PART II (continued 2)

(Por ke) mi estu tenata= (In order that) I may be held.

(Por ke) mi estu teninta= (In order that) I may have held, or, might hold.

(Por ke) mi estu tenita= (In order that) I may have been held, or, might be held.

(Por ke) mi estu tenonta= (In order that) I may be about to hold.

(Por ke) mi estu tenota= (In order that) I may be about to be held.

(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202.)

170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.

(INDICATIVE MOOD).

Present (Simple).

Singular.Mi lavas min= I wash myself.

Vi lavas vin= You wash yourself.

Li, ŝi, ĝi, lavas sin= He, she, it washes himself, herself, itself.

Plural.Ni lavas nin= We wash ourselves.

Vi lavas vin= You, ye wash yourselves.

Ili lavas sin= They wash themselves.

Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ili ne estas lavantaj sin= They are not washing themselves.

Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin?= Have we washed ourselves? (lit., are we having washed ourselves?)

Mi estas lavonta min= I am about (or, going) to wash myself.

Past (Simple).

Ŝi ne lavis sin= She did not wash herself.

Ĉu ni lavis nin?= Did we wash ourselves?

Ĉu ili ne lavis sin?= Did they not wash themselves?

Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin?= When were you washing yourselves?

Ni estis lavintaj nin= We had washed ourselves.

Kiam li estis lavonta sin?= When was he about (or, going) to wash himself?

Future (Simple).

Ĉu ni lavos nin?= Shall we wash ourselves?

Li ne lavos sin= He will not wash himself.

Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ŝi estos lavanta sin= She will be washing herself.

Kiam li estos lavinta sin?= When will he have washed himself?

Mi estos lavonta min= I shall be about (or, going) to wash myself.

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).

Se li lavus sin= If he should wash himself.

Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...?= Would she wash herself, if...?

Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Se ni estus lavantaj nin kiam....= If we should be washing ourselves when....

Ĉu ili estus lavintaj sin, se....= Would they have washed themselves if...?

Se li estus lavonta sin kiam....= If he should be about to wash himself when....

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).

Singular. Mi lavu min= Let me wash myself.

Mi ne lavu min= Let me not wash myself.

Lavu vin= Wash yourself.

Ne lavu vin= Do not wash yourself.

Li lavu sin= Let him wash himself.

Li ne lavu sin= Let him not wash himself.

Plural.Ni lavu nin= Let us wash ourselves.

Ni ne lavu nin= Let us not wash ourselves.

Lavu vin= Wash yourselves.

Ne lavu vin= Do not wash yourselves.

Ili lavu sin= Let them wash themselves.

Ili ne lavu sin= Let them not wash themselves.

MOODS (Modoj).

171 (a). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English. They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three Present, ending in -AS, Past, in -IS, Future, in -OS; the Conditional (kondiĉa) mood in -US, the Imperative (ordona) mood in -U, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in -I; the three Active Participles:—Present, -ANT-, Past, -INT-, Future, -ONT-, and the three Passive Participles:—Present, -AT-, Past, -IT-, Future, -OT-. These twelve forms serve amply to represent all the various tenses and moods in English. However, to make the forms of the verb clearer to the student accustomed to the use of our indicative mood, we have called the tenses -AS, -IS, -OS, by that name.

(b). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear that a mood, under the name of "subjunctive," is not required (see remarks on ke, par. 198).

The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries "may" and "might" of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by the aid of such verbs as permesi, povi, or some word expressing possibility, as eble (see par. 237 (m)).

172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner, although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman. For instance, our Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = If they were rich, they would be happy. There is nothing of the past in the first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has not occurred, but which might occur.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).

173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding -I to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the auxiliary verb esti = to be with one of the active participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA of the verb for the compound tenses, as:—

Present (simple), Skribi= To write.

Present (compound), Esti skribanta= To be writing (lit., to be being-writing).

Past (compound), Esti skribinta= To have written (lit., to be having-written).

Future (compound), Esti skribonta= To be about to write (lit., to be being-about-to-write).

174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.

Present, Esti skribata = To be written (lit., to be being-written).

Past, Esti skribita = To have been written (lit., to be having-been-written).

Future, Esti skribota = To be about to be written.

175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the verb.

176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a preposition, whereas in English the preposition "to" nearly always precedes the verb.

Examples.—Mi volas lerni danci = I wish to learn to dance. Li devigis min kuri = He compelled me to run. Mi hontas esti laŭdata de li = I am ashamed to be praised by him. Mi devas peni atingi tiun rezultaton = I must try to attain that result.

177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive are:—(a). Por = To, or, in order to. (b). Anstataŭ = Instead of. (c). Antaŭ ol = Before. (d). Krom = Except, or, besides.

178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the word "to" we could substitute the words "in order to" or "for to"; or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).

Examples.—La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi ĝin.... = The best methods to (in order to) obtain it (or, for, or, of obtaining it).... Mi havas ion por diri al vi = I have something to (for to) say to you. Kion vi havas ankoraŭ por skribi? = What have you still to (for to) write? La tempo por legi = The time to read (for reading). Tio estas malfacila por kompreni = That is difficult (for to) understand.

179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense.

Examples.—Anstataŭ trinki = Instead of drinking. Anstataŭ agi honeste, li fariĝis ŝtelisto = Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief. Antaŭ ol manĝi = Before eating. Antaŭ ol foriri, ili surmetis la ĉapelojn = Before going away (before they went away), they put on their (the) hats. Ne ekzistas alia bono por la homo krom manĝi kaj trinki = There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred. II, 14; III, 12).

180. As in English, the infinitive is used:—

(a). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general.

Examples.—Erari estas home = To err is human. Bone pensi kaj bone agi sufiĉas por vivi bone kaj feliĉe = To think well and to act well suffice for living well and happily.

(b). As the complement to explain an idea.

Examples.—Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas = To live is to act; he who acts not, lives not. Li ĉesis kuri = He ceased to run (running, or, from running).

181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but, of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word, used as its predicate, takes the adverbial -E. The infinitive, when used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by substituting -O or -ADO for -I; the noun then takes the article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (a)).

Examples.—Scii estas utile = To know (or, to have knowledge) is useful; or, La scio estas utila = Knowledge is useful. Legi estas agrabla okupo, or, La legado estas agrabla okupo = Reading is an agreeable occupation.

182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a gerundial phrase in English.

Examples.—Promenadi estas sanige, or, La promenado estas saniga = Walking is healthy. Instrui infanojn diligentajn (or, La instruado al infanoj diligentaj) estas agrabla okupo = Teaching diligent children is an agreeable occupation.

183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix -EBLA is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (c)).

Examples.—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis (or, venante) = You did well to come (that you came). Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu = Tell him, then, to answer me. Estos pli saĝe, se ni ne piediros domen = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we shall not walk). Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol lia = It would be difficult to Ŝi ŝajnis (esti) forgesinta, ke ŝi estas maljunulino = She seemed to have forgotten that she was (is) an old woman.

184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the participle.

Examples.—Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti = I shall take my skates and go skating. Mi ĉesos kanti, se vi farados tiom de bruo = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise. Mi kredis vidi ŝipon = I thought I saw a ship.

185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive (present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed, as:—

La deziro morti = The desire of dying (to die). La ĝojo esti venkinta = The joy of having conquered. Tro laca marŝi = Too tired for walking. Lerta paroli = Clever in speaking. Bona por manĝi = Good for eating.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

186. As stated in par. 171 (a), the indicative is not an Esperanto mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto verbs.

The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations, viz., -AS for the Present, -IS for the Past, and -OS for the Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb esti = to be, is used with one of the three Active participles of the verb, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA.

187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one of the Passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.

188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true, either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is therefore the mood of certainty.

Examples.—La patro venas = Father comes, or, is coming. Patrino venis = Mother came, has come, or, did come. Kiam mia frato venos, ni foriros = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go away. Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin = If he is ill, I excuse him. Li estis juste rekompencita = He had been justly rewarded. Oni devas pardoni al li = One must pardon him. Li estis amata de ĉiuj = He was (being) loved by all. Mi estas vestita du horojn = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am having-been-dressed two hours).

189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain.

Examples.—Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiaŭ = I hope that he will come to-day. Ŝi ne estas certa, ĉu Petro sukcesis = She is not sure whether Peter succeeded (or, has succeeded). Mi ne dubas, ke li venos = I do not doubt that he will come. Mi timas, ke la respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta = I fear that the answer will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. Mi timas, ke li venos, kaj eble difektos la ĝardenon = I fear that he will come, and possibly (perhaps) damage (or, and may damage) the garden. Mi ne dubas, ke ŝi estos vestita kiam mi alvenos = I do not doubt that she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. Ĉu vi opinias, ke li estas juste rekompencita? = Do you think that he has been justly rewarded?

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondiĉa Modo).

190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding -US to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by ESTUS and one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA for the compound forms. These compound forms are not often used.

191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by ESTUS and one of the participles -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.

192. It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past), and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have happened if something else actually occurred. In English the pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto.

193. After the conjunction "if," expressing a supposition, both the chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in Esperanto, when the act is conditional.

Examples.—Se li estus riĉa, li havus multajn amikojn = If he were rich, he would have many friends. Se vi volus, vi estus feliĉa = If you wished, you would be happy. Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus defendintaj vin = If we had been (should have been) warned, we should have defended you. Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne trovus lin = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his (the) mother would not find him.

193. (a). Note the various ways in which estus may be translated with the present and past passive participles in the following two sentences:—

(1). Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian edzinon hejme.

(2). Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian edzinon hejme.

(1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to leave his wife at home.

(2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been compelled to leave his wife at home.

194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative, if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies some unexpressed condition.

Example.—Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiaŭ vespere = I should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the condition might be, "if you possibly can do it" (see par. 202 as to estu, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).

THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo).

195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is formed by adding -U to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, or -ONTA for the compound forms; but the latter are very rarely used.

196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the participles, -ATA, -ITA, or -OTA.

197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo), entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness (konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention (intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider application than what is usually understood by the "Imperative" mood, for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood.

198. The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that; but it must be borne in mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more frequently, by the Infinitive.

199. In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative.

Examples.—Venu tien ĉi = Come here. Donu al mi tiun libron = Give me that book. Li venu tien ĉi tuj = Let him come here at once. Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ = Let us go to Do ne maltrankviligu vin (or, Vi do ne maltrankviliĝu) pri la afero = Do not then trouble yourself about the matter. Ordonu, ke li venu = Order him to come (that he come). Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru = Tell her to go away (that she go away). Atentu, ke vi ne falu = Take care not to fall (or, lest you fall). Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni = Let us not suffer him in that way to oppose us (or, Let us not tolerate that he oppose us in that manner). Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti = Let us take care that he can damage nothing. Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta = Tell him that I desire him to be silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (m).

200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative, implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)).

Examples.—Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron = I ordered him to give me the book. Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon = I beg you to send me the dog. Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la fenestron = He did not require me to shut the window. Mi volas, ke vi skribu al via frato = I wish you to write to your brother. Estas necese, ke ni tien iru = It is necessary for us to go thither. Vi meritas, ke oni pendigu vin = You deserve to be hanged (that they hang you). Mi bezonas, ke li venu = I want him to come (I have need that he come). Mi ne volis, ke li venu = I did not wish him to come (that he should come). Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron = She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the letter"). Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon = I invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. Ili skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ = They wrote to me not to come to-day (They wrote that I should not come to-day, or, They wrote "do not come to-day").

201. The expression por ke = in order that, to the end that, so that, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this expression implies "order."

Examples.—Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ĉi ŝuldon, estas necese, ke vi kunportu sufiĉe grandan sumon da mono = In Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun ekstrema energio = In order to be elected (that you may be elected), you need to fight with extreme energy. Por ke oni rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi tion meritu = In order that they may reward you, it is fitting that you merit it. Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta pri mi = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that you may be satisfied with me). Respondu al mi antaŭ morgaŭ, por ke mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li = Answer me before to-morrow, so that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. Mi volas, ke li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon = I wish that he may be ordered to await my arrival, or, I wish him to be ordered to await my arrival.

201 (a). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give exactitude to an expression.

Examples.—Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je la dua horo morgaŭ posttagmeze = I desire that he be awaiting me in the station at 2 o’clock to-morrow afternoon. Estas necese, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo = It is necessary that he have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o’clock. Mi ne volas, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu finonta ĝin = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.

202. From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost always preceded by the conjunction ke = that, and that the English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the actor of the first verb is also the actor of the second.

Examples.—Mi volas lin vidi morgaŭ = I wish to see him to-morrow. La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon = The schoolmaster desired to reward the boy. Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras fini la falĉadon hodiaŭ vespere = We shall need to work hard if we wish to finish the mowing this evening.

THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj).

There are three forms of the participle, viz.:—The adjectival in -A, the adverbial in -E, and the substantival in -O.

203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA to the root of the verb, as:—

Present, Skribanta = Writing (lit., being writing).

Past, Skribinta = Having written.

Future, Skribonta = About (going) to write.

204. In the passive voice by adding -ATA, -ITA, -OTA, as:—

Present, Skribata = Being written.

Past, Skribita = Written, or, having been written.

Future, Skribota = About (or, going) to be written.

205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti = to be, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound tenses of the active voice.

206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the moods and tenses in the passive voice.

207. Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.

Examples. Ni estas vidintaj la viron = We have seen the man. Ŝi vidis la virojn legantajn = She saw the men who were reading (the reading men). Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ĉiutage sur la stratoj = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets.

208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as nouns and adverbs, by substituting -O for -A for a noun, and -E for -A for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice govern the accusative.

209. Examples in the active voice.

(a). Participial nouns, as:—La leganto = The reader (person now reading). La leginto = The reader (person who has been reading). La legonto = The reader (person about to read).

Examples.—La leganto havas bonan voĉon, sed la leginto havis pli bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan voĉon el ĉiuj = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous) reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader will have the best voice of all. Ĉi tiu (or, tiu ĉi) ideo okupis la grandan pensanton ĝis la fino de lia vivo = This idea occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life.

(b). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (d)).

Examples.—La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda lito = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. Ŝi paliĝis kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta = She grew pale and appeared like a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might be used when the translation in English would be word for word the same, as:—La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Ŝi paliĝis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino. This shows the wonderful flexibility of Esperanto!

(c). Participial adverbs are invariable.

Examples.—Legante ni lernas = In reading we learn. Fininte sian laboron, li iris hejmen = Having finished his work, he went home. Aĉetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri ŝilingojn = Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him) three shillings.

210. Examples in the passive voice.

(a). Participial nouns, as:—La aludato = The person being spoken of, or, the person in question. La aludito = The aforesaid (person). La aludoto = The person about to be spoken of.

Examples.—La pendigotino nun aperis sur la eŝafodo = The woman about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. La batito tute meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li = The beaten one quite deserved the punishment that the beater gave him.

(b). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo = The house under construction. La konstruita domo = The (actually) constructed house. La konstruota domo = The house (about) to be constructed. Konstruota does not show obligation to construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and that it will be eventually built.

Examples.—Li venis al mi tute ne atendite = He came to me quite unexpectedly. Ne estas atendate ke li venos = It is not expected (being expected) that he will come. La domo estas vendota morgaŭ = The house is to be sold to-morrow.

N.B.—Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).

211. Relation of the participle to the subject.

(a). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time, occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as its use would be against the spirit of the language.

Examples.—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = (While) walking in the street, I fell. Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis = Having found an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (a)).

(b). If, however, the participle does not relate to the subject of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make the participial

For instance, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we crossed the bridge," but we cannot translate this literally into Esperanto, because "having run away" does not relate to those who crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say La malamiko forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton. So we must change the construction, thus:—"Having put to flight (made to run away) the enemy, we crossed the bridge" = Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni transiris la ponton. Or, another construction would be:—"After the enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = Post kiam la malamiko forkuris, ni transiris la ponton. In the sentence, "Swimming in the lake, the man saw a large swan," it is not clear whether the man or the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the sentence, Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon, the participle, naĝante, relates to the man, the subject of vidis. If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with cignon, and say, Naĝantan sur la lago, etc. But it would be better to alter the order, thus: La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu naĝis) sur la lago.

212. Participial expressions with prepositions.

(a). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.

Examples.—Li alvenis, ne avertinte min (or, sen averto al mi) = He arrived without (not) having warned me. Mi ne povos tion ĉi fari, ne estante subtenata (or, ne subtenate, or, sen subteno) = I shall not be able to do this without being supported. Ni iru al la danĝero, ne timante la morton (or, sen timo pri la morto) = Let us go to the danger without fearing death.

(b). For can be rendered by ke = that (or, pro tio, ke or, tial, ke) and the indicative.

Examples.—Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min = I am thankful to you for having (that you) warned me. Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel faras = Pardon me for so doing. Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel faris = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).

(c). Of, by por and the infinitive.

Example.—Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto = I reflected on a means of turning him from his project.

(d). After, by an adverbial past participle.

Example.—"Kion ni faros?" li diris, sidinte momenton silente = "What shall we do?" he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment in silence.

(e). Before, by antaŭ ol and the infinitive.

Example.—Li ludis antaŭ ol labori = He played before working.

213. The participle for the adjective.

(a). Be careful not to use the participle terminations -ANTA, -INTA for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some English words ending in "ing" and "ed" may be used either as participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes action, whilst the adjective denotes quality, state, etc.

(b). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in accordance with the sense.

Examples..—Laboranta and labora = Working. Ĉarmanta and ĉarma = Charming. Interesanta and interesa = Interesting. Sufokanta and sufoka = Suffocating. Kontentigita and kontenta = Satisfied; pleased, content.

(c). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:—

Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo! = Look at that man, working in the field! Rigardu tiun homon laboran (better, tiun laboriston) sur la kampo! = Look at that working-man in the field! In the first sentence, laborantan, the participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, laboran, the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. Ŝi estas ĉarmanta nin per sia = She is charming us with her singing. Ŝi estas ĉarma, kiam ŝi kantas = She is charming when she sings. It would be better, instead of using the participle ĉarmanta, to say, Ŝi ĉarmas nin per sia kantado. Mi ne estas kontentigita per liaj respondoj = I have not been satisfied with his replies. Mi ne estas kontenta je li = I am not pleased with him.

THE TENSES (La Tempoj).

The Tenses, Active Voice.

214. The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound. The simple tenses are formed by adding -AS, -IS or -OS to the root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary verb esti = to be, and one of the participles of the verb which must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in exactly the same way as all other verbs.

215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and Future.

216. Duration of action of the verb.—(a). In English, to express the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive verb is used after the verb "to be" in all the moods and tenses—as "I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving"; imperative, "Be thou loving." If great exactness as regards time be necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas (estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.

(a). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix -AD- may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix -AD-, par. 270 (1)).

Examples.—Ŝi kantadas la tutan tagon = She keeps on singing the whole day. La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo = The birds were (kept on) flying from tree to tree.

(b). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by adding the prefix EK-.

Examples.—Ŝi ekkantis = She began to sing. La lumo brilis = The light shone. La lumo ekbrilis = The light flashed (see remarks on prefix EK-, par. 288).

217. Emphatic form of verb.—In English this form consists of the verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is confined to the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the imperative mood of the active voice, as:—"I do love," "He does love," "I did love," "Do love." This form in Esperanto can be represented by the adverb ja = indeed, or by suitable adverbs, such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.

Examples.—Mi ja lin amas = I do love him. Mi tiel multe amis ŝin = I did so love her.

The Present.

218. The Present tense (simple) ends in -AS. It is used to express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what happens in all time, or what is understood to be present.

Examples.—Mi kuras = I run, or am running. La vero ĉiam venkas = Truth always conquers. La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke .... = The author says in his book that.... Kiun vi vidas? = Whom do you see? Mi vidas neniun = I see nobody. Mi foriras, ĉar mia patro min atendas = I am going away, for my father awaits (or expects) me. Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue = I always get up (rise) very early. Nenion oni faras sen peno = One does nothing without effort.

219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.—In Esperanto, as in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future, to give vividness to an expression.

Examples.—Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi aŭdas post mi voĉon = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a voice. Hodiaŭ plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgaŭ la akiro de la tombo = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey (acquirement) of the tomb.

220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the time in question.

Example.—Ĉiuj, kiuj ŝin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la patrinon = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the) mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to them, hence ili vidas.

221. Present in place of the Past.—If it is a question of the truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of, English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present is always employed.

Examples.—Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn = We learnt that you were (are) in London for eight days. Ni kredis, ke vi estas kuracisto = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. Li instruis nin, he ĉiam oni devas esti indulga = He taught us that one must always be forbearing (merciful).

222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169).

Examples.—Li estas vojaĝanta = He is travelling. The simple form, Li vojaĝas, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., li nun vojaĝas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laŭte = When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly (see par. 216 (a)). Esti skribanta = To be writing.

The Past.

223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -IS. It expresses something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity.

Examples.—Mi skribis = I wrote, I was writing, or, I have written. Li venis antaŭ du horoj = He came two hours ago. Pluvis hieraŭ = It rained yesterday. Se li estis malsana, li ne povis veni = If he was ill, he could not come. Ĉu vi lin vidis? = Did you see (or, have you seen) him? Li foriris, antaŭ ol mi alvenis = He had left before I arrived. Mi promenis hieraŭ, kaj renkontis vian amikon = I took a walk (or, I was walking, better promenadis) yesterday, and met your friend.

224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (a)).

Examples.—Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen = When he had finished his work, he went home. Mi estis skribanta leteron, kiam okazis tertremo = I was writing a letter when an earthquake took place. Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis = They mutually agreed, and were about to enter the country, but something happened which prevented them.

225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going to happen, the words ĵus = just, or tuj = immediately, are often used respectively.

Examples.—Mi ĵus vidis tre belan pentraĵon = I have just seen a very beautiful picture. Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis = We were on the point of (or, just) going out when it began to rain.

226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle (-INTA) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in -IS sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed.

Examples.—Kiam ŝi estis rakontinta ĉion, kio okazis, ŝi ekploris = When she had related everything that happened, she began to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that had happened," but "ĉion, kio estis okazinta" is unnecessary in Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "okazis." Li ne estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li "Silentu!" = He had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, "Be silent!"

226 (a). The adverb antaŭe = beforehand (or jam, or jam antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses, or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood, instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).

Examples.—Kiam vi eniris en la ĉambron, la gastoj jam antaŭe foriris (or, estis foririntaj) = When you entered the room, the guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). Kiam vi venos al mi, mi jam antaŭe finos (or, estos fininta) la laboron = When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work. Li ne aĉetus la libron, se vi antaŭe ne donus (or, estus doninta) al li la monon = He would not have bought the book unless you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give him the money).

The Future.

227. The Future (simple) ends in -OS. The future (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA, but the compound form should be used only when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking place previous to that of the principal action.

228. The future denotes an action yet to take place.

Examples.—La patro venos post du tagoj = Father will come in two days. Ĉu vi pruntos al mi la libron? = Will you lend me the book? Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive? Li venos la lundon proksiman = He will come next Monday.

229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the adverbs tuj = immediately, baldaŭ = soon, tre baldaŭ = very soon.

Examples.—Li tuj alvenos = He will arrive immediately. Li tre baldaŭ estos tie ĉi = He will very soon be here.

230. The future compound with the present participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be going on at some particular time in the future.

Example.—Je la deka morgaŭ matene mi estos veturanta Parizon = At 10 o’clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris.

231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be finished at some particular time in the future (see par. 226 (a)).

Example.—Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgaŭ vespere = I shall have finished my work at six o’clock to-morrow evening.

232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.—Be careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive for the future.

Examples.—Se pluvos, li ne venos = If it rains, he will not come. Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo? = What will you do when I am in the grave? Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos = I shall write the letter whilst you are Ŝi skribis al ni, ke ŝi estos tie ĉi morgaŭ = She wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what? not "that she would," but "that she will," so the future is the correct tense).

The Tenses, Passive Voice.

233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the active participles, J is added to the three persons of the plural in all the tenses.

234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it represents the two English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; we must, therefore, translate it accordingly.

235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For instance, the participles of skribi = to write used alone mean—

Present, Skribata = Written, or, being written (action going on).

Past, Skribita = Written, or, been written (lit., having been written) (action completed).

Future, Skribota = About to be, or, going to be, written (action about to occur).

236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the time of the action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following examples:—

La pordego estas fermata, ĉar la ludo estas ludota = The gate is being shut, for the game is about to be played.

La pordego estas fermita, ĉar la ludo estas ludata = The gate is (or, has been) shut, for the game is being played.

La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata = The gate was (or, had been) shut whilst the game was being played.

Kiam estos pendigata la homo? = When will the man be (being) hanged?

Li estis pendigota morgaŭ, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata ĝis mardo = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow, but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday.

Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota? = And when he is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note that after the interrogative kiam the English present tense is often future in Esperanto, as:—Kiam li venos? When is he coming? or, When will he come?

Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kaĝon, sed kiam la pordeto de la kaĝo estis malfermata, ĝi forflugis = A sparrow was (or, had been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was being opened it flew away.

N.B.—In the above sentence we see that the sparrow was (estis) first in the state of having been caught (kaptita); then in the state of having been put (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door was in the state of being opened (malfermata), and that during this action the bird flew away (forflugis).

(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)

(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)

THE USE OF CERTAIN VERBS.

Devi.

237 (a). Devi = to be obliged to, to have to, means to be physically or morally obliged to do something, as:—Vi devas fari tion = You must (have to, are to) do that. Vi ne devas fari tion = You are not obliged to do that. If, however, the action is not immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:—Vi devos fari tion morgaŭ = You must (will have to) do that to-morrow. In its Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an Vi devus ne fari tion = You ought not to (should not) do that. Here devus is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari tion would mean You must not (are not to) do that (see par. 194, also pars. 237 (o), (p), on "should," "must," "ought," and par. 59 (a)).

Examples.—Mi devas vin forlasi, ĉar oni atendas min = I must (have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. Ĉu mi devas fari tion tuj? = Must I (am I to) do that at once? Ĉu mi devos veni morgaŭ = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? Mi devis skribi leteron = I had (have had) to write a letter. Li devis min vidi hodiaŭ, sed li ne povas veni = He was to see me to-day, but he cannot come. Ili devis vidi min hieraŭ, sed ili ne povis veni = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come. Li estis kolera hieraŭ, ĉar li devis iri lernejon = He was angry yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. Sed por tio ĉi mi devos atendi iom da tempo = But for this I shall have to (I must) wait some time. Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li = If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. Se mi lin vidus, mi estus devinta paroli kun li = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have been obliged (have had) to speak to him. La celo de ĉiu estas, aŭ devus esti, bonfaradi = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should) be, to do good. Li devus kolekti kaj aranĝi siajn faktojn = He ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. Kiam vi estas tie, vi devus vidi la kastelon = When you are there, you ought to see the castle. Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi (or, vi devus esti vidinta) la kastelon = When you were there, you ought to have seen the castle. Mi devus tute ne aŭskulti ŝin = I ought not to listen to her at all.

From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear.

Present.

Vi devas (paroli) = You must, have to, are to (speak).

Past.

Mi devis (paroli) = I had to (speak); or, I was to (speak, or, have spoken).

Mi estas devinta (paroli) = I have been obliged, or, I have had to (speak).

Mi estis devinta (paroli) = I had been obliged to (speak).

Future.

Mi devos (paroli) = I shall have to, I am to, I must (speak).

Conditional.

Mi devus (paroli), se ... = I should have to, or, be obliged to (speak), if ...

Mi estus devinta (paroli), se ... = I should have had to, or, have been obliged to (speak), if ...

Conditional (softened sense).

Vi devus (paroli) = You ought to, or, you should (speak, or, have spoken).

Vi devus (esti parolinta) = You ought to have, or, you should have (spoken).

N.B.—Do not use devi for "were to," when no obligation is implied. Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:—Se ili venus, mi vidus ilin = If (supposing) they were to come (if they came), I would see them. Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io malhelpis ilin = They were to (have) come last week, but something prevented them.

Also do not use devi for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words express not "obligation," but "purpose" or "intention." For instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" may mean either (1) "Do you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or, (2) "Have you to (Must you) speak?" So we translate (1) Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos) ĉe la kunveno? or, (2) Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno? In such a phrase as "You are to do that" the obligation is clear, so we say Vi devas tion fari.

Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as "The man must be a fool," which is La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo, not, devas esti ...

Kuŝi.

237 (b). Kuŝi = to lie, to be situated, is sometimes used to denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It has, therefore, also the meaning of "to be."

Examples.—La krajono kuŝas sur la libro = The pencil lies (is) on the book. La libroj kuŝas sur la breto = The books are (lie) on the shelf.

Koni and Scii.

237 (c). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French verbs connaître and savoir.

Koni means to know, to be acquainted with, to know a person, or, thing.

Examples.—Mi konas vian fraton = I know your brother. Li konas la hundon, sed li ne konas ĝian posedanton = He knows the dog, but he does not know its owner.

N.B.—It is never followed by the conjunction KE; Mi konas, ke, is wrong. Mi scias, ke vi ... = I know that you ...

Scii means to know, to be aware of, to know something is or was happening, etc.

N.B.—It is never used of persons.

Examples.—Mi scias, ke li estas prava = I know that he is right. Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hieraŭ = I knew he was there yesterday. Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin = I did not know that you knew him. Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias ĝin = I know (recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know it.

Lasi.

237 (d). Lasi, like the English verb "to leave," has various meanings.

(1). To let remain, as:—Li lasis la libron sur la tablo = He left the book on the table.

(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:—Li lasis sian edzinon en la domo = He left his wife in the house. Lasu vian bastonon tie ĉi = Leave your stick here.

(3). To lose restraint upon something, as:—Li lasis fali la libron = He let the book fall.

(4). To leave in a certain state, as:—Li lasis min en la plej granda embaraso = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. Li lasis la domon tre malpura = He left the house very dirty.

(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:—La juĝisto lasis la infanojn al la patro = The judge left the children to the father.

(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:—Kiam li mortis, li lasis (or, postlasis) grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj = When testamenti).

(7). Lasi, followed by the preposition en, means to "leave in," or to "let into," according as the complement is in the nominative or accusative, e.g.:—Mi lasis la hundon en la domo = I left the dog in the house. Mi lasis la hundon en la domon = I let the dog into the house.

(8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used in the sense to "leave off," "cease," as:—Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj petis de ili panon = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked them for bread.

(9). Lasi, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or, "allow," as:—Lasu al mi ĝin fari = Let me do it, or, Leave it to me to do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense "allow to be," as:—Neniu volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas = No one wished to let it be noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some national languages. It can be explained as an omission of onin or some other pronoun, thus:—Neniu volis lasi onin (nin) rimarki, ke ... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that ...

(10). Allasi = to admit (own the truth), as:—Li allasis, ke li estas malprava = He admitted he was (is) wrong.

(11). Delasi = to allow to leave, as:—Li delasis lin de la domo = He let him leave the house.

(12). Enlasi (like lasi en) = to let go in, as:—Enlasu min! = Let me in!

(13). Forlasi = to abandon, as:—Li forlasis sian postenon = He abandoned his post.

(14). Preterlasi = to let pass, as:—Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the opportunity pass, or, He missed the opportunity. Li ne povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis = He could not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.

(15). Tralasi = to allow to pass through, as:—Li tralasis la homon tra la pordo = He let the man pass through the door. Kiam ŝi atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis = When she reached the gate, they let her through.

Pesi and Pezi.

237 (e). Pesi = to weigh, to examine by balance (transitive).

Pezi = to weigh, to have weight (intransitive).

Peso = the weighing, the act of weighing.

Pezo = the weight, or, heaviness of a thing.

Pesilo = the scales, or, the weighing machine.

Pezilo = a (metal) weight.

From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both signify "weight," and care must be taken to use the words in their transitive or intransitive sense.

Examples. Tiuj ĉi tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj = These tables are a great weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty pounds. Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke ĝi pezas almenaŭ naŭdek funtojn; metu ĝin sur la pesilon, alportu la pezilojn, pesu ĝin, kaj diru al mi la ĝustan pezon = That chest is very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.

Povi.

237 (f). Povi = to be able. Beginners sometimes find a difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, "How can ‘can’ be both present and future, or ‘could’ both past and conditional?" The following examples giving translations of povi in its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.

Present, Mi povas = I am able to, I can.

Past, Mi povis = I have been (or, was) able to, I could.

Future, Mi povos = I shall be able to, I can.

Future, Ni estos povintaj = We shall have been able to.

Conditional, Mi povus = I should (or, would) be able to, or, I could, or, I might.

Conditional, Li estus povinta = He would have been able to, or, He could have.

Examples.—Ĉu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas = Are you able to (can you) do that? Yes, I can. Mi ne povas = I cannot see the tree which you point out. Mi povis fari tion, kion vi volis = I was (have been) able to do what you wished. Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis = I was not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you required. Mi povos tion fari morgaŭ = I shall be able to (I can) do that to-morrow. Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi = If you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could see you. Mi povus tion fari morgaŭ, se.... = I could (should be able to) do that to-morrow if.... Ĉu li estos povinta plenumi la laboraĵon, kiam vi lin vidos morgaŭ? = Will he have been able to complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? Se vi venus hieraŭ, mi estus povinta vin vidi = If you had come yesterday, I could have seen you. Li povus veni, se li volus = He might (would be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (l), (m)).

Sidi.

237 (g). Sidi = to sit, to be sitting. Sidi has sometimes the signification "to be" in some defined place.

Examples.—En la ĉambro sidis nur kelke da homoj = In the room were (sat) only a few (some) men. La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo = The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. En la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle.

Sin trovi.

237 (h). Sin trovi = to find oneself. This expression (or, troviĝi = to be found, to find oneself, to be, or, to be situated) is often used for the English verb "to be."

Examples.—Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj = On the tree were (found themselves) many birds. Super la tero troviĝas aero = Over the earth is air.

Ĉesi, Daŭri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci.[17]

237 (i). In English the following and many other verbs are used in both a transitive and intransitive sense:—to stop, to continue, to pass, to finish, to commence. In Esperanto ĉesi, daŭri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we must add IGI. On the other hand, fini and komenci are transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add IĜI (par. 280).

Transitive.Intransitive.

Ĉesigu tiun bruon = Cease (stop) that noise. La pluvo ĉesis fali = The rain ceased to fall (stopped).

Li daŭrigis sian rakonton = He continued his story. La ventego daŭris unu horon = The storm lasted an hour.

Li pasigis du horojn en la budo = He passed two hours in the booth. La tempo pasas rapide = Time passes rapidly.

Li finis sian laboron = He finished his work. La monato finiĝos morgaŭ = The month will finish to-morrow.

Ŝi komencos sian vojaĝon morgaŭ = She will commence her journey tomorrow. La semajno komenciĝis hieraŭ = The week commenced yesterday.

Footnote:

Transitive Verbs (can be used in the passive, and with -ebla, -inda; may be used intransitively with -iĝ-):—

Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks, izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt, renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ, ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.

Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):—

Bol, brul, ĉes, daŭr, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit, halt, kresk, krev, kuŝ, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor, ŝpruc, ŝrump, ŝvel, velk.

Do, Did.

237 (j). The English verb "to do" is represented as follows:—

(1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc., it is represented by fari or agi.

Examples.—Ne faru tion = Don’t do that. Batante la knabon, li faris (or, agis) malprave = He did wrong in beating the boy. La ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis = The chambermaid did what I ordered.

(2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).

Examples.—Ĉu vi pensas, ke li venos? = Do you think that he will come? Ĉu vi lin vidis hieraŭ? = Did you see him yesterday? Mi ne konas lin = I do not know him.

(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja = indeed, in fact, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par. 217).

Example.—Mi ja esperas, ke li venos = I do hope he will come.

(4). As an inquiry after health.

Example.—Kiel vi fartas? or, Kia estas via sano? or, Kiel vi statas? = How do you do? or, How are you?

(5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi. In the sense of "to suffice" by sufiĉi.

Examples.—Li friponis min = He did (cheated) me. Tio sufiĉos = That will do.

(6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrases.

Examples:—

To do away with (abolish) = neniigi, (destroy) = detrui.

To do business = komerci, fari negocon kun.

To do for, or away with (murder, kill) = mortigi.

To do into (translate) = traduki.

To do well (prosper) = prosperi.

To do up (arrange) = aranĝi, (tie up) = kunligi, (repair) = ripari.

To do with (make use of) = fari uzon el.

To do without (dispense with) = forlasi, ne bezoni.

Get.

237 (k). The English verb to "get" must be translated in accordance with its numerous meanings. For instance:—

(1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," may be rendered by iĝi = to become, or the suffix -IĜ-.

Examples.—Edziĝi = To get married (man). Edziniĝi = To get married (woman). Leviĝi = To get up. Alproksimiĝi = To get near. Laciĝi = To get tired. Tediĝi = To get bored. Ĉu vi pretiĝas = Are you getting ready? Mi malsatiĝas = I am getting hungry. Mi kutimiĝas je tio = I am getting accustomed (used) to that. Mallumiĝas (or, Iĝas mallume) = It is getting dark. La tagoj pli mallongiĝas = The days are getting shorter. La infanoj kuŝiĝis = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). La vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas = The dinner is getting cold; but malvarmumi = to get (or catch) a cold.

(2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by igi = to make, or the suffix -IG- added to a verb.

Examples.—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Get her to come to our dance. Mi presigos la libron baldaŭ = I shall get the book printed soon.

(3). To "get," in the sense of to "have got," or to "possess," is not translated.

Examples.—Mi havas (or, posedas) du ĉevalojn = I have got two horses. Kion vi havas? = What have you got?

(4). To "get," in the sense of to "procure," "fetch," is rendered by havigi, or, venigi.

Examples.—Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos = I shall get as much as I can. Venigu al mi veturilon = Get me a carriage. Venigu la kuraciston = Send for (get) the doctor.

(5). "Get" is translated in various other ways according to its meaning. Note the following examples:—

Alveni en = To get to, to arrive at.

Alkonduku mian ĉevalon = Get my horse.

Alportu al mi la mustardon = Get me the mustard.

Mi ricevis vian leteron = I got your letter.

(6). To "get," followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrase.

Examples:—

To get across = transiri.

To get along, forward, on = antaŭeniri.

To get at (attain, reach) = atingi.

To get back (something lent) = rericevi, (to a place) = reveni.

To get down = deiri, malsupreniri.

To get off (be acquitted) = senkulpiĝi, (escape) = forkuri, (a horse or coach) = deiri.

To get dirty = malpuriĝi.

To get on (a horse or coach) = supreniri, (in learning) = progresadi, (in business) = prosperi.

To get on with (continue) = daŭrigi.

To get out (of doors) = eliri, (publish) = eldoni, or, elirigi.

To get over (across) = transiri, (surmount) = venki.

To get ready = pretigi (trans.), pretiĝi (intrans.).

To get round (coax, allure) = logi, allogi, (persuade) = konvinki.

To get up (rise) = leviĝi, (ascend) = supreniri.

Can and Could.

237 (l). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = to be able, except when "can" has the permissive sense of "may" (see par. 237 (m) (3)).

Examples.—Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe = I cannot see him at present. Li ne povis iri hieraŭ = He could not go yesterday. Li povus iri hodiaŭ, se li volus = He could (would be able to) go to day, if he would.

For other examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (f).

May and Might.

237 (m). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4) possibility, (5) power or ability.

(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the Esperanto Imperative mood.

Examples.—Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu ĝustatempe = He hastens that he may arrive in time. Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu la vagonaron = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.

(2). When they express "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also used.

Examples.—Vi estu feliĉa! = May you be happy! Via deziro efektiviĝu! = May your wish be realized! Ĉielo vin benu! = May Heaven bless you! Nenio difektu vian feliĉon! = May nothing mar your happiness! Ĉia beno estu via! = May every blessing be yours!

In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and English, some such words as mi deziras, ke ... = I wish that..., being omitted (par. 66 (c)). Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora deziro! = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! Ke li vivu, estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo! = That he might live, was my daily prayer! Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas! = May I die, if I am lying at all!

(3). When they express "permission," some word denoting this must be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing permission being omitted (par. 58 (a)). The English verb "can" is sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of "may"; in that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = to be able.

Examples.—Ĉu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi? = May (can) I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) Ĉu oni permesas, (or, ĉu estas permesate), ke mi vidu la kastelon? = May (can) I see the castle? Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi volas, or, Vi faru tion, se vi volas = You may (I permit that you) do that, if you like. Se mi estus permesita tion diri (or, se estus permesite, or, se oni permesus, ke mi tion diru) = If I might (were permitted to) say so (that).

The above questions may be shortened thus:—Ĉu mi parolu kun vi? Ĉu mi vidu la kastelon? in this sense. The ellipsis understood here might, however, equally well be Ĉu (vi volas, ĉu necesas, ĉu estas bone, ke) mi parolu? vidu la kastelon? = Shall I (Am I to) speak (see the castle)?

(4). When they express "possibility," some word showing that the action is more or less a matter of eble = possibly, kredeble = probably, etc.

Examples.—Eble li venos = He may come, or, Maybe (possibly) he will come. Eble li tranĉos la fingron, se vi donos al li tranĉilon = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will) give him a knife. Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus = He might (possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. Se vi tien irus, eble (kredeble) vi lin vidus = If you went (were to go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him.

Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the adverb used. "May" rendered by eble throws greater doubt on the contingency than kredeble.

(5). When they express "power," or "ability," povi = to be able can be used.

Examples.—La malsano povas konduki el komplikaĵoj = The illness may lead to complications. Li povus tion fari, se li antaŭe volus (or, estus volinta) ĝin fari = He might (could) have done that, if he had wished to do it.

Shall and Will.

237 (n). These verbs are used in English to denote:—

(1). Futurity.

(2). Determination or will.

As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student, not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good English Grammar.

(1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, "shall," in direct speech, is generally used for the first person, and "will" for the second and third persons, as "I, or we, shall go," "He, you, or they will go," except in interrogation, when "shall" is generally used for the second person, as "Shall you go?" But in indirect speech "shall" is used for all three persons, as, "He says he shall come." "You say you shall write." In any of these cases they are translated by the future in -os.

(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but determination on the part of the speaker, then, in direct speech, "will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and third persons, as, "I will do it, you cannot stop me." "You shall not kill that bird." "Thou shalt not steal." But in indirect speech "will" is used for all the persons, as, "He says he will go" (it is his determination to go). "You say you will try it" (you are determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing "will" or "determination."

N.B.—In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above senses "shall" or "will" is used, unless the context makes it clear; so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to emphasize them strongly when they mean "determination." Note carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes.

Examples.—(1). Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros = I shall come back when they go away. (2). Mi intencas ĝin fari, ĉu vi konsentos, aŭ ne = I will (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). Vi mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos = You will kill that bird if you shoot straight. (2). Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon = You shall not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). Mi scias, ke vi ĝin faros = I know that you will do it. (2). Mi scias, ke vi povas ĝin fari, se vi volos = I know you can do it if you will.

Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following sentences:—I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early. If "shall" be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged; therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the sentence, as in English, by the future, as:—(1). Mi ne vidos vin morgaŭ, se vi ne (or, krom se vi) venos frue. But if "will" be used, determination on the part of the speaker will not (won’t). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination, and say (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi ne intencas) vin vidi morgaŭ, krom se vi venos frue = I will not (I do not intend to) see you to-morrow unless you come early. (1). Mi ne mortos sola = I shall not die alone. (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi certe ne intencas) morti sola = I will not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1). Ĉu vi estos (or, ĉeestos) tie ĉi morgaŭ? = Will you be here to-morrow? (1). Jes, mi estos = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of "shall." (1). Li diras, ke li venos, sed (1) ĉu li venos? or, (2) ĉu li volos? = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed, viz.:—(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?

The phrase "Shall I do that?" can be translated by the future, Ĉu mi tion faros? = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, Ĉu estos plej bone tion fari = Is it best to do that? or, Ĉu estos profite, saĝe, k.c. = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or, Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru? = Will it be proper (right) to do that? or, Ĉu vi volas (or, deziras), ke mi tion faru, or, Ĉu mi faru tion? = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). Ĉu vi iros? = Shall you go? (2). Ĉu vi volas iri? = Will you go? Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru? or, Ĉu mi iru? = Shall I go? Am I to go? (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)). "Will I go" is bad English, and untranslatable!

Should and Would.

237 (o). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and "will" when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:—

(1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or merely supposed (par. 192), as "I should do it if I knew how."

(2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (a)) as "He should not do that."

(3). Determination, as "Nothing could influence him, he would do it."

(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as "Would you object to do that?"

(5). The future in indirect speech (par. 232), as "She said she would (will) come."

(6). Would, when it signifies custom or habit, is sometimes translated by adding the suffix -AD- to the verb.

The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under which class of meanings it comes.

Examples.—(1). Mi ĝin farus, se vi min permesus = I should do it if you would permit me. (1). Li min frapus, se li ne timus = He would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). Li insistis ĝin fari malgraŭ la danĝero = He would do it in spite of the danger. (4). Ĉu vi donus al mi tiun libron? = Would you give me that book? (1). Se vi vidus Johanon morgaŭ (2) vi devus diri al li, ke li ne aĉetu tiun domon = If you should see John to-morrow, you should tell him not to buy that house. (5). Ŝi diris al mi, ke ŝi venos = She told me that she would (will) come. (1). Mi iomete suspektis, ke ili venos = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6). Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la branĉoj tuŝadis iliajn ŝultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la freŝaj folioj = They would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.

Must, Ought.

237 (p). "Must" and "Have to" always signify physical or moral obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which implies moral obligation or duty. Compare "You must (have to, are to) go" with "You ought to go." The former can be rendered by devi, and the latter, "ought," by deci, or some word implying moral obligation. Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood; devus, in this case, being the softened form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken havi or esti (see par. 237 (a) on devi).

Examples.—Li devas labori = He must (has to) work. Mi devas havi tiun libron = I must have that book. Ĉio, kio troviĝas en tiu ĉi libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ĉiuj = Everything which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. La "Fundamento de Esperanto" devas resti severe netuŝebla = The "Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable (untouchable). Vi devus ne fari tion, or, Ne decas, ke vi tion faru = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do that. Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron = You ought to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. Li devus ne forgesi (or, esti forgesinta) = He ought not to have forgotten. Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la reĝo = I ought to offer my services to the king. Kiam vi devos vidi la homon? = When must you (will you have to) see the man? Mi devus vidi lin hieraŭ, sed li malsaniĝis, tial nun mi devos atendi ĝis morgaŭ = I ought to have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till to-morrow.

N.B.—Note, in the last example, that the adverb hieraŭ = yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore unnecessary to use the past infinitive esti vidinta.

ADVERBS (Adverboj).

238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by adding the adverbial termination E. This facility enables the Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = In such a manner. Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.

239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a complement.

Example.—Li parolas saĝe = "He speaks wisely," has the same signification as Li parolas kun saĝeco = He speaks with wisdom.

240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Examples.—Li agas bone = He acts well. Tiu ĉi estas tre granda domo = This is a very large house. Li skribas treege bone = He writes extremely well.

N.B.—When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:—Multe antaŭ la horo = Much before the time (hour).

241. Position.—Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow the words which they modify (see par. 88).

242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the sake of distinction we will call (a) "Primary" and (b) "Grammatical."

(a). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination.

(b). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding E to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by adding E to a primary word.

A list of adverbs will be found at page 166.

243. No influence on case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on the case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative, it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = I love John as warmly as my brother. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas. Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative, as:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = I love John as warmly as my brother (does). Ask yourself the question, "as my brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English we are obliged to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto the meaning is quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).

244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.—When a preposition has no complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial termination E. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (I am standing by him); apud here is a preposition because it is followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must alter the sentence, as:—Li staras apude = He is standing by (near).

245. Subject not expressed.—When, in a sentence in Esperanto, there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is used in Esperanto in place of the adjective.

Examples.—Mensogi estas honte (not honta) = To lie is shameful. Estas necese, ke.... = It is necessary that.... Estas bele, varme, malvarme = It is fine, warm, cold. Ne estas atendate, ke.... = It is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed, then the adjective is used, as:—La vetero (or, ĝi) estas bela, varma, malvarma = The weather (or, it) is fine, warm, cold.

245 (a). Participle-Adverbs.—In Esperanto, when the participle relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164 (d).

Examples.—Legante, ni lernas = In (by, when, while) reading we learn. Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la preĝejon = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the church. Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo = Being (as she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. Malferminte la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato = Having opened (or, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the street. Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon = Having glanced (or, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the table. Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego = Having been (or, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in the forest. Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis = Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.

246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity, usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.

Examples.—Multe da homoj = Many men. Nur malmulte da virinoj = Only a few women. Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you? Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo = Much more beef than mutton. Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino = Less bread than wine. Tro da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon = Too many cooks spoil the broth. Ne estas sufiĉe da supo = There is not sufficient soup.

246. (a). Expressions such as "more and more," "at most," etc., are thus rendered:—

Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = More or less.

Plie = In addition, besides, moreover. Malplie = Less and less.[18]

Pleje = At (the) most, mostly. Malpleje = At (the) least, least.[18]

Troe = In excess, too many.

Footnote:

Examples.—Unu pomo plie aŭ malplie ne gravas = One apple more or less does not signify. Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke.... = Moreover, I must tell you that.... Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep malpleje = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. En la kesto mi trovis du librojn troe = In the box I found two books too many (in excess).

247. Adverbs and the accusative case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a preposition (see par. 66 (b)).

After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc., it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al, kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de = with the exception of); spite de (see par. 258 (a)).

248. Comparatives and superlatives.—These are marked in the same way as adjectives (see pars. 112–114).

Examples.—Pli rapide, ol bone = More quickly than well. Malpli forte, ol kutime = Weaker (less strong) than customary. Tiel dolĉe, kiel eble (or, kiel eble plej dolĉe) = As sweetly as possible. Ŝi kantas la plej bone el ĉiuj = She sings best of all. Li agis tre saĝe = He acted very wisely.

248 (a). Adverbs and adjectives.—Be careful not to use the adjective for the adverb.

Examples.—Li kuras rapide = He runs rapidly. Parolu pli laŭte (not laŭta) = Speak louder (more loudly). Ŝi vidis lin piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime = She saw him walking (that he was (is) walking) more slowly than usual.

N.B.—Note that piediranta is predicative (see par. 209 (b)).

LIST OF ADVERBS.

248 (b). The following list of adverbs contains all those found amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of useful grammatical adverbs.

Adiaŭ = Adieu, farewell, good-bye.

Example.—Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris = He said good-bye to her, and departed.

Afrankite = Post-paid.

Ajn = Ever. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words beginning with K, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in "ever," but, unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145).

Examples.—Kia ajn = Whatever kind of. Kiam ajn = Whenever, whensoever. Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever. Kiel ajn = However. Kies ajn = Whosesoever. Kio ajn = Whatever, whatsoever. Kiom ajn = However much. Kiu ajn = Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever.

Aliloke = Elsewhere.

Alivorte = In other words.

Almenaŭ = At least.

Example.—Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito = Give me at least the half of that biscuit.

Alvenante, Alveninte = On arrival.

Ambaŭ = Both, one and the other (pronoun).

Examples.—Ili ambaŭ kuris al la stacidomo = They both ran to the station.

Ankaŭ = Also, too.

Examples.—Li ankaŭ ĝin faris = He, too, did it. Nek mi ankaŭ = Nor I either (also).

Ankoraŭ = Yet, still. (See remarks on Jam).

Examples.—Ĉu li estas ankoraŭ tie ĉi? = Is he still here? Mi ankoraŭ ne vidis lin = I have not seen him yet.

Antaŭe = Formerly, previously, beforehand, in front.

Aparte = Aside, apart, separately, specially.

Apenaŭ = Hardly, scarcely.

Example.—Mi apenaŭ pensas tion = I hardly think that (or, so).

Baldaŭ = Soon.

Example.—Mi esperas, ke li venos baldaŭ = I hope he will (may) come soon.

Bis = Once more, again, encore.

Example.—Bis! = Encore!

Bonstate = In good condition.

Certe = Certainly.

Ĉi = The nearest (tio = that, tio ĉi or ĉi tio = this), (tiu = that, the former, tiu ĉi or ĉi tiu = this, the latter), (tie = there, tie ĉi or ĉi tie = here), (tien = thither, tien ĉi = hither), (ĉio = all, ĉio ĉi = all this) (par. 143).

Examples.—Restu ĉi tie = Remain here. Venu ĉi tien = Come hither.

Ĉial = For all reasons, for every reason (par. 150).

Example.—Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.

Ĉiam = Always, ever (par. 151).

Example.—Li venas ĉiam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin = He always comes when one does not want him.

Ĉiame = Perpetually, continually.

Example.—La infano ploras ĉiame (or, senĉese) = The child cries perpetually.

Ĉie = Everywhere (par. 152).

Examples.—Ĉie mi lin vidas = Everywhere I see him. Li iras ĉien = He goes everywhere.

Ĉiel = In every (manner) way, all ways (par. 153).

Example.—Tiu estas ĉiel la plej bona sidejo = That is in every way the best seat.

Ĉiom = All of it, the whole, all, every quantity (par. 156).

Example.—Prenu iom, ne ĉiom = Take some, not the whole.

Ĉirkaŭe = Round about.

Ĉiufoje kiam, or, ĉiun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = whenever.

Ĉiujare = Yearly, annually, every year.

Ĉiumonate = Monthly, every month.

Ĉiusemajne = Weekly, every (each) week.

Ĉiutage = Daily. Laŭtage = By the day. Tage = By day. Nokte = By night.

Ĉu = Whether. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply shows that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it, we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to preface the interrogation with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has," "is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc. etc.

Examples.—Ĉu vi komprenis? = Did you understand? Ĉu Johano skribas? = Is John writing? Ĉu vi povas fari tion? = Can you do that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).

Ĉu = whether (or if in the sense of whether) (a conjunction) is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if."

Examples.—Diru al mi, ĉu li venos = Tell me if (whether) he will come. Diru al mi, se li venos = Tell me if he comes.

Ĉu ... Ĉu = Whether ... whether.

Example.—Ĉu li venos, ĉu li ne venos, Paŭlo foriros = Whether he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul will depart.

Dekstre = On the right. Maldekstren = To the left.

Denove = Afresh, again, once again.

Due = Secondly, in the second place.

Dum = While, whilst, as (also a preposition and conjunction).

Dume = Meanwhile.

Eble = Possibly, perhaps.

Eĉ = Even.

Examples.—Li eĉ pensis, ke.... = He even thought that.... Eĉ la infanoj insultis min = Even the children abused me.

Efektive = In fact, really, as a matter of fact.

Ekstere = Outwardly. Interne = inwardly, internally, within, inside.

Entute = On the whole, as a whole.

Facile = Easily. Malfacile = With difficulty.

Fine = In conclusion, lastly.

For = Away, forth.

Example.—For de ĉi tie fripono! = Get thee hence (away), rascal!

Forme = In shape, in form.

Galope = At a gallop.

Grandnombre = In great numbers.

Ĝisdate = Up to date. Ĝisnune = Up to now, hitherto. Ĝisplue = Until further notice.

Ĝissate = Till satiety (is reached).

Ĝustatempe = Opportunely, to time.

Hieraŭ = Yesterday.

Examples.--Mi lin vidis hieraŭ = I saw him yesterday. Antaŭhieraŭ = The day before yesterday.

Hieraŭ matene = Yesterday morning.

Hodiaŭ = To-day.

Example.—Li alvenos hodiaŭ = He will arrive to-day.

Hodiaŭ vespere = This (to-day) evening.

Ial = For some (any) reason, or cause (par. 150).

Example.—Ial li venis Londonon = For some reason he came to London.

Iam = At some (any) time, once, ever (par. 151).

Examples.—Venu iam morgaŭ = Come some time to-morrow. Ĉu vi iam renkontis lin? = Did you ever meet him?

Ie = Somewhere, (anywhere) (par. 152).

Examples.—Mi ne povas ĝin trovi ie en la ĉambro = I cannot find it anywhere in the room. Ĝi estas ie = It is somewhere. Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere?

Iel = Somehow, in some way, in some manner, anyhow, (in any way) (par. 153).

Examples.—Iel li sukcesas en ĉio = Somehow he succeeds in everything. Respondu iel = Answer in some manner.

Iom = Somewhat, some quantity, a little, some (par. 156).

Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. Jen estas cigaroj, ĉu vi deziras iom? = Here are cigars, do you want some?

Iomete = A very little, in a very slight degree, at all.

Example.—Ĝi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo = It was slightly larger than a gnat.

Intence = Intentionally, on purpose.

Ja = In fact, indeed.

Examples.—Li ja alvenos morgaŭ = He in fact will arrive to-morrow. Ja may be used to express the emphatic English use of "do," "did," as:—Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi = I do wish he were here (par. 217).

Jam = Already, as yet, by now, now.

Examples.—Vi jam diris tion = You said (have said) that already. Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon? = Have you as yet found your watch? Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis = I have not yet looked for it. La knabo jam ne ridas = The boy does not laugh now (no longer laughs).

N.B.—Compare jam with ankoraŭ. Jam shows that the circumstances are changed; ankoraŭ, that La infano jam dormas = The child is now sleeping (it was not sleeping before). La infano ankoraŭ dormas = The child is still sleeping.

Jen = Behold, here. Jene = As follows.

Examples.—Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas = Here is what (that which) you want. Jen estas la libroj = Here are the books.

Jes = Yes, it is so (par. 63). Jese = Affirmatively.

Examples.—Jes, vi estas prava = Yes, you are right. Mi vin certigas, ke jes = I assure you that it is so.

Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more (par. 112).

Example.—Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas = The more I know him, the more I love him.