Henry VIII

Chapter XIV

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REX ET IMPERATOR.

For the word "imperial" itself he had shown a marked predilection from his earliest days. Henry Imperial was the name of the ship in which his admiral hoisted his flag in 1513, and "Imperial" was the name given to one of his favourite games. But, as his reign wore on, the word was translated into action, and received a more definite meaning. To mark his claim to supreme dignity, he assumed the style of "His Majesty" instead of that of "His Grace," which he had hitherto shared with mere dukes and archbishops; and possibly "His Majesty" banished "His Grace" from Henry's mind no less than it did from his title. The story of his life is one of consistent, and more or less orderly, evolution. For many years he had been kept in leading-strings by Wolsey's and other clerical influences. The first step in his self-assertion was to emancipate himself from this control, and to vindicate his authority within the precincts of his Court. His next was to establish his personal supremacy over Church and State in England; this was the work of the Reformation Parliament between 1529 and 1536. The final stage in the evolution was to make his rule more effective in the outlying parts of England, on the borders of Scotland, in Wales and its Marches, and then to extend it over the rest of the British Isles.

But Ireland demanded even more than Wales the application of Henry's doctrines of union and empire; for if Wales was thought by Chapuys to be receptive soil for the seeds of rebellion, sedition across St. George's Channel was ripe unto the harvest. Irish affairs, among other domestic problems, had been sacrificed to Wolsey's passion for playing a part in Europe, and on the eve of his fall English rule in Ireland was reported to be weaker than it had been since the Conquest. The outbreak of war with Charles V., in 1528, was followed by the first appearance of Spanish emissaries at the courts of Irish chiefs, and from Spanish intrigue in Ireland Tudor monarchs were never again to be free. In the autumn of 1534 the whole of Ireland outside the pale blazed up in revolt. Sir William Skeffington succeeded in crushing the rebellion; but Skeffington died in the following year, and his successor, Lord Leonard Grey, failed to overcome the difficulties caused by Irish disaffection and by jealousies in his council. His sister was wife of Fitzgerald, the Earl of Kildare, and the revolt of the Geraldines brought Grey himself under suspicion. He was accused by his council of treason; he returned to England in 1540, declaring the country at peace. But, before he had audience with Henry, a fresh insurrection broke out, and Grey was sent to the Tower; thence, having pleaded guilty to charges of treason, he trod the usual path to the block.

The powers conferred upon Henry as Supreme Head of the Church were not long suffered to remain in abeyance. Whatever the theory may have been, in practice Henry's supremacy over the Church was very different from that which Kings of England had hitherto wielded; and from the moment he entered upon his new ecclesiastical kingdom, he set himself not merely to reform practical abuses, such as the excessive wealth of the clergy, but to define the standard of orthodox faith, and to force his subjects to embrace the royal theology. The Catholic faith was to hold good only so far as the Supreme Head willed; the "King's doctrine" became the rule to which "our Church of England," as Henry styled it, was henceforth to conform; and "unity and concord in opinion" were to be established by royal decree.

Notes in this chapter

Note 1 · Notwithstanding the absence of "Empire" and "Emperor" from the various titles which Henry VIII. possessed or assumed, he has more than one c Note 2 · The initial steps in the process of expanding the sphere of royal authority had already been taken. The condition of Wales exercised the min Note 3 · Henry now adopted fresh methods; he determined to treat Ireland in much the same way as Wales. A commission, appointed in 1537, had made a t Note 4 · Besides Ireland and Wales, there were other spheres in which Henry sought to consolidate and extend the Tudor methods of government. The ere Note 5 · In spite of Henry's efforts to fan the flames of strife[1023] between the Emperor and the King of France, the war, which had prevented eithe Note 6 · While these negotiations for obtaining the hand of a French princess were in progress, Henry set on foot a similar quest in the Netherlands.Note 7 · The Emperor and the French King had not been deluded by English intrigues, nor prevented from coming together by Henry's desire to keep them Note 8 · It was on Pole's unfortunate relatives that the effects of the threatened bull were to fall. Besides the Cardinal's treason, there was anoth Note 9 · With Montague perished his cousin, the Marquis of Exeter, whose descent from Edward IV. was as fatal to him as their descent from Clarence w Note 10 · These executions do not seem to have produced the faintest symptoms of disgust in the popular mind. The threat of invasion evoked a national Note 11 · In spite of the fears of invasion which prevailed in the spring of 1539, Pole's second mission had no more success than the first;[1046] and Note 12 · The first royal definition of the faith was embodied in ten articles submitted to Convocation in 1536. The King was, he said, constrained by Note 13 · With the Institution of a Christian Man, issued in the following year, and commonly called The Bishops' Book, Henry had little to do. The bi Note 14 · Meanwhile, a vigorous assault was made on the strongholds of superstition; pilgrimages were suppressed, and many wonder-working images were Note 15 · These proceedings created as much satisfaction among the Lutherans of Germany as they did disgust at Rome, and an alliance between Henry and Note 16 · This policy once adopted, the task of selecting a bride was easy. As early as 1530[1066] the old Duke of Cleves had suggested some marriage Note 17 · Anne of Cleves had already been described to Henry by his ambassador, Dr. Wotton, and Holbein had been sent to paint her portrait (now in th Note 18 · Such was, in reality, the result of his failure to act on the principle laid down by himself to the French ambassador two years before. He h Note 19 · Henry, however, was never patient of matrimonial or other yokes, and it was quite certain that, as soon as he could do so without serious ri Note 20 · With such feelings at heart, a union with Protestants could never for Henry be more than a mariage de convenance; and in this, as in other t Note 21 · The elections were characterised by more court interference than is traceable at any other period during the reign, though even on this occa Note 22 · The principal measure passed in this Parliament was the Act of Six Articles, and it was designed to secure that unity and concord in opinion Note 23 · It was clear that Cromwell was trembling to his fall. The enmity shown in Parliament to his doctrinal tendencies was not the result of royal Note 24 · Such was the temper of England at the end of 1539. Cromwell and his policy, the union with the German princes and the marriage with Anne of Note 25 · Cromwell's fall was not, however, effected without some violent oscillations, strikingly like the quick changes which preceded the ruin of R Note 26 · Henry had in reality come to the conclusion that it was safe to dispense with Anne of Cleves and her relatives; and with his will there was Note 27 · Henry's neck was freed from the matrimonial yoke and the German entanglement. The news was promptly sent to Charles, who remarked that Henry