.—Hieraŭ mi renkontis lin unufoje (or, unu fojon), sed hodiaŭ dufoje (or, du fojojn) = Yesterday I met him once, but to-day twice.

N.B.—Note that when the substantive fojo is used, it is in the accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (b)).

Distributives (Numeraloj disdividaj).

123. Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before the cardinals, meaning at the rate of, in the proportion of.

Examples.—Al ĉiu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin ŝilingoj = I paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. Tiu ĉi libro enhavas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see "po" in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).

The Time of Day (La horo).

124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day. "A quarter to three" (2.45) may be either:—

(a). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = three-quarters of the 3rd (hour).

(b). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = the 2nd (hour) and three-quarters.

(c). Kvarono antaŭ la tria = a quarter before the 3rd (hour).

The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is, however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general use. Therefore to the question:—Kioma horo estas? = What time (hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:—

2.0=La dua (horo).

2.15=La dua (horo) kaj dek kvin (minutoj).

3.5=La tria (horo) kvin.

10.2=La deka (horo) du.

11.45=La dek-unua (horo) kvardek kvin.

In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:—4.10 p.m. in Italy = 16.10 = La dek-sesa (horo) dek.

PRONOUNS (Pronomoj).

125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:—(1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.

As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139–157), so under the head of "Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive.

Personal Pronouns (personaj pronomoj).

126. The personal pronouns are:—

Nominative.

Singular.1st Person.Mi = I.

"2nd Person.Vi = you, thou. (Ci = thou is rarely used).

"3rd Person.Li = he, Ŝi = she, Ĝi = it.

Plural.1st Person.Ni = we.

"2nd Person.Vi = you, ye.

"3rd Person.Ili = they.

Accusative.

Singular.1st Person.Min = me.

"2nd Person.Vin = you, thee. (Cin = thee is rarely used).

"3rd Person.Lin = him, Ŝin = her, Ĝin = it.

Plural.1st Person.Nin = us.

"2nd Person.Vin = you.

"3rd Person.Ilin = them.

Oni = one, people, they, we (like the French "on"), is an indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or plural.

Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular, and may be used without hesitation if desired.

Si = self, selves, oneself, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, singular or plural.

Vi, like "you" in English, represents both the singular and plural, but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it take the plural form.

Ĝi, like "it" in English, is used to represent things, and also persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex.

Examples.—Mi lin amas = I love him. Li min vidas = He sees me. Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno = They found him and me in the garden. Vi ne vidis nin = You did not see us. Vi (plural) estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas) = You are wiser than they are. Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro = She saw them in the bedroom. Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion" = They (people) say (it is said), "With money one (or, we) can buy everything. Mi vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda = I saw the house, but it was too small. Se oni estus riĉa, or riĉaj = If one were rich.

(a).—In words like infano = child, persono = person, individuo = individual, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is it in the general name of an animal, as:—leono = a lion, hundo = a dog, birdo = a bird, etc., unless we add the feminine suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use the pronoun ĝi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi respectively. Zamenhof advises the use of li and ŝi for human beings only, and of ĝi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is known and indicated; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is nevertheless legitimate if desired.

Examples.—La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al ĝi (or li if we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. Tio estas bela ĉevalino, ĝi (or, ŝi) trotas bone = That is a fine mare, she trots well. Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al ĝi, ke ĝi revenu morgaŭ = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow.[15]

Footnote:

127. The word mem = self or selves is sometimes used with a personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis.

Examples.—Mi mem ĝin vidis = I myself saw it. Ni mem ĝin trovis, or, Ni ĝin trovis mem = We found it ourselves. Vi venu mem = Come yourself. Ŝi mem parolos = She herself will speak. Li mem respondu = Let him answer (for) himself. La virinoj venu mem = Let the women come themselves.

128. Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons.[16] We cannot say Mi lavas sin, or Ni, or Vi lavas sin, for "I wash myself," "We wash ourselves," "You wash yourself." We must, in each of these cases, use the pronoun which is the subject of the verb, as:—Mi lavas min—Ni lavas nin—Vi lavas vin = I wash myself—We wash ourselves—You wash yourself (or if vi = you is plural), You wash yourselves. Si, therefore, is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, when it refers to the subject of the verb. It takes the accusative termination N when necessary, and then represents "himself, herself, itself, oneself, themselves."

Examples.—Li razis sin = He shaved himself. Petro razis sin = Peter shaved himself (Petro razis lin would mean Peter shaved him, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). Ŝi diris al si = She said to herself (Ŝi diris al ŝi would mean "She said to her," viz., some other woman). Ĝi vundis sin = It wounded itself (Ĝi vundis ĝin Ili mortigis sin = They killed themselves. Li pensis en si mem, ke ... = He thought to (in) himself that ... La du fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed, tiel farante, ili vundas sin (or, sin mem) = The two brothers meet the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing, they wound themselves. Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion por si, kaj nenion por ŝi = My sister has a friend, who does everything for herself, and nothing for her. Oni kelkfoje tro laŭdas sin = One (or people) sometimes praises oneself (or praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb, par. 170).

Footnote:

129. The pronoun "it" is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see par. 164).

Examples.—Kiu estas tie? Estas mi = Who is there? It is I. Neĝas = It snows. Pluvis = It rained. Necesas, ke oni manĝu = It is necessary to eat.

Possessive Pronouns (Pronomoj posedaj).

130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival A to the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the accusative.

131. They are mia = my, mine, via = your, yours, thy, thine (cia = thy, thine, like its personal pronoun, ci, is rarely used), lia = his, ŝia = her, hers, ĝia = its, nia = our, ours, ilia = their, theirs, sia = his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, one’s (own).

Examples.—Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, ŝia onklo, kaj iliaj onklinoj, estas en la domo = My father, your brother, his sister, her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. Mi vidis vian libron, lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo = I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station. Mi havas viajn librojn = I have your books. Ĝia koloro estas ruĝa = Its colour is red. Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj viajn amikojn = My sister met your brother and your friends.

132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the writer’s option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the ground that it is superfluous.

Examples.—Ĉar ni ĉiuj havas (or, ĉar ĉiu el ni havas) unu vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. Ŝiaj infanoj estas pli grandaj, ol (la) viaj = Her children are bigger than yours.

Note in the first example that ĉiuj is in the plural because it is in apposition to ni (see par. 69 (c)).

133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection.

Examples.—Patrino mia = Mother mine, or Mother dear. Fratino mia = Sister dear.

134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may, as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural.

Example.—Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino, or, liaj patro, patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo = His father, his mother, and his sister were in the house.

134 (a). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are sometimes used in a possessive sense.

Examples.—Mi kovris al mi la orelojn = I covered my (to myself the) ears. Li fermis al si la okulojn = He closed his (to himself the) eyes (see also par. 100).

135. Sia, Lia, etc.—Great care must be taken not to use sia, when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd person, or vice versâ. Sia can only refer to the subject of the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and being reflexive, it part of the subject of a sentence, as:—Li diris al ni, ke lia (not, sia) hundo ĵus mortis = He told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent "his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one’s (own)."

Since sia, being reflexive, can never form part of the subject of a sentence, we cannot say Li kaj sia edzino iris Parizon, because li and edzino are equally subjects of the same clause. But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the sole subject, and we can correctly say, Li kun sia edzino iris Parizon, or, Li iris Parizon kun sia edzino = He went to Paris with his wife. If we use kaj we must say, Li kaj lia edzino iris Parizon = He and his wife went to Paris.

136. In the four following examples sia refers to the subject of the sentence:—

Mia patrino forgesis sian libron = My mother forgot (or, has forgotten) her book. Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn = Those children have lost their parents. La hundo amas sian mastron = The dog loves its master. Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem = One must love one’s neighbour as oneself. N.B.—Sin is here in the accusative owing to ellipsis, the words oni amas after kiel being understood (see par. 105).

137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun does not refer to the subject of the sentence, and therefore we use lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, as the case may be:—

Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon = He saw my friend and his (his friend’s) wife. Ŝi venis al mi hieraŭ, por ke mi redonu ŝiajn leterojn al ŝi = She came to me yesterday in order that I might return her letters to her. La reĝo amas Johanon kaj lian filon = The king loves John and his son.

N.B.—Here the English does not show whether it is John’s son or his own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is John’s son, otherwise it would be sian filon; lian filon is in the accusative here, because the conjunction kaj connects like cases (see par. 266).

(a). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in accordance with the construction of the sentence.

El ĉiuj siaj amikinoj, ŝi plej amas Marion = Of all her friends (female), she loves Mary best. (Here siaj refers to ŝi).

El ĉiuj ŝiaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata = Of all her friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here ŝiaj refers to some woman not mentioned.)

Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis = After reading (having read) his book, he fell asleep. (Here sian refers to li, understood in leginte = When he had read his book, he ...). Leginte lian libron, li ekdormis = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here lian refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the book.)

Johano, legante sian libron, venkiĝis de dormo = John, while reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep.

138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:—

Petro skribis al Paŭlo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon = Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (sian refers to Paul because li = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and sia always, as we have said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if, therefore, lian had been the possessive, it would have been Peter’s dog.)

Post kiam la reĝo mortis, lia filo edziĝis kun sia/lia kuzino = After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here sia would refer to filo, the son’s cousin, but lia to reĝo, the king’s cousin.

Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke ŝi donu al sia/ŝia fratino sian/ŝian libron. This sentence in English, whichever of the possessives be used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to give (that she give) to her sister her book." sian filinon is the mother’s daughter (ŝian would mean someone else’s daughter). But afterwards ŝi (the daughter) becomes the subject, therefore sia fratino would be the daughter’s sister, and ŝia fratino the mother’s. For the remainder of the sentence ŝi (the daughter) still remains the subject, therefore sian libron would be the daughter’s book, and ŝian libron the sister’s or the mother’s book. Ties libron would definitely specify it as the sister’s book.

138 (a). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and 138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia always refer to the subject (noun or pronoun) of their own clause.

(b). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to which they refer is not expressed, but only understood.

Example.—Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian (or, la) ĉapelon! = That is a new method of brushing one’s hat!

(c). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied: i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the full sentence implied.

Examples of Infinitive.—Estas bone ne trompi (ke oni ne trompu) sin = It is well not to deceive oneself. La patrino lasis Marion legi (ke ŝi legu) sian libron (Mary’s book); ŝian libron (the mother’s book). La oficiro petis Aŭguston rigardi (ke li rigardu) lin (him) sin (himself). La patro petis sian filon, helpi (ke la filo helpu) sian (the son’s) amikon; lian (the father’s) amikon.

Examples of Participle.—La reĝo ordonis, ke ĉiuj renkontante (kiam ili renkontis) lin, eliru. La princo montris viron, starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn (kiuj ludas) per sia (their own) pupo—per lia (with his) pupo. La reĝo forveturis, ne sciiginte (kaj ne sciigis) sian ministron pri sia (the king’s) devo—pri lia (the minister’s) devo.

(d). Boirac names lia, ŝia, ĝia, etc., the direct or normal form of the pronoun, "La rekta formo," and sia the secondary or accessory form, "flanka kaj akcesora." He points out that where the use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is nevertheless not obligatory. It is even possible, as shown by Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., "La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn samajn signojn en ilia (instead of sia) lingvo (F.K., p. 258). In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form. It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used, than to omit it when it might be used.

CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)

139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan. They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V.

140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also expressions which require several English words to define clearly.

141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter I is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal letters following I show how that idea is applied, and consequently the full meaning of the word.

(a). The initial letters convey the following ideas:—

I- that the word is "indefinite."

Ĉ- that the word is "distributive" or "collective."

K- that the word is "interrogative" or "relative."

NEN- that the word is "negative" (nen- = ne, not, and N added for euphony).

T- that the word is "demonstrative."

(b). The terminal letters following I denote that the idea is to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:—

-A in relation to "quality" or "the kind of" (adjectival).

-AL in relation to "motive" or "reason for" (adverbial).

-AM in relation to "time" (adverbial).

-E in relation to "place" (adverbial).

-EL in relation to "manner" (adverbial).

-ES in relation to "possession" (pronominal).

-O in relation to "a thing" (substantival or pronominal).

-OM in relation to "quantity" or "number of" (adverbial).

-U in relation to "person" or "thing specified". (pronominal or adjectival).

142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels A, E, O, U, must not necessarily be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not grammatical terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in A and U also take the plural J.

Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in O also to take the plural J; but in practice this is seldom useful.

143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = that (thing), tiu = that one, the former, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the separate word ĉi = near, to express the demonstrative pronoun, "this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as before stated. Thus tio = that (thing), tio ĉi = this (thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = this (thing). Tiu = that one, the former, tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj = those, tiuj ĉi = these (lit., "those here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as:—Ĉi tiu = this one. In fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Ĉio ĉi = all this.

144. The adverb, tie = there, is also followed by ĉi to denote "here." Thus tie = there, tie ĉi = here, tien (accusative) = thither, tien ĉi = hither. Occasionally ĉi is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.

145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing with K) may be followed by the word ajn = ever, as kia ajn = whatever kind of, kial ajn = for whatever reason, kiam ajn = whenever, kie ajn = wherever, kiel ajn = however, kies ajn = whosesoever, kio ajn = whatever, kiom ajn = however much, whatever quantity, kiu ajn = whoever, whichever.

Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely used it except after the series kia, kial, etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when asked the question whether it could be employed after the series ia, ial, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (c) (d).

146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc.,

Ĉiam-a = Everlasting, continual. Ĉiam-e = Everlastingly, forever. Ĉie-a = Of everywhere. Ĉi-tie-a (ĉi tiea) = Of here. Tie-a = Of there. Ĉi-tie-ulo (ĉi tieulo) = A man of this place. Tie-ulo = A man of that place. Kiom-a = Of what quantity. Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? Neni-igi = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. Neni-iĝi = To become nothing, to vanish. Tiam-a = Of then, of that time. Tiam-ulo = A man of that time, a contemporary. La kial-o = The why and wherefore, the reason (cause). Tiel-e = In that way.

147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.

Indefinite.Distributive, General or Collective. Interrogative and Relative.Negative.Demonstrative.

Quality Kind of (adjectival) IA some (any) kind or sort of some (any) of some kind ĈIA every kind of every of every kind KIA what kind of? of what kind? what a! ... as NENIA no kind of no, no such of no kind (not any kind of) TIA that kind of such a of that kind

Motive Reason for (adverbial) IAL for some (any) reason or cause ĈIAL for every reason/cause for all reasons KIAL for what reason/cause why? wherefore NENIAL for no reason/cause TIAL for that reason/cause therefore

Time (adverbial) IAM at some (any) time ever once ĈIAM always every time for all time ever KIAM at what time? when NENIAM at no time never TIAM at that time then

Place (adverbial) IE in some (any) place somewhere (anywhere) ĈIE in every place everywhere KIE in what place where NENIE in no place nowhere (not anywhere) TIE in that place there yonder

Manner (adverbial) IEL in some manner/way somehow (anyhow) (in any manner) ĈIEL (in) every manner/way (in) every way all ways KIEL in what manner/way how? ... as like NENIEL in no manner/way nohow by no means not at all TIEL in that manner/way thus, so, like (that) as ... in such a manner

Possession (pronominal) IES somebody’s (someone’s) (anyone’s) ĈIES everybody’s everyone’s each one’s of each, of all KIES whose of which NENIES no one’s nobody’s of none TIES that one’s of that of those

Thing (not specified) (substantival or pronominal) IO something (anything) ĈIO everything all things all KIO what (thing) which NENIO nothing not anything TIO that (thing)

Quantity (adverbial) IOM some quantity somewhat rather, some a little, at all (any) ĈIOM every quantity all, the whole all of it KIOM what quantity how much how many NENIOM no quantity none none at all TIOM that quantity so much/many as much/many

Individuality Person or thing (pronominal or adjectival) IU some one (anyone) ĈIU each one, each everybody ĉiuj=all, all the ... KIU which one who, he who which, that NENIU no one nobody TIU that one the former

Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.

148. In the following examples (pars. 149–157) we have taken the correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.

149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.

Ia = some sort of, some, a, an.

Ĉia = every (each) kind of, every sort of.

Kia = what a! what kind of? of what kind, ... as.

Nenia = no, no such, no kind of, of no kind, not any kind of.

Ia ajn, of any kind (whatever).

Tia = such a, that kind of, of that kind.

Tia ... kia = such ... as.

Examples.—Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion? = Have you not some book which will explain that?

Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some (or, an) idea how to do it.

Ekster ĉia dubo = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.

Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (or, in any) books.

Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are.

Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.

Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas = Such a woman one always esteems.

Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas = I gave him the book such as it was.

Kiun aĝon li havas? = How old is he? (what age has he?)

Kia estas la vetero? = How (what kind) is the weather?

Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento = Commencing at any (whatever) moment.

Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house!

Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj? = What are the stipulations (or terms)?

Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not so.

Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand.

Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).

Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis = Here is the monument such as they described.

Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato = Your age is the same as your brother’s.

N.B.—Do not confuse the series ending in A with that ending in U.

Examples.—Kian libron vi bezonas? = What (sort of) book do you want? Kiun libron vi bezonas? = What (or which) book do you want? Tia homo = Such a man, that sort of man. Tiu homo = That man. Ĉiaj libroj = All (kinds of) books. Ĉiuj libroj = All (or, all the) books. Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.

150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.

Ial = for some reason or cause (for any reason)

Ĉial = for all reasons, for every reason, for every cause.

Ial ajn, for any reason (whatever).

Kial = why? wherefore, for what reason.

Nenial = for no reason, or cause.

Tial = therefore, for that reason.

Examples.—Ial li subite forlasis Londonon = For some reason he suddenly left London.

Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.

Kial vi ne respondis? = Why did you not answer?

Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi = He for no reason ceased writing to me.

Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin = She never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.

Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris = I cannot imagine why ever he did it.

151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.

Iam = ever, at some time (any time), once, one day, once upon a time.

Ĉiam = always, for all time, ever, at every time.

Kiam = when, at what time, as (relating to time).

Neniam = never, at no time.

Tiam = then, at that time.

Examples.—Se iam mi venos = If ever I come (shall come).

Ĉiam skribu legeble = Always write legibly.

En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io = On such occasions something is always wanting.

Kiam vi skribis tiel? = When did you write like that (thus)?

Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron = When the priest comes (shall come), tell him the truth.

Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa, or, Kiam mi estis riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa = At that time when (or, when) I was rich I was not happy, or, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa = When I was rich I was not happy.

Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn = I never write long letters.

Mi neniam aŭdis tion = I never heard that.

Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes.

Kiam ajn li venos? = Whenever will he come?

N.B.—Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time" except antaŭ = before, when ol is generally used, though kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. 259 (3)).

Examples.—Unutage, kiam = One day, when. Iun tagon, kiam = On a day, when. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when. Samtempe, kiam = At the same time, when. De l’ tempo kiam = From the time when, since. Post kiam = After. Antaŭ ol li venis = Before he came.

152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.

Ie = somewhere (anywhere), in some (any) place.

Ĉie = everywhere, in every place, in all places.

Ie ajn, anywhere (whatever).

Kie = where, in what place, in which place.

Tie = there, yonder, in that place. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi = here, in this place.

Examples.—Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro = I could not find my book anywhere in the room.

Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?

Ĉie mi trovis amikojn = Everywhere I found friends.

Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie = That can be bought (one can buy) anywhere (everywhere).

Kien vi iras? = Where are you going?

Mi iras nenien = I am going nowhere.

Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? = Where is the post office?

Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo = It is there where that house stands.

Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going?

Mi iras tien = I am going thither.

Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie? = Are you here?

Li venas ĉi tien = He is coming here.

Kie ajn li estas? = Wherever is he?

Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi = Wherever he is, he is not here.

153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.

Iel—somehow (anyhow), in some way, in some manner.

Iel ajn, in any way (whatever).

Ĉiel = in every way, in every manner, in all ways.

Kiel = how, in what manner, like, ... as.

Neniel = nohow, in no manner, not at all, by no means.

Tiel = thus, in that manner, like (that), so, as ...

Tiel ... kiel (in comparison) = as ... as; so ... as.

Examples.—Iel li ĉiel sukcesas = Somehow he succeeds in every way.

Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari = I had no idea how to do it.

Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? or, How are you?

Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon francan = She could nohow (or, not at all) understand him as long as he spoke in the French language.

Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto estas donita al la besto = Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts.

Kaj tiel plu (often written k.t.p.) = And so on, and so forth.

Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.) = As soon as possible.

Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.

Kiel ajn malmulte = However little.

154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing or person, singular or plural.

Ies = somebody’s, someone’s (anyone’s, anybody’s).

Ĉies = everyone’s, each one’s, of each, of all.

Kies = whose, of whom, of which.

Nenies = no one’s, nobody’s, of none.

Ties = that one’s, of that, of those.

Examples.—Ĉies devo estas nenies = Anybody’s (everybody’s) duty is nobody’s.

Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno = Someone’s loss is not always somebody’s gain.

Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different.

Kies libro estas tiu ĉi? = Whose book is this?

Kies plumon vi uzas? = Whose pen are you using?

La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro = The house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.

El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj = From all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.

Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas = That book is very dirty, whosesoever it is.

Ties opinio ne multe valoras = That one’s opinion is not worth much.

Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon = I never take (follow) that one’s (his, her, their) advice.

N.B.—Be careful not to use kies for "of which," when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say La afero kies ni parolis for "The affair of which we spoke"; we must say La afero, pri kiu ni parolis.

155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite), substantival or pronominal.

Io = something.

Io ajn, anything (whatever).

Ĉio = everything, all things, all.

Kio = what (thing), which.

Nenio = nothing, not any thing.

Tio = that (thing). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = this (thing).

Examples.—Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas? = What is that (or, that which) you are writing?

Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie = Something was under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.

Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis = He saw something he liked very much.

Estas tempo por ĉio = There is a time for everything.

Ĉio (tio) ĉi montras, ke ... = All this shows that ...

Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas (la) via = All I have is yours.

Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas? = What is this that I see?

Nenio estas preta = Nothing is ready.

Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing.

Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas = It (that) has a bad smell, whatever it is.

Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi (or, ĉio ĉi) al iu = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.

156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.

Iom = somewhat, some quantity, rather, a little, some.

Ĉiom = all, all of it, the whole, every quantity.

Kiom = how much, how many, what quantity.

Neniom = none, none at all, no quantity.

Tiom = so much, so many, as much, as many, that quantity.

Tiom ... kiom = as much (many) ... as.

Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer.

Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom = Here is sugar, take some, but not all (the whole).

Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you?

Mi havas neniom = I have none (none at all).

Tiom pli bone = So much the better.

Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember.

Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino = Give me as much water as wine.

Kiom vi scias = As far (much) as you know.

Kiom eble = As far (much) (many) as possible.

Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble tiom = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can) hold, this one will hold twice as much.

157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal or adjectival.

Iu = someone, somebody.

Iu ajn, anyone (whatever).

Ĉiu = everyone, each one. Ĉiuj = all, all (of) the....

Kiu = who, which, that, which one.

Neniu = nobody, no one, no.

Tiu = that (one), the former. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj, those; Ĉi tiuj, these.

Examples.—Iu estas tie = Someone is there.

Mi ne vidis iun = I did not see anyone (someone).

Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn = Each age has its duties.

Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi = She read every book she could get.

Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the garden?

Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis = I knew every man whom I met.

Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi = I read all the books that you lent to me.

Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa = That bread is new, but this is newer.

Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn = He who has the black hair.

Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun = No one was there, therefore I saw nobody.

Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool.

Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol ĉiun alian = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker, whom she knew better than anyone (everyone) else.

Ĉiu vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia = Any (each) word can be combined with any (each) other word.

Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol (k)iu ajn el liaj parencoj = He was more sincerely sorry for him, than any of his relations.

La pafilo povos en ĉiu tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita = The gun can be (will be able to be) loaded at any time.

Li ne permesos al (k)iu ajn tion fari = He will not allow anyone (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (d)).

158. General Remarks.—The foregoing remarks on the correlative words show the importance of a

(a). -AL and -EL. It will be noticed that the series AL represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:—"for some reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series EL the phrases commence with "in," as:—"in some way," "in every way." Bear in mind that -AL relates to motive, and -EL to manner. Note the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = for the reason that, forasmuch as, because that. Tiel, ke = in such a manner that, so that. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li faras tion? = Why (for what reason) is he doing that? Kiel li faras tion? = How (in what way) is he doing that?

(b). -O and -U. The series O is rarely used in the plural; it relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a personal pronoun. Examples.—Kio estas tio? = What is that? Kiu estas tiu? = Who is that? Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino = That is my brother who is walking with his wife. Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = That is what I wanted. Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = That which is growing in my garden is a tree. Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas kverko = That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak.

Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and things, as:—Tio (or, ĝi) estis mi, kiu lin vidis = It was I who saw him. Tio estas ponto = It (that) is a bridge.

(c). -I: "ANY" (= SOME). It will be seen from the table of Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column commencing with I have as their main idea indefiniteness, corresponding to the English some (or other). Thus: Li estas ie = he is somewhere (or other). Mi manĝos ion = I shall eat something (or other). Iu faris tion = Someone (or other) did that.

In English, especially in a sentence which is negative, interrogative, or suppositional, the word any is often used in this sense instead of the word some. In such cases (as shown in brackets in the table) the i- words may be translated with any; thus: Ĉu vi manĝis ion? = Did you eat anything (something)? Mi ne manĝos ion = I shall not eat Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = If he were anywhere (somewhere) in the room. Ĉu iu faris tion? = Did anyone (someone) do that? Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = I do not know anyone who could. Se iu faris tion = If anyone did that....

(d). "ANY" (= ANY WHATEVER). Sometimes, however, the word any is used not with the meaning of some (as in the preceding paragraph), but with the meaning any whatever. Take, for example, the questions: What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go? The answers might be: Oh, anything (you like, it doesn’t matter what); and Anywhere (you like). This meaning of any (any whatever) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: Anyone could do that, may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion fari.

(e). AJN. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to the English -ever (see par. 248 (b)). It is also occasionally used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin ĉie ajn = I looked for him absolutely everywhere. Li estas nenie ajn = He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere.

THE VERB (La Verbo).

159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is conjugated exactly the same.

160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs, from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see pars. 214–236), three moods (see pars. 171–202), and six participles (see pars. 203–213).

TENSES. (Indicative Mood.)

-AS,Present, as:Mi faras = I do, or, make.

-IS,Past, as:Vi faris = you did, or, have (or, had) done.

-OS,Future, as:Ili faros = they will do.

CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.

-US, as: Se mi farus = if I did, or, should (or, would) do, or, were to do.

IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD.

-U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = tell him to do that (lit., that he do that). Ni faru tion = let us do that.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

-I, as: Fari = to do.

PARTICIPLES.

-ANTA,Active, Present, as:Faranta = doing.

Farante (adv.) = in (when, or, other prep.) doing.

-INTA,Active, Past, as:Farinta = having done.

Farinte (adv.) = in having done.

-ONTA,Active, Future, as:Faronta = (being) about to do.

Faronte (adv.) = on being about to do.

-ATA,Passive, Present, as:Farata = being done, or, done.

Farate (adv.) = on being done.

-ITA,Passive, Past, as:Farita = been done, or, having been done.

Farite (adv.) = on having been done.

-OTA,Passive, Future, as:Farota = (being) about to be done.

Farote (adv.) = on being about to be done.

N.B.—For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

There are two classes of verbs—transitive and intransitive.

Transitive Verbs (transitivaj verboj).

161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the passive.

(a). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be in the accusative case; as:—Johano batis la hundon = John beat the dog. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.

(b). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject is acted upon; as:—La hundo estis batata de Johano = The dog was (being) beaten by John. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:—La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house built by my father is (having been) covered with slates.

Intransitive Verbs (netransitivaj verboj).

162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:—Johano dormas = John sleeps, or, is sleeping. Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.

Auxiliary Verb (helpa verbo).

163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = to be. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = to have is in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron = I have a book.

In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where English would usually employ "to be," viz., kuŝi = to lie; sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = to find oneself; troviĝi = to be found; stari = to stand; farti, or, stati = to be (well or ill).

Examples.—La krajono kuŝas (estas) sur la tablo = The pencil is (lies) on the table. Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis (estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton = On the hearth was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out into (on to) the yard. Kiel statas via tuso? = How is your cough?

Impersonal Use of Verbs.

164. Verbs used impersonally (senpersone) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:—

(a). Verbs which relate to the weather.

Examples.—Pluvas = It rains. Pluvos = It will rain. Fulmis = It lightened. Neĝus = It would snow. Hajlis = It hailed.

(b). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without.

Examples.—Okazas = It happens. Ŝajnos = It will seem. Prosperis al mi trovi = It was my fortune to find.

(c). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or passive participle-adverb.

Examples.—Estas pli bone forkuri = It is better to run away. Estas dirite, ke ... = It is said that ...

(d). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see par. 245).

Examples.—Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.

Reflexive Verbs (refleksivaj verboj).

165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive verb).

Examples.—Mi lavas min = I wash myself. Li lavis sin = He washed himself. Vi razos vin = You will shave yourself. Ili vestis sin = They dressed themselves.

166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is not repeated.

Examples.—Ili batis sin reciproke, or, Ili batis unu la alian = They beat one another. Ili ĵetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la alia = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another’s heads.

167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.

The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid of which all the compound tenses in the active voice and all the tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed. The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = I am being, etc., are very rarely used.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Esti = to be.

PARTICIPLES.

Present,Estanta= being.

Past,Estinta= been, or, having been.

Future,Estonta= about to be, or, going to be.

Note that participles take the plural J and accusative N if required (see par. 207); also the adverbial E (see par. 209 (c)).

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Miestas= I am.

Vi, ciestas= You (thou) are (art).

Li, ŝi, ĝi, oniestas= He, she, it, one is.

Niestas= We are.

Viestas= You are.

Iliestas= They are.

N.B.—The pronoun ci = thou is rarely used.

Past.

Miestis= I was.

Viestis= You were.

Li, etc.estis= He was.

Niestis= We were.

Viestis= You were.

Iliestis= They were.

Future.

Singular.Miestos= I shall be.

Viestos= You will be.

Li, etc.estos= He will be.

Plural.Niestos= We shall be.

Viestos= You will be.

Iliestos= They will be.

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the past, present, or future.

Sing.(Se)Miestus= (If) I should be, were, had been.

(Se)Viestus= (If) you would, were, had been.

(Se)Li, etc.estus= (If) he would, were, had been.

Plural.(Se)Niestus= (If) we would, were, had been.

(Se)Viestus= (If) you would, were, had been.

(Se)Iliestus= (If) they would, were, had been.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

The imperative or U mood has no tenses.

The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see par. 199).

Singular.Mi estu= Let me be.

Estu= Be, or, be you, or, be thou.

Li, ŝi, ĝi, estu= Let him, her, it be.

Plural.Ni estu= Let us be.

Estu= Be, or, be you, or, be ye.

Ili estu= Let them be.

The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that (par. 200).

Sing.(Ke) Miestu= (That) I (may, might, should) be.

(Ke) Viestu= (That) you

(Ke)Li, etc.estu= (That) he

Plural.(Ke)Niestu= (That) we

(Ke)Viestu= (That) you

(Ke)Iliestu= (That) they

168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB.

The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to the compound forms.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

SimplePresent,Teni= To hold.

CompoundPresent,Esti tenanta= To be holding.

CompoundPast,Esti teninta= To have held.

CompoundFuture,Esti tenonta= To be about (or, going) to hold.

PARTICIPLES.

Present,Tenanta= Holding.

Past,Teninta= Having held.

Future,Tenonta= About (or, going) to hold.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present (Simple).

Sing.Mitenas= I hold, am holding, do hold.

Vi (or, ci)tenas= You hold, are holding, do hold.

Li, ŝi, ĝitenas= He, she, it holds, is holding, does hold.

Plural.Nitenas= We hold, are holding, do hold.

Vitenas= You (or, ye) hold, are holding, do hold.

Ilitenas= They hold, are holding, do hold.

N.B.—Ci = thou is rarely used. Vi = you is used, as in English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the participle in compound tenses takes the plural J.

Past (Simple).

Mi, vi, etc., tenis = I, you, etc., held, have (or, had) held, was holding, did hold.

Future (Simple).

Mi, vi, etc., tenos = I, you, etc., shall hold, or, shall be holding.

CONDITIONAL MOOD (OR "US" MOOD).

The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context, viz., whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were," "had," or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced by the conjunction se = if (see pars. 190–194).

(Se) mi tenus = (If) I held, or, should hold, or, should be holding, or, were holding, or, were to hold, or, had held.

IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR "U" MOOD).

Singular.Mi tenu= Let me hold.

Tenu= Hold.

Li, ŝi, ĝi, tenu= Let him, her, it hold.

Plural.Ni tenu= Let us hold.

Tenu= Hold.

Ili tenu= Let them hold.

Sing.(Ke) mi tenu = (That) I may, might, should hold.

(Ke) vi (or, ci) tenu= (That) you (or, thou)

(Ke) li tenu= (That) he

Plural.(Ke) ni tenu= (That) we

(Ke) vi tenu= (That) you (or, ye)

(Ke) ili tenu= (That) they

(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202).

CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.

169. The following shows the compound tenses in the active and passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and imperative moods:—For the three persons of the plural add J to the participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).

The Present in thePresent Mi estas tenanta= I am holding.

Mi estas tenata= I am (being) held.

Past Mi estis tenanta= I was holding.

Mi estis tenata= I was (being) held.

Future Mi estos tenanta= I shall be holding.

Mi estos tenata= I shall be (being) held.

The Past in thePresent Mi estas teninta= I have held.

Mi estas tenita= I have been, or, was held.

Past Mi estis teninta= I had held.

Mi estis tenita= I had been held, or, was held, if the action is completed.

Future Mi estos teninta= I shall have held.

Mi estos tenita= I shall have been held.

The Future in thePresent Mi estas tenonta= I am about (or, going) to hold.

Mi estas tenota= I am about (or, going) to be held.

Past Mi estis tenonta= I was about (or, going) to hold.

Mi estis tenota= I was about (or, going) to be held.

Future Mi estos tenonta= I shall be about to hold.

Mi estos tenota= I shall be about to be held.

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD.

Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.

Se mi estus tenanta= If I should be, or, were, holding.

Se mi estus tenata= If I should be or, were (being) held, or, if I be held.

Se mi estus teninta= If I should have held, or, if I had held.

Se mi estus tenita= If I should have been held, or, if I had been, or, were, held.

Se mi estus tenonta= If I should be, or, were, about to hold.

Se mi estus tenota= If I should be about to be held.

N.B.—In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "He would not have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so we say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin. If we use the simple form, Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin, it would be read:—"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the adverb antaŭe instead of the compound form, and say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin = He would not have struck me if you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (a) and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190–194).

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD.

Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.

(Por ke) mi estu tenanta= (In order that) I may be holding.