PART III. BIOLOGY—OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS. (continued 9)

Fam. 5. Arcaceous, Macroura.

Abdominal feet arrested, branchial comb upon the femora of the thoracic feet and beneath the dorsal shield, tail extended, as in the common Cray-fish.

Fam. 6. Oyster-like Crustacea, Brachyura.

Characters similar, but tail bent under the body—Taschenkrebse.

COHORT II. SNAIL-LIKE CRUSTACEA—ASSELN.

3511. Body mostly cylindrical, annulate, without a true carapax or scute; head free; feet short and simple; branchiæ vesici-or folii-form; mostly placed under the tail; eyes non-pediculated, or even wanting.

Order 3. Androgynoid—Saugasseln.

3512. Body soft and slightly annulate, maxillæ, feet and branchiæ arrested; live by suction as parasites upon other animals, mostly fishes.

Fam. 1. Tritonia-like, Lernæaceæ.

Body soft, without shield, eyes and branchiæ; feet and maxillæ stunted; ova carried in two tubes at the hinder part of the body—Kiemenwürmer or Lerneæ.

Fam. 2. Patella-like, Argulaceæ.

Body distinguished into head, thorax, and abdomen, with few natatory feet, maxillæ moulded to form suctorial organs, mostly eyes; lay also strings of ova; head elongated in many in a scutiform manner. The so-called Fish-lice or Argulaceæ.

Fam. 3. Luftschneckenartige—Pycnogonidæ.

Body short, with four pairs of long feet; eyes, but no branchiæ and maxillæ; abdomen puny in size. The Whale-lice.

Order 4. Kammschneckenartige—Nagasseln.

3513. Body cylindrical, horny, and distinctly annulate, maxillæ, eyes, and mostly seven simple pairs of feet, branchiæ as cysts or leaves.

Fam. 4. Capulidenartige, Walzenasseln.

Body cylindrical, with five or seven pairs of feet, and some branchial vesicles; body and abdomen very puny. The Læmodipoda; Caprella, Cyamus.

Fam. 5. Turbinidenartige, Seitenasseln.

Body horny and distinctly ringed, mostly compressed, with perfect maxillæ; seven pairs of thoracic feet and branchial vesicles; abdominal feet rudder-shaped. They swim usually lying upon the side; many leap—Amphipoda; Flohkrebse or Gammarinæ.

Fam. 6. Buccinidenartige, Sohlenasseln.

Similar to the preceding family, but the body is depressed, and the abdominal feet furnished with branchial plates. The Isopoda; Oniscidæ, to which belongs the genus Armadillo.

COHORT III. KRACKEN-CRUSTACEA—KOBE.

3514. Body not tripartite; spiracula or air-openings; more than three pairs of feet, no wings. Here belong the air-breathing Crustacea; Scolopendræ, Acari, Scorpions, and Spiders.

These animals are abruptly distinguished from the preceding by a conversion of the branchiæ into spiral-shaped tracheæ, which ramify and traverse the whole body. They all therefore live in the air, and if they do also dwell in the water, they still come to the surface to inhale that element. The eyes are only simple points or ocelli, which are accumulated frequently upon the sides of the head.

The most inferior of them are distinguished from the preceding cohort, or the Asseln, by almost nothing save the essential character of their own cohort, the tracheæ. They have mostly a number of feet, and only simple eyes, as the Scolopendræ.

The following have a short body, in which the abdomen predominates; thorax and head connate; never more than four pairs of feet—Acari, Scorpions, and Spiders.

They likewise divide into two orders, like the Kracken.

Order 1. Rumpfkrackenartige—Langkobe.

3515. Body horny, tolerably cylindrical and uniform; feet mostly very numerous.

Fam. 1. Salpoid, Spindelkobe.

Only three pairs of thoracic feet, but still podoidal appendages to the abdomen—Podura, Lepisma.

Fam. 2. Ascidioid, Schnurkobe.

Body cylindrical, with very many feet; sexual parts on the thorax—Juli.

Fam. 3. Cirrhopodoid, Bandkobe.

Body band-shaped and depressed, maxillæ perforate, sexual parts placed posteriorly—Scolopendræ.

Order 2. Kopfkrackenartige—Kurzkobe.

3516. Body thick, mostly globiform; head and thorax blended together; only four pairs of feet.

Fam. 4. Brachiopodoid, Acarides.

Body rounded; all three parts confluent; usually only two simple eyes. The Acari are mostly so small, that their parts can only be distinctly seen through the microscope. Their mouth is always very much arrested, and has maxillæ, which are in some cases adapted for manducation, in others for suction.

Fam. 5. Pteropodoid, Scorpions.

Body tolerably cylindrical, and all three parts connate; palpi very large and forcipiform.

Fam. 6. Sepioid, Spiders.

Body rounded, head and thorax connate, abdomen separate, mostly eight simple eyes.

Their most remarkable organs are the four spinnerets in front of the anus, which probably stand in the signification of the renal organs, just as the material of the Spider-threads does in that of the urine.

The tracheæ are but few in number, and expand into lung-like vesicles.

The sexual parts do not lie posteriorly by the anus, but at the root or base of the abdomen.

It is moreover remarkable, that their mandibles are perforated and pour a poisonous juice into the wounds they inflict. They must be therefore regarded, like the venom-teeth of Serpents, as elongated salivary ducts.

The Crustacean families can also be named according to the orders of their circle, namely, the Worms and Crustacea, e. g. thus:

Order I. Worm-Crabs—Pfriemenkrebse. Fam. 1. Entozooid—Mussel-Insects. 2. Hirudinous—Branchiopoda. 3. Holothurioid—Shield-Crabs. Order II. Crustacean Crabs—Scheerenkrebse. Fam. 4. Typical Crustacea—Sea-Mantes. 5. Asselkrebse " —Macrura. 6. Arachnoid " —Brachyura.

Ninth Class.

Tracheal, Alary Animals—Flies.

Typical Ancyliozoa.

3517. Body tripartite, only three pairs of thoracic legs, spiracula and wings. They divide, according to the classes of their circle, into three cohorts, of Worm-, Crab-like, and perfect Flies.

As the wings are their characteristic organ, so also must they be divided according to them, and not after the cibarial instruments. Those wings which are developed to the least degree are the homogeneous, transparent wings traversed by few tracheæ or ducts—Tracheoptera, as Flies, Bees, and Butterflies.

Their chrysalis or pupa condition is perfect.

Then follow wings having very numerous veins united by transverse veins so as to form a network—Dictyoptera, as Neuropterous, Orthopterous, and Hemipterous Insects.

The pupa is moveable.

Finally, the anterior and posterior pair of wings become wholly dissimilar to each other, the former being horny, and the latter membranous in texture with reticulated veins, provided likewise with joints like the legs, so that they can be folded up under the anterior pair or elytra—Ceratoptera, as the Beetles.

Pupa state perfect.

Strictly speaking, it is a matter of indifference whether the names of orders and families be adopted from the first or second parallel series; whether e. g. we speak in the first cohort of Protozooid or Worm-flies. The nearest series will, however, bear the greater amount of resemblance to them. Meanwhile I will in the sequel vary in the choice of names, in order to exhibit different samples of this double parallelism.

COHORT I. WORM-FLIES—TRACHEOPTERA.

3518. Wings membranous with few longitudinal ducts, and almost devoid of transverse ducts, eyes larger than head. Here belong the Flies, Bees, and Butterflies. The abdomen is indeed annulate, but soft; its first ring is frequently set free and unites with the thorax, but supports neither feet nor wings.

The sexual parts always lie at the anal extremity.

The head is almost nothing but eye, and the Insects of this order may very well be termed Megalopidæ, or large-eyed, out of contrast to the succeeding ones. Between the two large compound eyes there are usually found three simple ocular puncta or ocelli, which they have adopted from the preceding class.

The larvæ are either entirely apodal, white and soft like Entozoa, or they have, in addition to the thoracic feet, numerous abdominal feet like the higher Worms.

The Flies with their soft and imperfect body, and the apodal larvæ, repeat the Infusoria and Entozoa; the Bees therefore the Polyps and Red-blooded Worms; the Butterflies with their large farinose or dusty wings and polypodal caterpillars, the Acalephæ and Holothuriæ.

Order 1. Entozooid Flies—Diptera.

3519. All the thoracic rings coalesced, and along with them the first or basi-abdominal ring, unto which are attached the halteres or balancers; only the two posterior wings present; the labium prolonged into a proboscis, which incloses the setiform maxillæ. Larvæ apodal and white.

The Diptera resemble the Entozoa in a striking manner through their apodal, soft and white larvæ, and even through their habitation, which is mostly in fetid and moist animal matters. Added to this, they respire usually through two tubes which open upon the anus.

Many during their metamorphosis do not shed their skin; but it becomes, during the pupa condition, only horny, representing a small case, whose bottom springs up in front like an operculum, and gives exit to the perfect Fly which has been therein developed.

Upon the first abdominal ring of the imago two nodose pedicles stand out, which are called halteres; they are probably the old respiratory tubes.

The maxillæ have changed into bristles, which act like pestels within the groove-shaped labium, puncture and pump in the fluid.

They divide into three families like the White-blooded Worms, or according to the orders of their cohort.

Fam. 1. Typical Diptera, Schmeissen.

Antennæ triarticulate, the last joint being mostly spatulate and furnished with a lateral awn or bristle; only two suctorial setæ inclosed between the terminal valves of a fleshy proboscis, which admits of being retracted within a large cephalic or oral cavity. The Muscidæ, unto whom the Common House-flies belong, and also the Hippoboscidæ or Louse-flies. It is my opinion too, that the Fleas also are to be ranged among the Diptera.

Alliance 1. Klappenmucken. The two punctuating setæ placed between two valves without a proboscis—Flea (Pulex) and Louse-fly (Hippobosca.)

Alliance 2. Acalyptera. Proboscis having thick lips, and retractile into a large cephalic cavity; alulæ or halteral opercula arrested—Hypocera to Dolichocera.

Alliance 3. Dung-flies. Characters similar to the above, but the alulets are of considerable size—Muscidæ.

Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Diptera, Dasseln.

Antennæ as in preceding family, but the bisetaceous proboscis is thin and horny, with small labia, or else large labia with four setæ—Œstridæ, Conopidæ, and Syrphidæ.

Alliance 4. Parasitic Diptera. Two setæ with or without a lipless proboscis—Œstridæ, Myopariæ, and Conopidæ.

Alliance 5. Syrphidæ. Four setæ within a similar kind of proboscis; the third joint of the antennæ spatulate; the palpi thickened.

Alliance 6. Leptidæ. Four setæ within a short thick-lipped proboscis, the third antennal joint mostly coniform—Therexidæ, Leptidæ, and Dolichopidæ.

Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Diptera, Gölsen.

Antennæ multiarticulate and stipiform; proboscis with and without labia, mostly four and six setæ for punctuation—Tipulidæ, Tanystomidæ, Stratiomydæ, Tabanidæ.

Alliance 7. Gnats. Antennæ filamentary and multi-articular. Proboscis varied.

Alliance 8. Spiessmucken. Four setæ within a hastate horny proboscis with or without arrested labia; third antennal joint not annulated, with the bristle or awn at the extremity—Tanystomidæ, as Asilidæ, Empidæ, Bombylidæ.

Alliance 9. Stielmucken. Four or six setæ within a thick-lipped proboscis; third antennal joint stipiform and annulated—Stratiomydæ and Tabanidæ.

Order 2. Leech-flies—Hymenoptera.

3520. Four naked veined wings, labium mostly elongated, the two pairs of maxillæ acting above it like spears. Larvæ mostly apodal, or with more abdominal feet or prolegs than in the true Caterpillars.

Most of the larvæ still bear a great resemblance to the Entozoa, though they do not respire like them through the anus, but by lateral apertures or spiracula; the larvæ with abdominal feet repeat the Nereidæ and Aselli. In other respects they live no longer in putrid moisture, fungi, roots, and such like bodies, but in living animals or in cavities specially prepared for their reception by the parents, and even in a state of freedom upon leaves.

And here is particularly worthy of our notice the structure of the cells, which are by many species fabricated quite substantially of wax or wood-shavings, and are to be compared with the webs of Spiders, since both serve as nests for the young. They repeat the Polypidoms.

Others make cases of leaves, and carry into them honey upon which to deposit their ova.

Others again simply bore holes in wood or in the earth, in order that they may in a similar manner provide their young with honey or larvæ. Finally, others simply stick, by means of their ovipositor, the ova into animals or leaves.

The dwellings are fabricated by the maxillæ, which but seldom serve as cibarial instruments, seeing that the labium undertakes this office as a lick-organ.

Another remarkable feature of this order is the arrested development of the sexual parts of the females in certain generations, an occurrence which depends upon the time of the year or the size of the cells, and whereby they are constrained to lead a social life as workers.

They divide, according to the Red-blooded Worms or the orders of their cohort, into three families.

Fam. 1. Dipteroid Hymenoptera, Bees.

Abdomen aculeate; labium elongated in a rostriform manner. They dig or build cells, and carry thither honey to the larvæ, which are apodal.

Alliance 1. Fossorial Bees—Andrenidæ. 2. Carpenter-Bees—Anthophoridæ. 3. Cell-Bees—Apidæ.

Fam. 2. Typical Hymenoptera, Wasps.

Aculeate; labium not elongated—rapacious Hymenoptera, such as Ants, Fossorial, and Cell-wasps, larvæ apodal.

Alliance 1. Hohlenwespen—Formicidæ. 2. Fossorial Wasps—Sphegidæ. 3. Cell-Wasps—Vespidæ.

Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Hymenoptera, Terebrantia.

Instead of the sting there is an ovipositor, with which the females stick their eggs into other insects, mostly into caterpillars, or else into leaves and wood—Ichneumonidæ, Tenthredinidæ, and Uroceridæ. The larvæ of the first are apodal, those of the second provided with thoracic and abdominal feet like caterpillars, those of the third with thoracic feet only like the larvæ of Coleoptera.

Alliance 1. Stutzwespen. Ovipositor short; wings nearly veinless. Deposit their eggs in small insects; larvæ apodal—Chalcididæ, Oxyuri, Chrysididæ.

Alliance 2. Schlupfwespen. Ovipositor very long, divided into three hairs; wings veined. Deposit their eggs in caterpillars; larvæ apodal—Ichneumonidæ, Evaniidæ.

Alliance 3. Pflanzenwespen. Ovipositor spiral or saw-shaped. Deposit their ova in plants; larvæ mostly furnished with feet, and frequently resembling caterpillars in form—Cynipidæ, Tenthredinidæ, and Uroceridæ.

Order 3. Holothurioid Flies—Lepidoptera.

3521. Four veined wings, covered with small dust-like scales; maxillæ have coalesced into a proboscis; larvæ with thoracic and abdominal legs.

The larvæ or Caterpillars remind us of the Nereides, especially the setaceous Aphrodites, such as the Holothuriæ, and further still, the Aselli and Scolopendræ. There are Caterpillars, which are scarcely to be distinguished from a Wood-louse. They subsist almost throughout upon leaves, and being exposed to the light are therefore variously coloured. They have maxillæ, and in the labium is the orifice of the salivary glands, from which they spin the threads used in weaving their cocoons, or social tents. Where they crawl they leave, like the Spiders, their threads beneath them.

The pupa state is perfect; the perfect insect generally creeps out of the chrysalis by a slit taking place down the back.

The abdomen is almost throughout covered with hair, which is indicative likewise of a strong mucous secretion.

They take in their fluid nourishment by suction, but the mechanism by which this is effected is not yet known, as from the jaws themselves forming the proboscis, there can be no suckers lodged within the latter that might act. It is probably effected by expansion of the abdomen taking place during respiration. Their deglutition would be therefore a respiratory act.

Besides their very non-artistic webs, no artistic instincts are to be observed in this order. The ova are just layed without more ado upon plants, and rarely upon other objects. The Butterflies are generally related to the plants, and especially to their corollæ, whose colours and forms they carry in themselves.

They divide according to their proximal orders into three families.

Fam. 1. Dipteroid Lepidoptera, Moths.

Antennæ filiform, wings mostly thrown like a mantle round the body; proboscis short.

Small and nocturnal in their habits, proceeding from tolerably apodal Caterpillars, which reside mostly concealed in plants, or make themselves cases of hairs and leaves.

Alliance 1. Typical Moths, Tineidæ.

a. Typical Tineidæ: Alucitidæ. b. Pyraloid: Tineæ. c. Tortrix-like: Crambidæ.

Alliance 2. Bombycoid Moths, Pyralidæ.

a. Tinea-like: Aglossæ. b. Typical: Hydrocampæ. c. Tortrix-like: Deltoides or Herminiæ.

Alliance 3. Homalopteroid Moths, Tortricidæ.

a. Tinea-like: Fruit-Tortrices. b. Pyraloid: Heterogeneæ. c. Typical: Leaf-rolling Tortrices.

Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Lepidoptera, Silk-Spinners.

Antennæ filiform, wings tile-shaped.

Lepidoptera of considerable size, proceeding out of

Caterpillars, with many feet, and frequently covered with hair, which live mostly in a state of freedom upon plants, and in some cases make large cocoons freely exposed, in others under the earth—Noctuidæ and Bombycidæ.

Alliance 1. Moth-like Spinners, Noctuidæ.

a. Typical: Hadenæ. b. Pseudobombycoid: Catocalæ. c. Bombycoid: Erebidæ.

Alliance 2. Typical Spinners, Pseudo-Bombyces.

a. Noctua-like: Psyches, Limacodes. b. Typical: Notodontæ. c. Bombycoid: Callimorphæ.

Alliance 3. Homalopteroid Spinners, Bombycidæ.

a. Noctua-like: Bombyces. b. Pseudo-Bombycoid: Saturniæ. c. Typical: Hepialidæ.

Fam. 3. Typical Lepidoptera, Homaloptera.

Antennæ varied; wings flat and expanded; proboscis long—Geometridæ, Vespertina, Diurna.

Large Lepidoptera proceeding from free-living, strongly-coloured, and mostly naked Caterpillars.

The Geometridæ have level, tolerably triangular wings and filiform antennæ; they proceed from naked Caterpillars with few abdominal feet.

The Vespertina have level, long, and narrow wings, and spindle-shaped antennæ; they emerge from perfect Caterpillars.

The Diurna have the wings folded upwards in a reverse position, claviform antennæ, and proceed from perfect Caterpillars.

Alliance 1. Moth-like Homaloptera, Geometridæ.

a. Typical: Geometræ. b. Sphingoid: Aposuræ. c. Papilionaceous: Uraniidæ.

Alliance 2. Bombycoid Homaloptera, Sphingidæ.

a. Geometroid: Zygænidæ and Sesiadæ. b. Typical: Sphingidæ. c. Papilionaceous: Castniæ.

Alliance 3. Typical Homaloptera, Papilionidæ.

a. Geometroid: Hesperiidæ, Lycænidæ and Erycinidæ. b. Sphingoid: Nymphalidæ and Heliconiidæ. c. Typical: Pieridæ and Papilionidæ.

COHORT II. CRUSTACEOUS FLIES—DICTYOPTERA.

3522. Four wings, with longitudinal and numerous transverse veins, the anterior pair being mostly leathery in texture; eyes mostly smaller than head.

Here belong the Neuroptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera.

The metamorphosis is tolerably imperfect, and the larvæ have never more than three pairs of thoracic feet, and therefore correspond no longer to the Worms, but to the Crabs, where the number of the feet has been already more determined. Many also strikingly simulate the Crustacea.

In all three families also the pupa runs about, eats, and has rudiments of wings.

The abdominal rings are mostly horny and hairless. The spiracula lie upon the upper margin.

The eyes are generally much smaller than the head, and may therefore, in comparison with those of the preceding and subsequent groups, be said to be of middling size; the simple eyes have for the greatest part disappeared. Meanwhile the first family displays large eyes, the second eyes of a middling size, the third small eyes.

They divide like their antetypes, the Crabs, into three orders.

Order 4. Crab-Flies—Neuroptera.

3523. All the wings alike and membranous; maxillæ with mostly large eyes; abdomen soft.

These Insects which, on account of their delicate wings, are known with us by the name of Flohrfliegen, live mostly upon flesh, and many of them by capturing living prey. Many undergo a short pupa stage. Many live in the water and have, too, branchiæ, whereby they strikingly remind us of the Crustacea, especially the Branchiopoda.

Like the Crustacea, or in accordance with the two first cohorts of their class, they divide into two families.

Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Neuroptera, Nagbolden.

Do not subsist by rapine, but gnaw slowly animal and vegetable matters; many also as flies eat no longer.

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Neuroptera, Kieferläuse. No wings; gnaw skin, feathers and hair, mostly Bird-lice—Philopterus, Liotheum.

Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid Neuroptera, Blumen-and Mulmlaüse, Thrips, Psocus, Termes.

Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid Neuroptera, Phryganeidæ (Wassermotten.)

Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Neuroptera, Raubbolden.

Alliance 4. Typical Neuroptera, Flohrfliegen, Panorpidæ, Hemerobiidæ, Myrmeleonidæ.

Alliance 5. Orthopteroid Neuroptera, Raphidiidæ, Mantispidæ.

Alliance 6. Hemipteroid Neuroptera, Ephemeridæ, Libellulidæ.

Order 5. Oniscal Flies—Orthoptera.

3524. Maxillæ and dissimilar reticular wings; the anterior, pergamentaceous; abdominal rings, horny; eyes of moderate size; pupa moveable.

Live for the greatest part on plants.

Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Orthoptera, Saltatoria.

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Orthoptera, Grylli. Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid Orthoptera, Locustæ.

Have a hard ovipositor, which reminds us of the sting in the Hymenoptera.

Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid Orthoptera, Acrydia.

Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Orthoptera, Cursoria.

Alliance 4. Neuropteroid Orthoptera, Mantidæ. Alliance 5. Typical Orthoptera, Blattidæ. Alliance 6. Hemipteroid Orthoptera, Forficulidæ.

Order 6. Arachnoid Flies—Hemiptera or Bugs.

3525. Horny suctorial proboscis with puncturating setæ; dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior mostly pergamentaceous, the posterior membranous, and mostly capable of being folded up, as in the Chafers; eyes small, pupæ moveable.

The Bugs have much resemblance to the Mites, and Spiders are as it were winged Mites. One party of them suck blood, another vegetable sap. They manifest no artistic instincts.

The Aphides or Leaf-lice require only a single pairing, to enable them to propagate through several generations. During the summer they produce only females, and in autumn the males first appear.

Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Hemiptera, Leptoptera.

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Hemiptera, Coccidæ, Aphidæ. Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid Hemiptera, Cicadæ. Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid Hemiptera, Fulgoridæ.

Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Hemiptera, Pachyptera.

Alliance 4. Neuropteroid Hemiptera, Water-bugs. Alliance 5. Orthopteroid Hemiptera, Narrow bugs, Hydrometræ, Reduvii, Cimicidæ. Alliance 6. Typical Hemiptera, Broad bugs, Capsidæ, Lygæidæ, Coreidæ, Scutelleridæ.

COHORT III. PERFECT FLIES—CERATOPTERA, BEETLES.

3526. Maxillæ and dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior being horny, the posterior membranous and susceptible of being folded upon themselves; eyes small; pupæ motionless.

The Chafers or Beetles are the highest Insects, because they possess the greatest variety of organs, namely, two kinds of wings; not to mention the perfect condition of their manducatory apparatus, antennæ, and the first thoracic ring which is free.

The Beetle represents the Flies in their entire perfection; everything is rendered horny in the former even to the lower wings, which are furnished with several joints, almost like the feet. The upper wings are horny and meet together so closely by their inner margins upon the back, that they form a closed suture, like the shells of the bivalve Mollusc. The antennæ are also more perfect than in other families, and mostly jointed like the feet, while at their extremity they are frequently thickened into laminated moveable clubs, which open when the animal would fly, as if to listen.

Their habitation, mode of living and subsistence is exceedingly complex, and therein also they combine again all the families of this class, and it might be said, all the preceding classes.

The Beetles are also much more numerous than any other order, and could in this point of view even hold good for an entire class, especially, if they represented a special organic system, but which is not the case.

They live upon vegetable saps, and matters, blossoms, leaves, and wood, living animals, putrid flesh, dung, and such like.

They dwell mostly indeed in concealed situations, but also in those that are freely exposed, while many live in water, and are so subjected to its influence that their larvæ actually respire this element through branchiæ.

The larvæ are white and have three pairs of horny thoracic feet. They live concealed.

The pupæ are invested by a transparent tegument, which tears in an irregular manner.

The Beetles divide distinctly into three divisions, which correspond to the three cohorts of this class, or repeat the three cohorts of their circle.

The Beetles have been pretty generally divided according to the number of tarsal joints into those having three, four, five, or an unequal set of these "articuli," whereby, however, the greatest disorder has originated. I have therefore divided them in my 'Naturgeschichte' according to their mode of living into Phytophaga, Sarcophaga, and Rypo- or Coprophaga, which gradually seems to meet with approval. At least a much more natural arrangement comes to light by using these means.

I have also declared the Rhyncophora to be the lowest and the Lamellicornes the uppermost in rank, a view, which at present appears to be generally adopted.

By these means I obtained two firm points, whereby the division or classification of the intermediate members is uncommonly facilitated, although many may still stand in the wrong place. But who can point out a single system in which Insects range correctly, or, what is more, wherein it would not be easy to prove that no single order and family occupies the right place.

In such trumpery systems of classification, one would think, that some respect might be had for principles, or at least a feeling of shame for the blockhead's weakness of intellect. But in vain! Where the sense for philosophy or for principles is wanting, it is not to be inculcated or driven in. We still see Natural Histories shoot forth, with whose shrub-like ramification we must have compassion. Every thicket of briars is rooted deep, and admits only of being extirpated by wearisome and patient culture.

The Rhyncophora indicate that the Phytophagous beetles are the lowest; the Lamellicornes that the Coprophagous are the highest. The Sarcophagous chafers accordingly take their place between the two.

Now, however, the Rhyncophora are tetrameral. In like manner are the Phytophagous beetles, such as the Borkenkäfer and Holzschröter. They consequently form the main stem, unto which all the true Phytophaga must be annexed. But among them also belong the Pentameral, namely, the Holzböhrer, Schnell-and Prachtkäfer; I have therefore disposed them in this order, and I believe quite correctly.

The Lamellicorn or Dung-beetles are pentameral, and on that account to be co-arranged with the Necrophaga or Carrion-feeders and Sexton-beetles, as well as with the parasitic Lampyridæ, and the predaceous Raub-and Laufkäfer, despite their exceedingly great difference of living and even anomalous structure. On the contrary, most of the heteromeral kinds agree in their mode of living, and tolerably too in structure, with the Dung-beetles, at least the Mulmfressenden, such as the Meal-beetles or Tenebrionidæ, and indeed the Stenelytra also, while the Cantharides are parasitic at least as larvæ.

It seems also to me, that the fungi must be viewed as flour or dung, and that therefore those very Fungivora, whose structure does not point the way otherwise, can be placed with the Mulm-and Mistkäfern, although they are only tri-and tetrameral, like the Lycoperdinæ and Erotyli. Besides this the antennæ of the Fungivora are usually thickened, and even club shaped, whereby they thus stand nearer to the Necrophaga, such as the Speckkäfern and Sexton-beetles, as being those which likewise live upon putrid substances. It is difficult to separate the Coccinellidæ from them; their external resemblance to the Erotyli is also striking.

The pentameral Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfern form, as it were, the trunk or main stem of the Zoophagous beetles, to which are annexed likewise the pentameral Malacopterous chafers, namely, the Lampyridæ, as parasites.

But the heteromeral Cantharides have also the same soft wings and mode of life, so that they are not in a natural system, even if devoid of principles, to be separated from the Malacopterous beetles.

The nourishment of the Lamellicorn beetles appears to me to be most perfect in kind. Mould or dung can be regarded as a fully prepared aliment, or, as it were, a minced and cooked meat with greens prepared by Nature, like as Man restores it by art. Thus the lower Thricozoa, e. g. the Mice, eat the crudest vegetable substances, such as roots and seeds; those that stand higher, grass and leaves; then snails, worms, and insects; finally flesh, and last of all fruits, as the Bears and Apes. But Man lets the crude matters ferment or reduces them to rapid decomposition by cooking, whereby a mixed kind of food results, which bears obviously the greatest resemblance to dung which, as just observed, is a food cooked by nature.

According to these considerations I now arrange what have been called Beetles in the following manner into divisions drawn from philosophical principles.

The Beetles again commence, like the whole class of Flies, from below, and the inferior kinds pass therefore parallel to the Tracheo-and Dictyoptera, while the superior project above them, as was the case also in the preceding classes.

In a more remote manner also they repeat the lower classes, namely, the Protozoa, Conchozoa, Worms and Crustacea, a fact which is, properly speaking, self-evident, and which is rendered clear by the following table. We have thus:

Order I. Tracheopteroid Coleoptera—Phytophaga. Order II. Dictyopteroid Coleoptera—Zoophaga. Order III. Ceratopteroid Coleoptera—Rypophaga.

It can also be said; the first correspond to the Worms, the second to the Crustacea, the third to the Flies.

Lastly, it may still be said; the first correspond to the Protozoa, the second to the Conchozoa, the third to the Ancyliozoa.

Order 7. Tracheopteroid Beetles—Phytophaga.

3527. Body cylindrical, head mostly long, antennæ setiform, maxillary teeth obtuse, tarsi mostly tetrameral.

They gnaw hard seeds, leaves, and wood, and mostly live concealed. The larvæ almost or entirely apodal.

Fam. 1. Dipteroid Beetles—Rhyncophora.

Head rhynchiform or snout-shaped, tarsi tetrameral.

Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Beetles, Blattkäfer.

Head tolerably short as well as the antennæ, tarsi tetrameral.

Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Beetles, Holzkäfer.

Head pretty short, antennæ very long, tarsi tetra-and pentameral—Borkenkäfer, Holzbohrer and Schröter.

Order 8. Dictyopteroid Beetles—Zoophaga.

3528. Body long and depressed, antennæ short, maxillæ large with pointed teeth, feet mostly pentameral and without ungues.

They subsist upon living or dead animals, dwell usually in water or upon dry land, and run very swiftly. The one kind seize upon living beasts, and on that account constantly swarm about them, as the Raub-and Laufkäfer; the others only subsist as larvæ by suction upon other beetles or snails externally, but live, as Flies, upon leaves and flowers, as the Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.

Fam. 4. Neuropteroid Beetles—Water-beetles.

Like the following, but all three parts of the body closely annexed, and rudder-like fringes of hairs upon the feet—Parnidæ, Hydrophilidæ, Dyticidæ.

Fam. 5. Orthopteroid Beetles—Prædatoria.

Maxillæ very large and pointed, antennæ setiform, wings hard and tolerably flat like the body, tarsi mostly pentameral.—Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfer.

Fam. 6. Hemipteroid Beetles—Parasitica.

Body pretty cylindrical, head rounded with moderate sized maxillæ, elytra narrow and soft, tarsi penta-and heteromeral.

They hang as larvæ like Mites to other beetles, and suck them; but after the metamorphosis they live upon leaves and flowers—Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.

Order 9. Ceratopteroid Beetles—Rypophaga.

3529. Body quadripeltate and mostly short, with hard elytra, thorax large, head small, with short claviform antennæ and blunt maxillary teeth; feet mostly furnished with ungues, tarsal joints varied. Their habitation is very varied, being both free and concealed, and they live for the greatest part on decaying excrementitious matters, such as fungi, dry rot, and even animal ordure.

Fam. 7. Phytophagoid—Necrophaga.

Body mostly rounded, with hard and large elytra; antennæ claviform; tarsi tri-tetra-and pentameral—Lycoperdinæ, Erotyli, Coccinellidæ, Byrrhidæ, Dermestidæ, Sylphidæ. They correspond to the Worms and Tracheopterous insects.

Fam. 8. Zoophagoid—Mulmkäfer.

Body elongated and also nearly spherical, mostly of a dark spotted colour, with hard elytra, thorax rounded, head retractile, palpi filiform, tarsal joints heteromeral or unequal in number—Helopidæ, Diaperidæ, Tenebrionidæ, and Pimeliariæ.

They live usually in dark situations, eating meal and dry-rot; have an unpleasant smell. They correspond to the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders, as likewise to the Dictyoptera.

Fam. 9. Perfect Beetles—Erdkäfer or Lamellicornes.

Mostly large, convex and short bodied Beetles with large thorax, broad head, lamellated antennal clubs, spinose tibiæ and pentameral tarsi. Their habitation is in dung or under the earth, where they live in the larval state frequently for years before they change; some Chafers eat also leaves of trees and flowers. They are distinguished by their striking size and singular forms, being mostly furnished with horns on the thorax or head. I do veritably believe that they may be generally interpreted as being the highest organized beetles and members of their class, although they are generally placed or arranged midway between the lower forms, while the Sand-and Laufkäfer are esteemed the most perfect.

Tabular Co-arrangement.

The Dermatozoa now admit of being co-arranged in the following manner, from which their three Cardinal relations of Proximity, Repetition, and Serial analogy or Parallelism, admit of being distinctly recognized.

PARALLELISM OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.

IX Cl. Ptilota.

A. PROTOZOA.VII Cl. Worms.Co. I. Tracheoptera.

I Cl. Infusoria.O. 1. Weisswürmer.O. 1. Diptera.

F. 1. MonadesF. 1. SaugwürmerF. 1. Schmeissen

2. Rhizopoda 2. Tæniæ 2. Dasseln

3. Rotifera. 3. Ascarides. 3. Gölsen.

II Cl. Polypi.O. 2. Rothwürmer.O. 2. Hymenoptera.

F. 1. Hydræ 4. Earth-wormsF. nbsp; 1. Bees

2. Alcyonia 5. Nereides 2. Wasps

3. Actiniæ. 6. Serpulæ. 3. Terebrantia.

III Cl. Acalephæ.O. 3. Sternwürmer.O. 3. Lepidoptera.

F. 1. Physaliæ 7. HolothuriæF. 1. Moths

2. Beroeæ 8. Echinidæ 2. Spinner

3. Acalephæ. 9. Asteridæ. 3. Wanner.

B. CONCHOZOA.VIII Cl. Crustacea.Co. II. Dictyoptera.

IV Cl. Mussels.Co. 1. Krebse.O. 4. Neuroptera.

O. 1. Röhrenmuscheln.O. 1. Pfriemenkrebse.F. 1. Nagbolden.

F. 1. PholadesF. 1. EntomostracaA. 1. Kieferläuse

2. Tellinidæ 2. Branchiopoda 2. Termitidæ

3. Cardiacea. 3. Phyllopoda. 3. Phryganeidæ.

O. 2. Spaltmuscheln.O. 2. Scheerenkrebse.F. 2. Raubbolden.

4. Mytilaceæ 4. Squillæ 4. Hemerobiidæ

5. Arcaceæ 5. Macroura 5. Raphidiidæ

6. Ostraceæ. 6. Brachyura 6. Libellulidæ.

V Cl. Snails.Co. II. Asseln.O. 5. Orthoptera.

O. 1. Androgyni.O. 3. Saugasseln.F. 1. Saltatoria.

F. 1. TritoniæF. 1. LernœæA. 1. Achetidæ

2. Patellæ 2. Arguli 2. Gryllidæ

3. Pulmonea. 3. Pyncnogonides. 3 Locustidæ.

O. 2. Diœcii.O. 4. NagasselnF. 2. Cursoria.

4. Capulidæ 4. Læmodipoda 4. Mantides

5. Turbinidæ 5. Amphipoda 5. Blattidæ

6. Buccinidæ. 6. Isopoda. 6. Forficulidæ.

VI Cl. Kracken.Co. III. Kobe.O. 6. Hemiptera.

O. 1. Rumpfkracken.O. 1. Langkobe.F. 1. Leptoptera.

F. 1. SalpæF. 1. PoduræA. 1. Aphidii

2. Ascidiæ 2. Juli 2. Cicadæ

3. Cirripedia. 3. Scolopendræ. 3. Fulgoridæ.

O. 2. Kopfkracken.O. 2. Kurzkobe.F. 2. Pachyptera.

4. Brachiopoda 4. Acaridæ 4. Water-bugs

5. Pteropoda 5. Scorpions 5. Narrow bugs

6. Cephalopoda. 6. Spiders. 6. Broad bugs.

C. ANCYLIOZOA.IX. Cl. Ptilota.Co. III. Ceratoptera.

VII CL. WormsCo. I. TracheopteraO. 1. Phytophaga

VIII Cl. CrustaceaII. Dictyoptera2. Zoophaga

IX Cl. Ptilota or Flies.III. Ceratoptera.3. Moderkäfer.

Co. III. Ceratoptera.O. 3. Rypophaga.

A. PROTOZOA.O. 1. Phytophaga.F. 7. Necrophaga.F. 7. Erdkäfer.

I Cl. Infusoria.F. 1. RhyncophoraA. 1. Fungivora.A. 1. Phyllophaga.

F. 1. MonadesA. 1. Langrüssler Scaphidiidæ a. Melolonthidæ

2. Rhizopoda 2. Kurzrüssler Erotyli b. Anoplognathidæ

3. Rotifera. 3. Breitrüssler. Encidæ. c. Rutelidæ.

II Cl. Polypi.F. 2. Blattkäfer.A. 2. Speckfresser.2. Anthobii.

F. 1. HydræA. 1. Galerucidæ 1. Dermestidæ a. Lepitrichidæ

2. Alcyonia 2. Chrysomelidæ 2. Nitidulidæ b. Dichelidæ

3. Actiniæ. 3. Crioceridæ. 3. Silphidæ. c. Glaphyridæ.

III Cl. Acalephæ.F. 3. Holzkäfer.A. 1. Dung-feeders.3. Melitophaga.

F. 1. Physaliæ 7. Bostrychidæ 1. Byrrhidæ a. Cetoniæ

2. Beroeæ 8. Elateridæ 2. Sphæridiidæ b. Trichii

3. Acalephæ. 9. Cerambycidæ. 3. Histeridæ. c. Goliathi.

B. CONCHOZOA.O. 2. Zoophaga.

IV Cl. Mussels.F. 4. Water-beetles.F. 8. Mulmkäfer.A. 2. Coprophaga.

O. 1. Röhrenmuscheln.A. 1. Sumpkäfer.A. 1. Trachelidæ. a. Aphodii

F. 1. Pholades a. Heteroceridæ a. Lagriæ

2. Tellinidæ b. Parnidæ b. Pyrochroæ

3. Cardiacea. c. Hydrophilidæ. c. Mordellæ.

O. 2. Spaltmuscheln.A. 2. Flusskäfer.Serropalpidæ. b. Copridæ.

4. Mytilaceæ d. Girinidæ d. Mycteridæ

5. Arcaceæ e. Haliplidæ e. Œdemeræ

6. Ostraceæ. f. Dytiscidæ. f. Melandryæ.

V Cl. Snails.F. 5. Mordkäfer.A. 2. Stenelytra.Arenicolæ.

O. 1. Androgyni.A. 1. Raubkäfer

F. 1. Tritoniæ a. Pselaphidæ a. Cistelidæ a. Æglaliæ.

2. Patellæ b. Scydmænidæ b. Helopidæ

3. Pulmonea. c. Staphylinidæ. c. Cnodalidæ.

O. 2. Diœcii.A. 2. Laufkäfer.Taxicornes. b. Trogidæ.

4. Capulidæ d. Carabidæ d. Niliondæ

5. Turbinidæ e. Brachinidæ e. Cossyhidæ

6. Buccinidæ. f. Cicindelidæ. f. Diaperidæ.

VI Cl. Kracken.F. 6. Schmarotzkäfer.A. 3. Tenebrionidæ.Geotrupidæ.

O. 1. Rumpfkracken.A. 1. Leuchtkäfer.

F. 1. Salpæ a. Lampyridæ a. Tenebriones a. Geotrupes.

2. Ascidiæ b Melyridæ b. Toxicidæ

3. Cirripedia. c. Cleridæ. c. Opatridæ.

O. 2. Kopfkracken.A. 2. Ziehkäfer.Melanosomata. b. Lethri.

4. Brachiopoda d. Notoxidæ d. Blapsidæ

5. Pteropoda e. Horiidæ e. Pimeladiidæ

6. Cephalopoda. f. Cantharides. f. Sepidiæ.

C. ANCYLIOZOA.O. 3. Moderkäfer.F. 9. Erdkäfer.A. 3. Lohfresser.

VII CL. WormsF. 7. AaskäferA. 1. Phyllophaga a. Lucanidæ

VIII Cl. Crustacea 8. Mulmkäfer 2. Coprophaga b. Passalidæ

IX Cl. Ptilota or Flies. 9. Erdkäfer. 3. Lohfresser. c. Oryctidæ.

Second Province.

— FOURTH CIRCLE—SARCOZOA.

Pisces, Reptilia, Aves and Thricozoa.

3530. These animals necessarily pass through all 4 circles, and each class therefore divides into 4 orders, or into 5, if the senses be allowed to hold good as constituting a distinct order in themselves.

Two points of departure for classification here admit of being thought of, either wholly from below, or first of all from the commencement of the present circle. In order to be convinced of this, we need only make a slight attempt. The animal series is as follows:

A. Splanchnozoa.

Circle I.Intestinal animalsProtozoa.

Class1. Gastric animalsInfusoria.

2. Intestinal "Polypi.

3. Absorbent "Acalephæ.

Circle II.Vascular animalsConchozoa.

4. Venous animalsMussels.

5. Arteriose "Snails.

6. Cardiac "Kracken.

Circle III.Respiratory animalsAncyliozoa.

7. Reticular animalsWorms.

8. Branchial "Crabs.

9. Tracheal "Flies.

B. Somatozoa.

Circle IV.Sarcozoa.

10. Osseous animalsFishes.

11. Muscular "Reptiles.

12. Nervose "Birds.

Circle V.Aistheseozoa.

13. Sense-animalsThricozoa.

3531. Now it is here conceivable, either that the families of Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, pass parallel to all the preceding classes from the Infusoria upwards, or that they first commence with the class of Fishes.

In regard to this question the Birds and Thricozoa give the most clear and decisive answer. If we adopt the last proposition, then the Birds must follow each other thus:

1. Fish-like BirdsPalmipedes.

2. Reptilian BirdsGrallæ.

3. Typical BirdsGallinæ.

4. Thricozooid BirdsStruthionidæ.

According to this, the Aquatic Birds would occupy the lowest rank, just as they have actually done hitherto in all other systems. The three other families too do not admit of any other position. But what is to be done meanwhile with the large majority of other Birds? They would extend or pass beyond the Thricozoa, and have thus no anatomical system whatever for their basis. Besides, Humming-birds, Sparrows and Linnets would in this way rank higher than the Gallinaceous and Struthious Birds, which some indeed believe to be the case, but without any proof, so that it is scarcely necessary to abide by such an opinion.

The Thricozoa must stand thus:

1. IcthyoidCetacea.

2. HerpetoidPachydermata.

3. OrnithoidRuminantia.

4. TypicalAll the remaining Thricozoa.

In the systems now in vogue the Thricozoa certainly follow in this manner, and no scruple whatever is made of placing the Mice, Ant-eaters, Shrews, and Bats above Elephants, Horses, and Deer. Yet apart from all this, the former must pass beyond the Thricozoa, and would thus likewise have no other organ as a foundation than perhaps the organs of sense, of which there are but five, while the families of Thricozoa not yet provided for are much more numerous, namely, besides those named, the Seals, Dogs, Bears, and Apes.

The above methods of arrangement must be consequently cast aside without limitation or reserve, although they may have held good for hundreds of years. But what does or will not hold good in an age that is devoid of principles?

It is thus evident that the smaller Birds stand below the Aquatics, just as the smaller Thricozoa do beneath the Whales, quite apart from organic structure, which in every respect is imperfect. They must correspond, consequently, to the Asarcous animals, wherewith also their great number agrees.

If this holds good of the two highest classes, so also must it hold good of the two lower, namely, Fishes and Reptiles, and we shall thus have:

I.Protozooid Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.

II.Conchozooid Fishes,&c.

III.Ancyliozooid "&c.

IV.Icthyoid "&c.

V.Herpetoid "&c.

VI.Thricozooid "&c.

VII.Ornithoid "&c.

3532. But this parallelism depends essentially upon the organs, and they are called, in the language of Physio-philosophy, more correctly:

I. Intestinal Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.

II. Vascular Fishes,&c.

III. Pulmonary "&c.

IV. Osseous "&c.

V. Muscular "&c.

VI. Nervose "&c.

VII. Sensorial "&c.

But as these names are unused, and give or convey only the anatomical idea, but no external image, the first appellations are to be preferred.

Tenth Class.

Osteozoa, Glossozoa—Pisces.

3533. No one of the upper classes is in such an extensive state of confusion as that of Fishes. Nor does this result simply from the great deviations in their structure from the normal type, these being rather useful than otherwise for the purposes of classification; but mainly from the utter want of any principle which might serve systematists as a guide. Thus at one time we find them having recourse to the nature of the osseous tissue, at another to the fins, now to the teeth or to the scales, ay, even to the fin-rays, and all this because the characteristic or typical organ has never been sought after, nor the presence of such an organ as indispensable been so much as known.

3534. The characteristic organ of Fishes is the Osseous system, which is consequently the principle also of their division.

The physical nature, form, position, and number of the osseous parts must therefore be principally considered, and hence, above all, the substance or texture of the bones; the limbs also, and the maxillæ with their teeth, as well as the teeth upon the palate, upon the tongue and the branchial arches.

With regard to the component substance or texture of the bones we encounter a great difficulty. The Cartilaginous Fishes appear to belong to each other, and are also usually arranged together. Yet amongst them we find those species, such as the Lampreys, which obviously occupy the lowest grade of all Fishes, while the Sharks and Rays remind us of the Reptilia and Thricozoa, as well by their external structure as the development of their sexual parts, since they possess perfect testes, and ovaria separate or distinct from the oviducts, while they no longer deposit roe, but large ova inclosed in leathery shells, like the higher Reptilia. Now, if we separate these Fishes from the Lampreys, with whom in the scaleless tegument, the branchial foramina, and even the external form they have many points of resemblance, nothing else remains to be done than assign them the uppermost place, and so parallelize them with the Thricozoa. But one is next constrained to unite into one family the Pikes and Herrings, which perhaps admits of being done.

There belong namely to the upper Fishes without doubt the Abdominales, which are divisible into five families: the Carps, Pikes, Shads, Salmons, and Herrings. Now, if the Sheat-fishes be placed inferiorly on account of their scaleless body and amorphous maxillæ, four families will still be left, which should correspond to the Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, so that no place is left remaining for the Sharks. Now, however, the Salmons correspond decidedly to the Reptilia; and the Flying Fishes, which are ranged below the Pikes, probably to the Birds. If we unite them with the Herrings, then the Sharks may occupy the place of the Thricozoa.

This being preassumed, we can now attempt the classification. The substance or texture of the bones is of such importance, that notwithstanding the separation of the Sharks and their congeners, the other Cartilaginous Fishes must be left along with them, and range upon the lowest stage, so that they thus correspond to the Intestinal animals.

The next great distinction in the osseous system is the regular and irregular form which it imparts to the body, so that the Regular-shaped can be separated in a tolerably "tranchant" manner from the Irregular Fishes.

The regular form of a Fish is obviously the ellipse, as we find to be the case in our fresh-water Fishes, namely, the Perches, Salmons and Carps. They are collectively covered with large scales, which is therefore also a sign of their regularity.

The Irregular Fishes are cylindrical, fusi-clavi-spheri-and tubuliform, usually destitute of scales or covered with plates, scutes, and spines. Thus, since the Cartilaginous Fishes are collectively irregular in form, the Irregular Osseous Fishes must be allowed to follow them.

The greatest variety of the osseous system is shown in the limbs, especially the posterior pair, which in the other classes also are generally imperfect and make their appearance the last. In Fishes they are not divided into digits, but only into rays, which probably correspond only to the digital ungues or to feathers. An animal which has fin-rays is assuredly a Fish, for fin-rays do not occur in any Reptile.

The posterior fins change even their situation. Those Fishes in whom they are placed near to the anus, are obviously the more perfect, as the Abdominales.

In others they advance to the rear of the thoracic fins, and are even attached to what has been called the "girdle" or humerus—Thoracici.

In others they even get in front of the thoracic fins on the throat—Jugulares.

Lastly, they are actually wanting—Apodales.

In the Lampreys there are neither thoracic nor ventral fins.

The skeleton of Fishes is not simply divided to a greater extent than in other animals, but has actually a greater number of bones, such as the rays in the perpendicular fins, which are wanting in all animals, even in the Reptilia. An animal with dorsal rays must surely be placed among the Fishes, and consequently the Lepidosiren also.

The misshapen Fishes will therefore occupy the lower stages, the regular the upper, not directly by reason of their form alone; but because the other organs are also more imperfectly developed, the bones being cartilaginous, the tegument asquamous, mucous, or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; the fins wanting or abortive, or displaced from their proper situation; the head disproportionate in size to the body, the mouth wide or narrow, the eyes placed superiorly or upon the forehead.

A lower character is afforded also by very long dorsal fins, such namely as extend from the head to the tail. In the Abdominales, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays, the perpendicular fins are small; in the Thoracici, Jugulares, and Apodes they are, on the contrary, mostly very long.

Moreover, a lower character is a very long coccygeal or caudal fin, which denotes that the anus lies far forwards, and therefore that the tail has a great preponderance over the trunk. In the Abdominales and the Sharks the tail is short; in the Rays thin and terminated abruptly, as in Reptiles and Thricozoa. Thus the higher the animals ascend the more does the tail diminish in length.

Regard being had to all these relations, the Irregular Fishes must be viewed as those which correspond to the lower classes of animals, and the Cartilaginous Fishes will indeed make the commencement; to these are annexed the Irregular Osseous Fishes, and nearest to them indeed those with arrested ventral fins, whether wanting or placed on the throat; then come the Regular Fishes, and of these first of all the Thoracici, and next the Abdominales. In this manner we obtain four divisions.

A. Body irregular. I. Pisces Cartilaginei. II. Stummelflosser—Apodales and Jugulares. B. Body regular. III. Thoracici—Tunnies, Breams, and Perch. IV. Abdominales—Carps, Pikes, Salmons and Herrings, Sharks.

Now, these divisions, having been discovered by a simple analysis or testing of facts, are to be arranged according to philosophical principles, and further subdivided, whereby the ground and legality of their existence will be recognized.

A. IRREGULAR FISHES.

3535. Body deviating from the elliptical form, devoid of scales, or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; head and tail disproportionate; fins mostly arrested.

They correspond to the unarticulate Proto-and Conchozoa; their irregular-shaped mucous or mailed body agreeing perfectly with these animals.

Order 1. Intestinal, Protozooid Fishes.

3536. Mouth round and without maxillæ, or disproportionately narrow and wide.

There can be no doubt that the Lampreys are the lowest Fishes, since they remind us in every respect of the Worms by their naked, mucous, and lineiform body, with indistinct head, almost devoid of bones and true teeth, having a circular mouth, obliterated nostrils, puny eyes, and finally branchial cysts, which occupy a higher rank only from their opening into the pharynx. They pass therefore parallel to the Infusoria, or rather to the commencements of the second animal series, namely, the Etozoa Ancyliozoa.

Now, although much dispute prevails concerning the division of Fishes which should be associated with the Lampreys, yet it appears to me that no others but the narrow-mouthed Fistularidæ and Pipe-fishes can follow, since they resemble them not only in their cartilaginous bones, but in the structure also of their branchiæ. They will thus truly occupy the place of the second family. Whether the narrow-mouthed Globe-fishes are likewise to be united with them or to be set up as a third family, may seem to be matter of doubt. I adopt the first course, and arrange at present the wide-mouthed or Frog-fishes and Shads in the third family.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Fishes, Lampreys.

Body vermiform, naked, and slimy, without membral fins. Ex. Branchiostoma or Amphioxys, Myxine, Petromyzon.

In these Fishes the mouth is quite in front and round, being without maxillæ and adapted for the purposes of suction; only one nostril, but mostly several branchial foramina, which lead to cysts provided with reticular branchiæ, but without opercula.

The Branchiostomata are the smallest Fishes, not much above 1" in length, almost devoid of head, yet with traces of eyes and a nostril. The Myxinæ crawl even into the rectum of other Fishes, and live therein like Entozoa. The river or lesser Lampreys stick in the mud; the Lampreys cling fast by suction to stones, and do not draw the water in through the mouth, but through the branchial foramina themselves, like the lower animals.

Fam. 2. Polypary Fishes, Narrow-mouthed.

Body cartilaginous, mouth having maxillæ, but unusually narrow, only one branchial foramen with immoveable operculum—Fistularidæ, Pipe-fishes and Globe-fishes.

In this family we still meet with species entirely naked, but covered also with plates, scutes, nails, and spines. The corymbiform or tufted branchiæ of the Syngnathi or the Lophobranchii still remind us strongly of the cystiform reticular branchiæ of the first family.

Fam. 3. Acalephoid Fishes, Wide-mouthed.

Body naked or covered with plates; mouth in front and mostly unusually wide.

I here arrange in doubt the Frog-fishes and the Shads, although the last are Abdominales. But they deviate from the Carps and Pikes by their asymmetrical, naked or mailed body, the large transverse mouth, the eyes staring upwards, and the arrested branchial opercula.

Order 2. Vascular, Conchozooid Fishes—Stummelflosser.

3537. Asymmetrical Osseous Fishes, Apodales, and Jugulares.

Among the true Osseous Fishes the Eels must undoubtedly range the lowest on account of their vermiform and asquamous body, and the want of ventral fins. To them are allied the Jugulares, namely, the Blennii and Gadidæ, as well as the Plaice; lastly, the asymmetrical Thoracici without scales, being quite naked or covered with scutes, as the Gobii and Triglæ.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Fishes, Eels.

Body naked and serpentiform, without ventral fins.

The Eels, from their naked, cylindrical or riband-shaped body, the long dorsal and coccygeal fin, the small branchial foramina occasionally confluent beneath the neck, and by their dwelling in the mud, rank among the imperfect Fishes. The one set have soft, the other hard, fin-rays, and on that account they have not simply been separated, but even far removed from each other. This difference alone is not so great as to justify their being arranged, when the structure of the body agrees in other respects, into distinct orders. The influence of the dorsal spines upon the life and natatory or waving movement of Fishes is so slight, and its value generally, in comparison with other parts, to be taken so little into account, that a natural arrangement can never result from these appendages, which do not deserve to be called organs, and viewed as principal characters.

Fam. 5. Snail-Fishes, Haddocks.

Jugulares without distinct scales and spines on the branchial operculum, and hard fin-rays.

These Fishes are allied to the Eels by the aborted ventral fins, the tolerably cylindrical, naked, or small-scaled body and soft dorsal fins. The viviparous Blennius bears with us its name of Aalmutter not in vain, for it resembles a shortened, slimy Eel. The Gadidæ are indeed less slimy and have in part scales, but, by reason of their lengthened form and their fins, cannot be removed far from the Eels; the same holds good of the Plaice.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Fishes, Grundeln.

Asymmetrical Jugulares and Thoracici, with naked and mailed body, in addition to hard fin-rays.

Here belong the Gobiidæ and Triglidæ, the first whereof are usually naked, the second mailed, with roughnesses upon the head and spines on the opercula; in all the eyes placed high up.

B. REGULAR FISHES.

3538. Body elliptical, mostly covered with scales, Thoracici and Abdominales; eyes placed sideways.

Order 3. Pulmonary, Ancyliozooid Fishes.

3539. Regular Thoracici.

The position of the abdominal fins immediately behind the thoracic is obviously a step further in the perfection of structure, and these Fishes must be therefore placed above the preceding kinds, in whom, apart from the asymmetrical form of body, the position of the fins is mostly upon the neck or advanced very close to it. The anus is still situated far forwards, and the tail is therefore mostly larger than the trunk. The dorsal fins are still very predominant. Among them we still meet with naked or microlepidal species, which in their abnormal form also remind us of the irregular Fishes, as the Tunnies and Haberdines or Stock-fish. They are therefore to be regarded as the lowest.

As is the case here in Fishes, so also in the Ancyliozoa the truly regular or bilateral body originates in them for the first time, or at least constitutes a persistent character.

Fam. 7. Worm-Fishes, Tunnies.

Tolerably naked or microlepidal, cylindriform or very much compressed, with small head and mouth; the teeth very feeble, only like a brush; the branchial opercula without spines. Here belong the proper Tunnies and Haberdines: all of them marine Fishes.

Fam. 8. Crustacean Fishes, Brassen.

Body perfectly regular, covered with great scales; mouth small with strong teeth; branchial opercula unarmed. Here belong the Labridæ or Lipped Fishes, Seabream and Osphromanus.

Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Fishes, Perch.

Body quite regular with large scales, mouth of moderate size with scythe-shaped teeth, branchial opercula armed. Here belong the Scianoidæ and Percoidæ. Dwell in the sea and rivers.

Order 4. Sarcose Fishes.

3540. Abdominales, dorsal fins small, with soft ramified rays, mostly placed far behind. Plainly regular Fishes with large scales. The head is regular, with the eyes upon its sides; the set of teeth varied; the trunk large, tail small, as are also the dorsal fins, which proceed more and more backwards to the sacrum or even the tail, a fact indicating their gradual disappearance, and therefore a sign also of greater perfection. Added to this, they are generally distributed over the whole earth in rivers and seas. Finally, it is they that yield the most nutriment to Man, which is also a constant sign of greater perfection; as is evidenced in the vegetable kingdom by the Fruit-trees or plants; in the animal kingdom by the Oysters, Snails, Sepiæ, Holothuriæ, Geese, Fowls, Cattle, &c.

Fam. 10. Typical Fishes, Carps.

Body of the Carps covered with large scales, mostly but one dorsal fin placed pretty far back, mouth nearly edentate, supra-maxillary bones arrested, large teeth on the posterior branchial arches, or what have been called pharyngeal bones. They are for the greatest part fresh-water Fishes, and those which are most used as articles of food.

Fam. 11. Reptilian Fishes, Salmons.

Mouth with strong teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; behind the radial dorsal fin there is still a fatty fin and no large scales. Here belongs the Lizard-like fish (Saurus), so called on account of its resemblance to the Lizards. Live in sea and fresh-water.

Fam. 12. Ornithic Fishes, Herrings and Pikes.

The Herrings have teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; only one dorsal fin; mostly large scales.

Body of the Pike slightly scaled, furnished mostly with a small dorsal fin situated very far back, mouth full of teeth, but none of these in the rudimental intermaxillary bone. Dwellers in the sea and in fresh water.

Among the Pikes is placed the Exocœtus or Flying fish.

Order 5. Sensorial Fishes.

3541. Bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the snout.

Fam. 13. Thricozooid Fishes, Sharks.

Abdominales; bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the projecting snout; mostly several pairs of separate branchial apertures.

Here belong the Chimæræ, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays. The last ought to be held as higher in rank, partly on account of their slender tail, partly because the huge Rays, which are called Cephalopterus, have the anterior thoracic rays free and so moveable that they can seize their prey with them as with hands. All lay, with the exception of the Sturgeons, large and leathery ova, and in this approximate pretty closely to the Reptilia.

It has been already remarked, that the large Cartilaginei would not pass correctly into the others, and obviously seem to claim the highest post. At some later period the principle may probably be discovered whereupon their union with the higher Osseous fishes depends. Both are at all events Abdominales.

Eleventh Class.

Myozoa, Rhinozoa—Reptilia.

3542. Body entirely naked or covered with scales, with distinctly separate and red-coloured muscles; two nostrils permeable throughout.

As the Muscular system is here the characteristic organ, it must be regarded principally in the division of the present class; the limbs also exhibit nowhere so great a variety as in this class, since they are in some cases wanting, while in others two only, in some four, are present. In place of fin-rays true toes have, however, made their appearance, these again indicating the greatest variety in the number of the joints; but meanwhile there are in no instance more than five toes.

The osseous system is constructed after the pattern of that of the Thricozoa, and is never furnished with dorsal rays as in Fishes.

The dental formula begins also to be regular. The teeth stand usually in the superior intermaxillary bone, and are sometimes pointed, at others obtuse; in the Ichthyosauri and Crocodiles they are even inserted by gomphosis, as in the Thricozoa. In many Serpents additional kinds of teeth occur, namely, the curved poison-teeth or fangs, which have an involuted groove traversing their concavity. In most Reptiles teeth also occur upon the palatal, but there are no longer any upon the lingual bone. In the Chelonia or Tortoises the teeth are entirely wanting, and they are also scarcely indicated in the Asquamous Salamanders and Frogs.

The os quadratum is found as in Birds; in Serpents, however, the mastoid bone has been freed, and hence the capability possessed by these creatures of expanding the mouth.

Viewed in accordance with the perfection of the limbs, the Salamanders and Frogs ought to be regarded as the highest in rank; but their scaleless tegument, their development out of spawn in the water, as well as branchiæ brings them near to the Fishes. In other respects their position is determined by the dental formula, which, as I have already shown, belongs to the limbs and thus to the motor system.

The position of the nostrils is now, throughout the class, in front of and upon the snout, being no longer situated almost on the forehead or vertex, as in Fishes. Their relation to the scales is likewise of importance for the purposes of division.

The naked Salamanders and Frogs will occupy the lowest place. By their form, absence of teeth, and mode of life, the Chelonia are allied to them.

Then follow the Serpents and Lizards with a perfect set of teeth. The Serpents are distinguished from the Lizards by their want of feet and the long bifid tongue inclosed within a sheath.

Among the Lizards apodal species occur, as the Blind-worms; but they have under the skin some pedal bones, and are, in addition to this, sufficiently distinguished from the Serpents by the short and sheathless tongue.

Among the Lizards with perfect feet there are some with small visual organs, like as in the Serpents; others with unusually large eyes, e. g. the Chameleon, Gecko, Ichthyosauri, and Crocodiles. All other Lizards, the Serpents, Chelonia, Salamanders and Frogs, have small eyes and consequently follow each other.

The Crocodile has teeth articulated by gomphosis, and consequently resembles the Thricozoa.

I divide the present class therefore into the following groups.

A. DERMAL REPTILES—SMALL-EYED.

Order 1. Protozooid Reptilia-Kröten.

3543. Body slimy and scaleless, or maxillæ devoid of teeth.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Reptiles, Petromyzoid—Caudate Batrachia, Salamanders.

Body naked and furnished with a tail.

These cylindrical animals bear the greatest resemblance to the Lampreys, or are Petromyzoid, being provided with setaceous and scarcely discernible teeth, frequently only one pair of feet; they are developed also out of spawn in the water, and many retain the branchiæ during the whole of life.

Fam. 2. Polypary Reptilia, Kugelfischartige—Stutzkröten, Frogs.

Body thick and naked and without a tail, but with four feet.

The Frogs and Toads proper are likewise developed out of spawn, but soon lose their branchiæ. In their form and even the structure of their mouth they are Kugelfischartige, i. e. remind us strikingly of the Globe-fishes, among the Engmäulern or Plectognathi.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Reptilia, Welsartige—Chelonia.

Body thick and coated with scales, maxillæ quite edentulous.

The Chelonia appear certainly to occupy a pretty high rank; they lay large ova covered with a calcareous shell, but frequently live or dwell in the water, and have, in their mode of living as well as form, a striking resemblance to the naked Batrachia. Through their want of teeth they range among all the succeeding families.

Order 2. Conchozooid Reptilia—Ophidia.

3544. Body cylindriform and scaly, teeth acuminate, tongue longitudinally bifid and inclosed within a sheath; no feet and eyelids.

The Serpents stand without doubt below the Lizards; yet it is difficult to arrange them properly into families. The poison-teeth appear to indicate a lower character, because the cranium is thereby removed or recedes from the usual type of structure, while the superior maxilla becomes very much arrested. But as there are moveable and immoveable poison-teeth, and the latter gradually pass over into the ordinary kinds of teeth, while externally also, no character has been found to distinguish the venomous from the non-venomous Serpents, it is best at present to discontinue this separation.

Then the Serpents can be brought according to the structure of their scales into 3 families. They are either of equal and small size, around the whole body; or there are plates upon the belly and tail; or finally, the plates under the latter are divided into two tablets.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Reptiles, Eel-like—Schuppenschlangen.

All the scales around the body small and of equal size; upon the belly only being somewhat larger. Here belong the venomous Hydridæ or Sea-snakes, and huge Boas or Pythons. If once the venomous Serpents could be distinguished as a distinct family, they will indeed be placed higher, and the non-venomous be separated from them. Then probably the Boas may be raised, together with their allies, as the highest family.

Fam. 5. Snail-Reptiles, Haddock-like—Tafelschlangen.

Plates under the belly, those beneath the tail being halved or divided into two.

Here belong our Colubri, but also the venomous Adders.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Reptilia, Grundelartige—Schienenschlangen.

Entire plates upon belly and tail, as in the Rattle-snakes.

Order 3. Ancyliozooid Reptilia—Lizards.

3545. Scales, the usual kind of teeth and tongue; inferior maxillæ anchylosed in front, mastoid bone not freed, mostly feet and eyelids.

They divide likewise into three families.

Fam. 7. Worm-Reptiles, Tunny-like—Schleichen.

Body round and serpentiform, with small scales, feet rudimental, or even wanting.

Here belong the Cæciliæ, Blind-worms, and Scinci. I have united these animals, which elsewhere have stood dispersed among the Serpents and Lizards as well as the Salamanders, and placed them as a distinct family between the two former. By reason of their rudimental feet they keep simply upon the earth and bore themselves passages therein. Their motion is serpent-like, because they lie upon the belly and cannot assist themselves with the feet.

Fam. 8. Crustacean Reptiles, Bream-like—Schuppenechsen.

Four perfect feet, body covered all round with small granular scales, tongue short and hardly slit.

Here belong the Flying Lizards, the Iguanæ and Basilisks. They usually climb about on trees and seek for beetles and berries.

Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Reptilia, Perch-like—Schienenechsen.

Four perfect feet, but plates upon the belly and tail, tongue thin and bifid. Here belong the common Lizards and the "Sauvegards" or Monitors. Their body is usually depressed. They cannot climb, but run about briskly upon the ground and eat beetles, and even the higher animals. Many are a fathom in length.

B. SARCOSE REPTILIA—LARGE-EYED.

3546. These animals have tubercles, spines and plates, with four perfect feet, as in the higher Lizards, but the toes are of pretty equal length; there are no palatal teeth, and the tongue is not fissured. They are of varied size, lead a sluggish and mostly nocturnal mode of life, and have a slow pace, occurring too only in warm climates.

Order 4. Sarcose Reptiles.

3547. Feet abnormal, being fin-and wing-shaped, adapted for climbing or clinging. They correspond quite closely to the three next animal classes.

Fam. 10. Ichthyoid Reptilia, Herring-like—Ichthyosauri.

All four feet converted into fins.

Here belong clearly the monstrous extinct animals, which formerly lived in the sea. They had gomphotic teeth almost like the Crocodile.—Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus.

Fam. 11. Typical Reptiles, Salmon-like—Geckos.

Climbing feet, or retractile claws as in the Cats, and perpendicular laminæ or plates under the soles, by means of which they cling to walls. They usually dwell in houses and catch beetles—Chamæleo, Gecko.

Fam. 12. Ornithoid Reptilia, Pike-like—Dragons.

Body short and bird-like, with very long neck and a long digit, unto which an alary membrane has probably been attached.

Here belong plainly the fossilized species of a single genus known by the name of Pterodactylus. They have been hitherto discovered in different parts of Europe, and probably flew about, like the Bats, by night.

Order 5. Sensorial Reptiles.

3548. Teeth wedged into the jaws, toes regular.

Fam. 13. Thricozooid Reptilia, Shark-like—Crocodiles.

Feet and toes of equal length, with swimming webs between them.

The Crocodiles must be without doubt regarded as the most perfect Reptilia, on account of their notched teeth and regular feet. In many respects they remind us, like the Sharks do among Fishes, of the Thricozoa.

Twelfth Class.

Neurozoa, Otozoa—Aves.

3549. In these animals it is again shown in a striking manner, that the characteristic organ is the principle of classification. Without recourse being had to the varied structure of the head, especially of the beak, the division of Birds would not be possible, although the feet frequently yield good characters.

3550. The development of the young makes an essential distinction upon a large scale, since one great body of Birds must be fed as nestlings, whilst the other, when scarcely emerged from the egg, runs about and seeks its own nourishment. Although in the lower animals the young do not require the assistance of the parents, and, on the other hand, those of the Thricozoa are suckled for a longer time by the mother; yet still those Birds which can, upon issuing from the egg, at once nourish themselves, such as the Fowls, Geese, &c., are probably the most perfect, for they pass parallel to the upper classes of animals, and for the Ostrich to be a Thricozoon, there is indeed as little wanting as to the Crocodile.

3551. There is no doubt whatever that the Natatores in every respect, both in the structure of the feet and head as also in their mode of living and feeding, repeat the Fishes. This opinion the empirical zoologists have already adopted from the Physio-philosophy.

The same may be said of the Grallæ or Wading Birds in reference to the Reptiles. Their feet, neck, and beak are serpentiform, and associated with a frog-like body. Their mode of living and feeding is likewise amphibious. But these birds pass over so directly into the Fowls, that the latter could not be arranged elsewhere, apart even from their displaying by their domestication to Man the higher grade of understanding, which is manifested for the first time in the class of Birds.

The Bustards and Ostriches are, finally, the highest stage of Birds, and form the closest alliance with the Thricozoa.

3552. This point being once settled, it is self-evident that the Birds, which do not stand in need of being fed, occupy the uppermost place, and consequently the nestling or parent-fed Birds the lowest, i. e. the former correspond to the Sarcozoa, the latter to the Dermatozoa.

A. SPLANCHNIC BIRDS.—NESTHÖCKER.

3553. Remain, after exclusion from the egg, in the nest and are fed; neck and feet short, toes four in number and ununited, beak pointed.

By their short neck, which rarely appears longer than the head, these Birds approximate the Reptiles and Fishes, in whom also the head has scarcely separated itself from the thorax.

The uniformity of the feet and toes is likewise an inferior character, as it is found in the Dermal Reptiles and Fishes; while in the Sarcose Reptilia and Fishes the feet and fins make their appearance in the greatest variety, both as regards the form and length of the feet themselves, as the structure of the toes; and such is the case too in the higher organized Birds.

The same holds good also of the form of the head, and especially of the maxillæ and teeth, which are very uniform in the lower Fishes and Reptiles, but occur under very varied conditions in the upper kinds, exactly as in the Natatores and Grallæ, in the Gallinæ and Struthionidæ,

Order 1. Protozooid Birds—Tenuirostres.

3554. Bill awl-shaped.

These Birds present a resemblance to each other, not simply in their mode of feeding, since they are collectively insectivorous, but also in the slenderness of their form, and in the dazzling, varied, sharply defined, and very striking colours of their plumage, as well as in their habits, for they employ their feet and tail usually for the purposes of support, and so climb about the upright stems and branches of trees.

Among them also occur the smallest sized Birds, a fact which, compared with a similar one in the Thricozoa, indicates likewise their lower grade or rank.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Birds, Tree-runners or Creepers.

Bill awl-shaped, three toes in front—Humming-birds, Tree-creepers.

The small size of the Humming-birds seems to render them the lowest in rank of the class, and by this means the system obtains a point of departure, unto which similar forms may be annexed. Their manner of feeding is rather a process of lapping, than an actual snapping with the bill; their food also, which consists of small Beetles and their larvæ, requires scarcely any operation of the bill, so that here the cibarial instruments obviously rank upon the lowest stage, and remind us of the proboscis in Flies, Butterflies, and Bugs.

Fam. 2. Polypary Birds, Woodpeckers.

Bill straight and chisel-shaped, two of the toes directed forwards and two backwards.

The Woodpeckers stand obviously a step higher, because their bill is specially active in seeking out larvæ, and their body is held securely by the toes and stiff tail.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Birds, Cuckoos.

Bill rounded, slightly arched and obtuse; feet scansorial.

These Birds are less animated or lively than the preceding ones, keep themselves more concealed, and live mostly upon caterpillars in warmer countries. Some of them lay their eggs in the nests of other Birds.

Order 2. Conchozooid Birds—Conirostres.

3555. Bill short, thick, and straight, without a notch, three toes directed forwards.

These Birds usually perch upon branches, without, however, being able to walk upon them, since they usually hop, and must therefore make an auxiliary use of their wings. They are all of them granivorous, and in a condition both to crush the seeds with their strong bill, as well as pound them with their fleshy stomach or gizzard.

Their instruments of manducation and digestion are therefore perfect, added to which they are so allied to the subsequent order of Rapaces, that they could not be arranged lower; probably they ought even to rank higher.

Fam. 4. Mussel-Birds, Sparrows.

Bill short and coniform, without bristles; eat simply grains.

Fam. 5. Snail-Birds, Crows.

Bill long and coniform; eat grains, beetles and flesh, and pass gradually over into the Rapaces.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Vögel, Parrots.

Bill very thick and curved. The food consists of grains and fruits. Their spiritual energies or capacities are also more strongly developed.

Order 3. Ancyliozooid Birds—Dentirostres.

3556. Bill with a notch; food consists of worms and flesh.

Fam. 7. Worm-Birds, Cantores or Songsters.

Bill tolerably long and straight; eat worms and berries.

Fam. 8. Crustacean Birds, Fly-catchers.

Bill straight, with sharp edges superiorly, point de-curved or bent downwards. Their aliment consists of insects, which they mostly snap at during flight—Fly-catchers, Shrikes, Swallows.

Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Birds—Rapaces.

Bill unciform; seize upon the Sarcozoa with their claws.

B. SARCOSE BIRDS—NESTFLÜCHTER.

3557. Run about soon after being hatched, and nourish themselves. Bill and feet very varied, the former being mostly obtuse.

These Birds do not fly much nor hop, but walk, run, or swim. In them are found all the diversities of bill and feet; the latter are mostly placed far back, so that the body is usually directed upwards.

Their food also is very varied, consisting of seeds, grass, fruits, worms, and flesh.

Order 4. Sarcose Birds.

3558. Neck long, i. e. much longer than the head and bill, frequently longer than the body.

Fam. 10. Fish-Birds, Natatores.

Natatory feet short.

Mostly large Birds, which live upon fishes, worms, and many of them even upon herbs. Their bills are so varied, that they could represent several families, a fact which likewise speaks in favour of their higher position. It may be regarded as an instructive hint, that animals occupy a higher rank, if in them a richness or variety of forms is to be perceived. This is the case throughout the Thricozoa. The Natatores, through the structure and posterad insertion of their feet, through their closely-set plumage, which frequently presents short and scale-like feathers, by their swimming and diving, and lastly, through their fish-catching, approximate as closely to the structure and mode of living of Fishes as it is possible for a Bird to do, while still retaining the characters of its class. Many row even with the wings, and consequently use them as veritable fins.

Fam. 11. Reptilian Birds, Grallæ or Waders.

Legs, neck, and bill very long.

These Birds are a lively image of, or a composition from, the Reptilia, having a Frog's body with its long feet, and a Serpent's neck with a Tortoise's head.

They wade about in marshes to catch worms and fish; have also bills of very varied structure, yet generally very long and slender, being in some cases naked, in others covered with a skin.

Fam. 12. Typical Birds, Gallinæ.

Bill and legs shorter, the former being arched, the latter armed with strong toes for scraping.

Feed usually upon grains and worms, and live in dry situations. The Marsh-hens pass at once into the true Fowls, and these are attached, like as is no other family, through their capacity for domestication, to Man.

Order 5. Sensorial Birds.

3559. Run only, cannot fly.

Fam. 13. Thricozooid Birds, Bustards.

Fowls with long legs and mostly diminished toes—Bustard, Cassowary, and Ostrich.

These Birds have mostly such shortened wings, that they cannot elevate themselves from the earth. In the Cassowary we find, in place of the primary feathers upon the wings, five barbless quills like so many claws. The Ostrich has a pelvis closed in front like the Mammalia. It has not incorrectly been compared with the Camel, since the Ruminant animals in general have many resemblances in common with Birds, especially in the development of the horny substance, which obviously agrees with the feathers.

Thirteenth Class.

Aistheseozoa, Opthalmozoa—Thricozoa.

3560. All the senses perfect, five digits; the face covered with skin and flesh, the body with hairs; mammæ present.

3561. The Thricozoa combine in themselves all the animal classes, and indeed, so far as the development by grades makes no distinction, in equal proportion.

The differences are in no class therefore so numerous and so strongly pronounced as in this; and yet one is in more doubt almost concerning the rank of the families than in the former classes. It turns out, therefore, that they are not treated according to sound or solid principles, but that these, after the manner in which Natural History is still prosecuted, are despised.

Upon viewing superficially the groups of Thricozoa, it is certainly difficult to determine, which are the lowest families, although the uppermost ones are very well known; so that here matters are the reverse of what they were in Plants. In the case of Birds the empirical inquirer into nature knows neither which are the upper, nor which the lower groups; while in the Reptiles and Fishes he fares still worse.

It is pretty generally conceded that the Whales are the lowest in point of rank, because their posterior feet are wanting, and in this they certainly do depart the most from the usual or normal form of the Thricozoa; yet still it is just these animals which form the proper starting-point for the present class. Even the empirical naturalists here begin to employ physio-philosophical language, and designate these animals by the title of Fish-like Thricozoa. But, if they repeat the Fishes, then there must be Thricozoa, which stand or rank below them, and pass parallel to the Dermatozoa. Which these latter are, is not indeed to be declared until the other groups have been separated and brought into their proper station or place.

If once there are Ichthyoidal there must also be Herpetoidal or Reptile-like Thricozoa. Now, if the Whales correspond to the former, then the serial arrangement of the latter kinds is readily enough decided. To the Whales no other animals admit of being annexed but the Swine-like genera, such as the Hippopotamus, Pig, and Elephant, which, through their muscular mass, almost naked skin, and residence in marshy situations, agree very closely with the Reptilia.

In the next place come the Ruminantia, to take their site opposite the class of Birds, with whom they correspond in their susceptibility to domestication, large ears, fine sense of hearing, and timid disposition. The horns must be regarded as the obscure metatype (nachregung) of the feathers. These three families may be aptly termed Ungulata or Hoofed-animals.

Were matters to fare simply thus, then the center-building of this class would stand firm, and it would consequently not be difficult to say which animals stood below and which above it. For to the Apes are allied the Bears, to these the Dogs, Cats, and Martens, and to the latter again the Seals; all would rank above the Ungulata or Hoofed animals, and represent the proper or typical class of Thricozoa.

But the Thricozoa are Æsthetic or Sense-animals, and consequently the upper families must pass parallel to the organs of sense, if the lower correspond to the anatomical systems.

Now, if the eye has attained its maximum development in Man, the same must be said of the ear in the Apes, of the nose in the Bears, of the tongue in the Carnivora, and of the skin in the Seals.

Having so disposed of these, the only remaining Thricozoa are the Bats, Shrews, Moles, Marsupials, Sloths, and Rodentia.

In common parlance we compare the Bats with the Birds on account of their wings, unto which may be further added the large size of their ears. Their close relation, however, with the Shrews and Rodents assigns them a lower rank. They must be placed parallel with the Ptilota or Flies. The dental formula of the Bats resembles too so strikingly that of the Shrews that a rusty-grown prejudice can alone place the former in the neighbourhood of the Apes. They have obtained this post, without doubt, simply because they have but two mammæ, and these placed upon the chest.

The Moles cannot be removed from the Shrews.

The choice of position now remains between the Marsupials and Rodents. And to determine this point cannot prove difficult, for every one will place the former above the latter on account of their size, more perfect dental formula, and the hands, upon whose model the hind-feet have been in many species formed. To the Marsupials are annexed the Sloths, because several of them still possess marsupial or pouch-bones.

Viewed in this and in every other respect, the Rodentia stand or rank the lowest; and since the members of this family are much more numerous than those of any other, we may conclude that they fill up several families of the asarcose animals.

3562. The series would accordingly be as follows; first of all Rodents, then Sloths and Marsupials; with Moles, Shrews, and Bats, all as the repetition of the Dermatozoa. They are all Myoidal or Mouse-like in character. Next come the Whales, Pigs, and Ruminants as the repetitions of the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds.

The Carnivora with the Bears, Apes, and Man, as being the proper representatives of the senses, conclude or wind up the list. They alone have a regular dental formula. We have thus—

I. Splanchno-Thricozoa; Mice, Edentata, Marsupialia, Shrews and Bats. II. Sarco-Thricozoa; Whales, Pachyderms, Ruminants. III. Æsthesio-Thricozoa; Carnivora, Seals, Bears, Apes and Man.

3563. It is here shown, just as distinctly as in the series of the classes, that no simple scale exists in the history of development, and consequently in the arrangement of animals. The Mouse-like species stand off from the rest, and then follow the entirely different Ungulata with the Pigs and Ruminants, which once again diverge in like manner, and make room for the development of the Seals, which then proceed through the Dogs, &c., in a less interrupted series up to Man.

He who marvels at this, let him take and set the table of the class-series before his eyes, and he must give utterance with us to the following words; namely, that the lower animals diverge or turn aside, and the entirely different Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds follow, which, once again diverging, make room for the development of the Thricozoa, or, in other words, the "Compendium Animalium." A perfect parallelism is thus found to exist between the classes of animals generally and the families of Thricozoa; but no linear or continuously progressive connexion is discoverable between one set and the other, but an appearance by fits or starts of new forms, just as the systems and organs also are not gradually evolved metamorphoses of one system, but sudden productions "en avant" with new tissues, forms, and functions. The animal system is a multifariously-constructed temple, with its nave, choir, chapels, and towers, while these again are present with the whole diversity of forms, which belongs to them in their several characters or bearings.

A. SPLANCHNO-THRICOZOA—PFOTENTHIERE, MAUSARTIGE.

3564. Small animals with irregular set of teeth; four feet with claws. The regular set of teeth has included all kinds of teeth, and with them four or six incisors.

A set of teeth is irregular, which has more or less than the ordinary number of incisors, in which moreover one or the other kind of tooth is wanting, or if it is separated by a breach or interspace.

The small Thricozoa divide into three orders.

The one have blunt uniform molars, two rodent or gnawing-teeth, and no canines—Rodentia.

The others have, one might say, a wholly aberrant and confused dental formula, there being at one time too few, at another too many teeth; molars uniform, with perfectly irregular incisors and canines—Sloths, Marsupials.

Others, lastly, have a tolerably regular set of teeth, presenting quadriacuminate molars, mostly small canines, and rodent-like incisors—Shrews and Bats.

Order 1. Gedärm-, Eyer, Schleimthier-Haarthiere—Rodentia.

3565. Rodent teeth, without canines.

The dental formula of the gnawing Rats and Mice is so varied, and so devoid of influence upon their bodily structure and mode of life, that all attempts to arrange these animals in accordance with it have failed.

3566. The lower position of the Rodentia admits of being easily proved by taking to our aid the meaning of the dental system. The splanchnic or visceral teeth obviously rank lower than the membral teeth. Now, it so happens that the anterior teeth are in the Rodentia the principal organ, not only of the dental formula, but of the entire animal. Without gnawing-teeth the Mice could not maintain their existence, much less their character. They thus depend wholly and solely upon the visceral teeth, and are consequently the lowest Thricozoa.

In addition to this comes their small size, which is by no means a character to be despised, and one to which all naturalists pay regard, even while they keep it, upon the other hand, in the background; or else they must place the Elephant below the Field-mice.

3567. I divide them, as well according to structure as habit, into three groups. The one has the front and hind feet of equal length, with blunt claws for digging.

The other has similar feet, with sharp claws for climbing.

Lastly, the third has the hind feet longer than the fore for leaping.

Fam. 1. Infusorial Thricozoa—Wühlmäuse.

Eyes and auditory conchæ feebly developed, feet for scraping, tail lax; live always under the ground, and eat roots and grains—Spalax, Rat, Common and Field-mouse, Beaver; mostly only three molars.

Fam. 2. Polypary Thricozoa—Klettermäuse.

Eyes, ears, and tail large, the latter being stiff and hairy, claws pointed; live mostly upon trees, eating nut-kernels and fruit; usually four molars—Squirrels.

Fam. 3. Acalephan Thricozoa—Laufmäuse.

Eyes and ears large, tail hairy, hind feet longest, claws obtuse, lamellar or plicated teeth; live upon the surface of the earth and eat grass—Hares and Guinea-pigs; mostly more than four molar teeth.

Order 2. Ader-, Geschlechts, Schalthier-Haarthiere—Kaumäuse.

3568. Teeth and toes deviating completely from those of every other order; nor in a less degree the method of propagation.

In some instances all the teeth are wanting, in some they exceed the ordinary number, and are quite uniform; sometimes the lateral teeth only are similar, but in this case there are no canines and incisors; or else there are canines with more than six incisors, or also with rodent teeth.

In like manner the toes are irregular; the one kind being disproportionately large and the other absurdly small; some are for the most part wholly connate; in many cases there are hands posteriorly. The claws also are in some instances obtuse, in others sharp for climbing, or else asymmetrically large and unciform. Hands adapted for swimming or flight also occur.

Finally, the sexual parts are quite aberrant, being mostly very large and singularly formed; the mammæ frequently lodged in a pouch, or at least furnished with marsupial bones. The young are born as naked and immoveable embryos, and suckled for a very long time.

All this reminds us of the Conchozoa or Shell-animals as doth also their unusual covering of belts, scales, spines and long hairs.

Fam. 4. Mussel-like Thricozoa, Sloths.

Lateral and canine teeth equal in size and obtuse, incisors mostly wanting, and occasionally all the teeth; claws very large and curved—Ornithorynchi, Ant-eaters, Armadillos and Sloths.

Fam. 5. Snail-like Thricozoa, Herbivorous Marsupials.

Rodent teeth, usually with stunted proximal and canine teeth, lateral teeth level; toes mostly connate and very unequal; they live in the Old World upon roots, grass, and fruit—Wombat, Dasyure, Kangaroo, Opossum.

Fam. 6. Kracken-Haarthiere, Carnivorous Marsupials.

Mostly more than six incisors, triangular molars and large canines; live in the New World and in Australia, eating worms, insects, eggs and flesh—Vulpine Phalanger, Phascogale, Beutelratze.

The abnormal structure of the sexual parts reminds us of the same relation in the Snails and Kracken.

Order 3. Lungen-, Fell-, Ringelthier-Haarthiere—Raubmäuse.

3569. Molar teeth mostly quadriacuminate, with a break in the series, canines and pointed incisors, or rodent teeth with lateral incisors, five toes; live upon worms and insects.

Fam. 7. Worm-Thricozoa, Moles.

Claws, sharp incisors or rodent teeth, with lateral incisors or false molars; live exclusively under the earth, and cast up the mould.

Fam. 8. Crustaceous Thricozoa, Shrews.

Paws, rodent teeth, with small lateral incisors and canine teeth. Many burrow passages without throwing up the soil.

Fam. 9. Ptilotal Thricozoa, Bats.

Alary membrane between the feet and anterior digits; pointed canine and incisor teeth.

Order 4. Sarco-Thricozoa—Ungulata.

3570. Body large and heavy; teeth stunted, molars uniform, tolerably obtuse; feet fin-or hoof-like; mostly udders, rarely mammæ.

Fam. 10. Ichthyoid Thricozoa, Whales.

Skin naked; no hind feet; two horizontal caudal fins; toes of the anterior feet surrounded by a common skin; no auditory conchs; posteriorly two udders. All live in the sea.

It is hardly necessary, in speaking of the Whales, to direct attention to their monstrously-developed osseous system and large fleshy tongue, as also to their correspondence with Fishes in the entire form, manner of living, and imperfect nose. Their head is still confluent with the neck, the teeth are horny plates of coalesced hairs, or uniform simple points, as in Fishes. Most of them have even dorsal fins; the two udders are hardly separated from the sexual parts.

Fam. 11. Reptilian Thricozoa, Pigs.

Four feet with hoofs; canines and mostly also incisors; stomach simple, do not ruminate—Nylghau, Pig, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse. These animals love the marshes, and are through their mode of living, as also their form, similar to the larger Reptiles; or, in other words, through their colossal skeleton, with preponderating muscular mass, they are Myozoa, through the proboscis or snout, Rhinozoa.

Fam. 12. Ornithic Thricozoa, Ruminants.

Toes bifid, surrounded by a hoof; above there are rarely incisor and canine teeth; udders behind; stomach fourfold; they ruminate. The horn-formation indicates a relationship with feathers; the want of incisor teeth, large ears, and timidity of disposition that of the family with the class of Birds.

Both families enter into connexion with the Whales through the size of their body, the structure of their feet, form of the head and disposition towards water and mud. They are quadrupedal Whales, which have come out of the water, and adopted a manner of living like the Amphibious Reptiles and Grallatorial Birds.

Order 5. Æsthesio-Thricozoa—Unguiculata.

3571. Here for the first time an equiponderance of the sensorial organs makes its appearance and along with it therefore a resemblance between the animals, which is no more interrupted by such strange or odd forms, as in the preceding orders.

All of them have divided toes with claws or nails, and all kinds of teeth with multiacuminate enamelled molars.

3572. No doubt can exist about the animals belonging to the present order; they are the Apes, Bears, and Carnivora generally, as Seals, Cats, Dogs, Martens, and such like beasts.

I also cherish no doubt concerning the rank of the two first families, namely, the Apes and Bears, although they have been separated in a strange manner by the interposition of the Bats and likewise the Shrews. At some future time one will not believe that the Bats and Shrews were once placed next to the Apes.

3573. Doubt, however, may exist concerning the rank of the Carnivorous or Rapacious animals; so that here the principles of our philosophy must be brought to bear in our behalf. I regard then these animals as the highest representatives of the sensorial organs. By this step three families at once take their proper positions, viz.:

Man upon the station or rank of the Eye.

The Apes on that of the Ear.

The Bears upon the post of the Nose.

Difficulties are consequently presented in regard only to the Rapacious animals, but which are removed, so soon as the three families just named are parallelized with the others thus:

Bone, Tongue, Whales.

Muscles, Nose, Pigs—Bears.

Nerves, Ear, Cattle—Apes.

Senses, Eye—Man.

Now the Seals range of themselves next the Whales.

There are thus left the Rapacious animals proper, which as Dermatozoa or Sentient animals must consequently correspond to the Splanchnozoa. In favour of this, evidence is afforded not only by the particular use made of their feet, but their great number also, which can admit of comparison with no individual family or order.

Now, however, there are three orders of Murine animals.

1. Rodent Mice—the Rodentia proper. 2. Chewing Mice—the Sloths and Marsupialia. 3. Rapacious Mice—the Moles, Shrews, and Flitter-mice, or Bats.

In like manner do the rapacious Carnivora divide into three groups.

1. The mostly sneaking and scansorial Martens and Viverræ.

2. The sneaking and fossorial Skunks, Gluttons, and Badgers, with soles and blunt claws.

3. The high-legged Digitigrades, as Dogs, Hyænæ, and Cats.

As I have given up the dental formula in the Rodentia as a means of division, so now it seems to me that it must be abandoned also in the Beasts of Prey. The whole appearance of them and their mode of living, which is still the main point in view, obviously directs us more towards consideration of the feet, than of the dental formula. The Marten or Weasel kind were formerly compared with the Mice, and called on that account Mustela. They cannot be regarded otherwise than as the lowest in rank.

Unto them are obviously annexed the short-legged Civets, despite their cunoidal set of teeth. Many have half soles or pads under the feet. With these again the Fox-like animals, notwithstanding their viverrine dental formula, enter into alliance. I believe that I have rightly parted the Badger from the Bears, and rightly done it too in this place.

The highest are without doubt the Dogs, Hyænas, and Cats, with their long and upright legs, not to speak of their mental faculties. We accordingly obtain the following arrangement.

Fam. 13. Dermal Thricozoa—Carnaria.

All kinds of teeth included; six broad incisors, a longer canine, two to three small false molars, a large carnivorous tooth and large Querzahn, and frequently also the Kornzahn. Mostly five separated toes, with nails resting upwards, and either sharp or obtuse feet, occasionally soled. They eat flesh, mostly that of warm-blooded animals, and kill their prey themselves.

Alliance 1. Rodent-like Unguiculate Animals—Schleicher.

Feet short and oblique, mostly sharp claws without entire soles.

1. Mole-like Animals—Martens.

Sharp claws without soles, and no Kornzahn—Martens and Otters.

2. Squirrel-like—Civets.

Sharp, curved, and mostly retractile claws, superiorly the Kornzahn—Civet, Paradoxurus.

3. Leporine or Hare-like—Ichneumons.

Straight claws with half soles—Ichneumon, Ryzæna.

Alliance 2. Kaumausartige—Fossores.

Large and straight claws with soles, no Kornzahn.

1. Sloth-like Animals—Mephitic Animals.

Dental formula, like that of the Marten—Skunk, Mydaus.

2. Wombat-like—Gluttons.

Dental formula, like that of Marten, but behind the carnivorous is a small tubercular tooth which is wider, being broader than long.

3. Opossum-like—Badgers.

The tuberculous tooth larger than the carnivorous tooth, and nearly quadrangular.

Alliance 3. Raubmausartige—Digitigrada.

Legs high and upright; no soles.

1. Mole-like—Dogs.

Claws blunt, the Kornzahn both in upper and lower jaw.

2. Shrew-like—Hyænas.

Claws blunt; no Kornzahn but a small Querzahn.

3. Bat-like—Cats.

Claws sharp, curved, and retractile; no lower tubercular tooth, but a small upper one.

Fam. 14. Lingual Thricozoa, Seals.

Feet fin-shaped, the hinder pair stretched out, dental formula complete, but the lateral teeth tolerably even, and six or four incisors; tongue mostly somewhat slit. They correspond to the Whales.

Fam. 15. Nasal Thricozoa, Bears.

Nose elongated into a snout, walk upon soles; all kinds of teeth, of which, however, the carnivorous or tearing tooth is similar to the grinders, six incisors.

The slower gait, originating from their walking on the soles of the feet, with the less pointed molars, assign to these animals a less rapacious habit of living. They therefore kill no large animals, and are satisfied with worms and even roots, fruit, and honey. They repeat the Pigs.

Fam. 16. Nasal Thricozoa, Apes.

The ears begin to acquire the human form, as do even the teeth; never more than four incisors, but a longer canine; hands both fore and aft.

These animals live upon fruits and beetles, and are by their scansorial feet destined to live upon trees. Their varied, piping, and sonorous cry is a property of the sense of hearing, and along with it the larynx also usually obtains a stronger amount of development.

3574. It seems that every family of Thricozoa contains five genera, and that these accord with the organs of sense. In many families this relation is at least striking, e. g.

Among the Pigs the Elephant is obviously characterized by the nose, the Hippopotamus by the skin, the Pig by the dental system; and thus by the sense of taste, the Rhinoceros by large ears, the Horse by the eyes, thus

1. SkinHippopotamus.

2. Tongue Pig.

3. NoseElephant.

4. EarRhinoceros.

5. EyeHorse.

In like manner do the Ruminantia or Cattle become distinctly marshalled according to the five senses. The Camel recedes from the others by its simply uplying hoofs, the Musk-deer by its monstrous canine; the Goat is distinguished by its fine sense of smell, and the Giraffe by its large ears, the Ox by the large and beautiful eye, thus

1. Hautrind Camel.

2. Zungen-Musk-deer.

3. Nasen-Goat.

4. Ohren-Giraffe.

5. Augen-Ox.

In the Bears also we are confronted by this principle of classification.

The Skin-bearis the Common Bear.

The Tongue- "is the Raccoon.

The Nose- "is the Nasua.

The Ear- "is the Arctitis.

The Eye- "is the Cercoleptes.

After this principle had been so strikingly verified in several families, I proceeded with confidence also to those which were more difficult, and it resulted that each consists only of five genera severally distinguished by the predominance of some one organ of sense. This method has been carried out throughout my "Allgemeine Naturgeschichte."