PART III. BIOLOGY—OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS. (continued 4)

1833. Point-and globe-form are consequently, as regards the tissue of the substance, the first two forms of the animal body.

1834. What develops itself apart from nerve and bone in the animal, must either range between or below both; it must participate of both forms, or be only their incompletion.

3. Fibrous Tissue.

1835. The nervous and osseous substance could not range opposite to each other, without a transition or a something interposing; as little as could æther and Terrestrial, or sun and planet, between which the moved æther or the heat oscillates, and conditionates the planetary motion.

1836. Between the soft point-form of the nerve and the hard globe-form of the bone, a semi-oxydation stands midway, just as the air stands between the æther and the earth. As this is the medium element, wherein the light is refracted into colours, and thereby warms and moves the planet, so must this median animal formation be the element, through which the nerve imparts its motion to the bones.

1837. This organ stands, like the air, upon the middle rate of oxydation; the oxygen becomes alternately united with it and set free; which is neither possible in the point-form, as being that which incessantly liberates oxygen, nor in the globe-form, as being that which always holds or retains the oxygen in union with it.

1838. This tissue must consist of firm or solid nervous granules, which have been serially co-arranged in lines or radii. Such organic lines are called Fibres.

1839. The fibrous is the third original tissue, which appears in the animal organization.

1840. The nerve acts upon the fibres as upon the bone, or as a Central upon a Peripheric, as the light upon the air.

1841. Thereby the soft fibre is polarized; the poles are mutually attracted and repelled, and motion of the fibres originates, their extremities approximating or withdrawing by virtue of the polarity. Contractile fibres are called sarcose or fleshy fibres.

Flesh.

1842. The flesh is the median formation between nerve and bone. It is half nervous mass, therefore sentient, half bone, therefore moving.

1843. The essence of the motion resides in the muscle, not in the nerve. Such is the cause of motion, the muscle being the self-moving, the bone that which is moved.

1844. The flesh must surround the bone, as the air or water surrounds the earth.

1845. The flesh is a terrestrial substance, just as the bone is; the nerve is a cosmical substance, and on that account the mediator of everything.

B. VEGETABLE TISSUES.

4. Cellular Tissue.

1846. There are three, and only three constituent forms essential to the animal substance, the point, the globe, and the line; equivalent to centre, periphery, and radius.

1847. Out of these three all other forms, of whatever kind, are developed, through degradation unto vegetable structure. This form can be none other than the Cell-form. In the animal there are therefore four fundamental forms, while in the vegetable only one occurs.

1848. The cellular form may be also called the water in the animal, the globe-form the earth, the fibrous the air, the point-form the fire. Thus is the animal even in its tissues a whole universe, for it cannot otherwise be thought of.

1849. The cellular substance is the last division of the point-substance, because the nervous granule becomes hollow. A true cellular tissue first makes its appearance therefore in the higher animals.

1850. Bone, flesh and nerve are the highest organs of the animal; the viscera, which mostly consist of cellular tissue, will indicate the Vegetative in the animal. Proper animal organs can only present the above-mentioned triplicity. What is not bone, flesh or nerve, is not animal, but vegetable.

1851. Nerve, flesh and bone are mutually excited, and are independent of the cellular tissue. They are moreover the animal in the animal, the thoroughly Free and Voluntary.

1852. These three substances have therefore nothing to do with the three terrestrial processes; they do not digest, respire, nourish nor transport about the galvanic sap, but live for themselves or to their own satisfaction.

1853. The origination of the three inferior substances out of the nervous mass, is perfectly similar to the original creative process of the three terrestrial elements from the æther. The animal organism is a second world-creation, for in the organic æther an organic air, earth and water, have been produced, or it has itself become these through fixation of the poles. This capacity for resemblance between the organic and inorganic elements is marvellous; but yet there would be more to wonder at, ay, it would be thoroughly incomprehensible, if the organic elements had been created according to some other type.

1854. When once the nervous mass has become separated from the three other masses, each then commences to be self-substantially perfected, and become a particular organ, though it is still under the supremacy of the primary mass.

1855. The principal mass which constitutes the animal body, after complete separation of the chaotic nervous mass, is without doubt the fundamental mass of everything organic; being the mucus or cellular mass, in which the other elements have only been included like veins of ore. It is the cellular mass therefore which we will first consider in its process of formative evolution.

1856. As cellular mass it must be the seat of the galvanic process, and thus of the life proper. In the cellular mass consequently the three vegetative processes, or the three terrestrial elementary processes, must be firmly established; as there digestion, respiration and nutrition are.

1857. With these three processes, the three superior elementary forms, which are peculiar to the animal, as nerves, bones, and muscles, will have nothing to do, excepting in so far as they govern them. As in the plant, so also in an animal, the terrestrial processes are only the appurtenance of the cellular tissue.

1858. In cellular tissue is therefore the seat of life. But the vegetative mass simply lives that it may live, while the animal lives, in order to combine the universe with the life. The animal elements live only in order to feel and move, in order to act freely like the world; the vegetative only, that they may subsist as planet. The latter are an image of the planet, the former of the world; the one deal with matter, the other with spirit.

Integument.

1859. The cellular tissue does not continue a mere parenchyma in the animal as in the plant, but it obtains a definite anatomical form.

1860. The animal cellular tissue has issued forth from its highest formation in the plant, or out of the blossom, which is a great bladder or cyst composed of primary vesicles. It is the secondary cystic form, wherein the animal cellular tissue appears, when it becomes an anatomical system.

1861. The animal cellular tissue forms therefore everywhere large bladders or cysts, whose walls consist of primary vesicles, or of the vegetable cellular tissue. Cyst-walls are teguments.

1862. The cellular system in the animal is Tegumentary system.

1863. The idea of the integument is the wall of a cyst. There is no tegument apart from the meaning of circumscription, inclusion, and limitation. There is no flat integument, or one that could be designed after the idea of the plane. Every tegument is periphery, just as there is nowhere a surface in the universe, which could have been produced according to the level or plane.

1864. All terrestrial processes, as digestion, respiration, and nutrition, are consequently tegumentary processes. All these organs must be tegumentary organs. Intestine, vessel, lung, in a word all viscera are naught but tegument.

1865. The vegetable tissue becomes in the animal, tegumentary tissue. The tegumentary formation is the vegetable in an animal—the parenchyma, the Visceral.

1866. The lowest distinction between animal and plant resides accordingly in this, that the vegetable tissue consists of actual vesicles, which form everywhere closely compressed masses; the animal cellular tissue on the contrary of granules, which inclose a hollow space. The animal body is a hollow globe of vesicles, the vegetable body one full of vesicles. (Ed. 1st, 1810, § 1870.)

1867. Every animal cyst is necessarily composed of the element of the vesicles, and is then for the first time an organ. The vegetable bladders are, however, single vesicles, and as such are already an organ. In the plant therefore the cellular tissue is upon the lowest stage, being only an aggregate devoid of secondary form; in the animal along with its aggregation a secondary form has been imparted. In this the higher character of the animal is at once demonstrated.

1868. The above is certainly a distinction between the two organisms, but it is not the essential one; for with it, what is animal has been by no means expressed; this being first imparted in the three cosmic elemental forms, which manifest themselves through sensation and motion, and then admit of being recognized as an animal. The corolla is also a cyst, but without being an animal; because, to this animal-like tegumentary formation, the proper animal elements are still wanting.

1869. Now as the tegument is none other than the form, under which the cellular tissue exists in the animal, we must regard it as an elemental form, which has stepped into the place of the cellular. The tegumentary form constitutes the fourth form, and is none other than the primo-vesicular form elevated to a higher rank, by being composed of cell-granules, which have been formerly nerve-granules.

1870. The animal body must consist of nerve, muscle, bone, and tegument, and of no other fundamental form; in other words, of point, line, globe, and cyst.

ii. Anatomical Systems.

1871. All anatomical systems are developments and separations of the four tissues, which are prolonged as sheaths through the whole body, like as in the plant are the bark, liber and wood.

1872. They are divisible next of all into two great parties, into the terrestrial and cosmical, or vegetative and animal.

A. VEGETATIVE SYSTEMS.

1873. The vegetable systems can only be different developments of the tegument. They accord with the galvanic factors. Any further derivation of them is unnecessary. The tegumental development must be represented as the systems of digestion, respiration, and nutrition, since from it these have been sufficiently borrowed or derived.

1874. Except these three systems there can be no other tegumental system; and, if such appear to be present, they must be subordinate to these. For there cannot be subsequently any more than there was fundamentally or at bottom.

1875. In the animal, however, the galvanic processes do not remain entangled in one mass, as in the plant. But they are even characterized as animal by their individual liberation from the whole mass. In the plant digestion or absorption, and nutrition or the course of the sap, were in one kind of mass or one kind of cellular tissue, all three processes (together with respiration) being in a tolerably confused condition.

1876. The animal appears in its dignity by separation of these processes, and by the perfection of each individually, or "per se."

1877. As all life consists only in the constant conversion of what is inorganic into the Organic, so is the process of digestion or absorption necessarily the first in animals.

1. INTESTINAL SYSTEM.

1878. The chemical process of the galvanism is conversion of the Inorganic into mucus, and thus an assumption of this matter into the organic body. Now as every limit of the body is tegument or cellular tissue, so can this assumption take place everywhere. Adoption of what is external into an organic body is absorption.

1879. Absorption originates from the antagonism of the body with the earth, which is organizable, and thus with the mucus.

1880. We call this slime or mucus, nutritive matter. Wherever such matter can operate upon the body, a corresponding organ of absorption, and thus a cell or integument, will be formed.

1881. The whole body is surrounded by integument; it was originally nothing but integument.

1882. The essence of the integument consists in absorption, or in the intervention of the chemical process.

1883. The integument is the root of the animal.

1884. The animal cellular mass is, however, in conformity with its origin, a bladder or cyst that has been opened by light and air. The integument is a large cyst not closed all round, but open at one end. It is the open floral cyst, which has just become an animal. The original integument is thus Intestine. The intestine is the water-organ.

1885. The integument presents therefore to the external world, or to the nutritive matter, two parietes or walls, an external and an internal.

1886. Both walls are opposed to each other like light and darkness, like air and water. The external is the light-and air-wall, the internal the darkness-and water-wall.

1887. It is consequently only the internal wall that stands in the same relation as the root. The internal is "par excellence" root, and is thus a main organ of absorption.

1888. The external wall comes under the idea of the stem-bark, and in so far only as this has a root-nature in itself, is it likewise absorbent.

1889. As upon the external animal wall the light and air constantly operate—for without light indeed no animal originates—so is this wall more and more removed from the idea of the root, and becomes, by virtue of the influence of light and air, instead of an absorbent organ, an organ rather of decomposition—an evaporation's organ.

1890. As a cyst the internal wall incloses the nutritive matter, which originates from the mucus, and thus from the organic water. The internal wall is therefore constantly immersed in the water, and is consequently in every respect a root.

1891. As the animal is only developed in light, so must the function of the root languish in the external wall, and decay, because it is devoid of the earth, which protects it from or against the light. This deficiency is compensated for in another way, or by the formation of a cavity, into which the media of nutrition enter, and which is dark like the earth.

1892. Internal and external wall stand also opposite to each other, like water and air. The one is the water-, the other the air-wall.

1893. The nutritive matters are not decomposed upon the internal wall by extraneous influences, but they remain identical; ay, they become indifferent, because they enter into darker and warmer water.

1894. On the other hand such nutritive matters are decomposed upon the external wall; and there here therefore gradually originates, instead of the chemicalizing root-process, the polarizing process of air.

1895. In a perfect light-animal it is only the internal wall that is chemicalizing; the external has become oxydizing. The internal is a mucus-wall, but the external, on account of the decomposition of mucus, an oxygen-wall.

Division.

1896. The more an animal has been exposed to the air and light, by so much the greater is the antagonism between its internal and external wall. In aquatic animals the antagonism is at its minimum, because externally and internally there is water; both parietes are therefore mucus-walls. The external wall of the fishes secretes an abundance of mucus, as does that also of the worms, snails, and molluscs.

1897. But an internal wall is still the more mucous of the two, because it is darker and warmer.

1898. At first the animal is content with the antagonism of the walls; especially so long as it remains occluded in dark and deep water, or within other animals. Many intestinal worms, polyps, and even Acalephous animals, are but simple sacs.

1899. When the animal organization, however, ranks upon a higher stage, light, or even air, operates more upon its external wall, but upon its internal, water; thus the antagonism of the two walls is carried out to the utmost degree.

1900. Through the different, ay, opposed processes, the two walls finally adopt another structure. The external becomes denser and harder, on account of the decomposition by light and dessication by air; the internal, however, retains its original structure and consistence. Soft, aqueous, indifferent, and constantly absorbent, it is only a viscous mucus.

1901. In place of an integument of similar tissue throughout, one will originate, whose external tissue is dense and oxydized, but whose internal is loose or spongy, and indifferent. The previously uniform integument will now separate or fall into two distinct layers; into a soft muco-cellular layer, and into a tough coriaceo-cellular layer.

1902. With the last attainable antagonism the layers finally separate; two bladders or cysts, disunited from each other, originate; of these the internal is the mucous, the external the coriaceous cyst.

1903. Now the internal cyst alone is the intestine, the external the cutis or skin.

1904. Intestine and cutis belong to one formation, or to the integument. They pass directly into each other at the mouth and anus. Their structure also is wholly similar.

1905. They are merely distinguished by darkness and light, but more closely by water and air. The intestine is the water-tegument, the skin the air-tegument.

1906. The functions of both are therefore co-related like dissolution is to combustion, along with which the evaporation has been bestowed.

1907. Intestine and skin stand in antagonism with each other.

1908. The first animal, as being sentient integument, is a sac; the first skin is also a sac; an animal around the animal.

2. DERMAL SYSTEM.

a. Branchiæ or Gills.

1909. The external wall, being constantly exposed to the air that is in the water, can adopt no other than the aerial character, and is thus like the leaf of the plant. The skin is the organ of evaporation, and with this of oxydation also.

1910. A self-oxydizing integument is called a Branchia or gill.

1911. The skin is essentially nothing else than a gill; and, if it subsequently appears as anything else, this happens only through a higher state of perfection being attained by its branchial function.

1912. The lowest animals, such as most of the worms, molluscs, and snails, breathe through the external integument; even the gills of fishes are none other than a piece of skin.

1913. Thus gills and intestine would be the first two organs, which are developed out of the tegumentary system by the antagonism of air and water. Through the gills, air, and through the intestine, water enters the body. The gill is the atmosphere of the animal, the intestine is its sea.

b. Tracheæ, or Air-tubes.

1914. As the intestine, and in general every water-tegument is prolonged into mucous tubes or absorbent vessels; so also, with a more vigorous formation, the branchial membrane is drawn out into tubes, in order to conduct the air or oxygen towards the intestinal vessels, just as the intestine conveys through its absorbent ducts the water to the vessels of the skin.

1915. This saccular inversion of the skin constitutes the tegumentary lymphatic vessels, whose original function has been to transport the oxygen, combined with the water, to the intestine. They are the original respiratory vessels, which in the higher animals become, through the pure influence of air, true Air-tubes, like the spiral vessels.

1916. The air-vessels traverse the thickness of the body toward the intestinal membrane, like the mucous vessels do toward the branchial membrane.

1917. Thus an infinite number of air-vessels will and must originate.

1918. The air-tubes are consequently the formation which is properly opposed to the lymphatic vessels. They are for the air or for the skin, what these are for the water or the intestine. Air-vessels are first displayed in insects, then in fishes, reptiles, birds, and Thricozoa or Mammalia.

1919. If the infinitely numerous air-vessels concur to form one stem, they are then called lungs, as in the higher animals.

1920. The pulmonary vesicles are nothing but ramified air-tubes, such as the insect has.

1921. The formation of air-tubes is one of a higher character than that of the gills. For in it, indeed, the function has been separated from all other functions. It is simply destined to convey the air without water.

1922. As they pass into the dark, light does not operate upon them; and they will therefore less promote evaporation than mediate unto combustion.

1923. The anatomical idea of the air-vessels, or of the lung, is a saccular inversion of the skin. The skin is prolonged into, and ramifies towards, the body. The intestine is prolonged through the absorbent vessels, as being also small inversions, toward the lung, and becomes a stem—thoracic duct. Then the thoracic duct finally unites with the lungs through the medium of the heart, which is a new formation.

1924. Everything becomes stem which attains a higher grade, and which approximates the air and light. The stem strives to be a centre, but the ramification devolves upon the periphery; the former upon the Solar or Animal; the latter upon the Planetary or Vegetative.

1925. The nobler therefore a formation, by so much the more single and stemmy is it: such is the case with the trachea of the lungs, such with the lymphatic duct.

3. VASCULAR SYSTEM.

1926. The earth or the nutritive mass acts also upon its formation, and destines the tegument to a peculiar structure. The result of the electric and chemical process, or of the oxydation of the mucus, is precipitation, mass-and earth-formation; it is thus a process of nutrition, since through it the Solid of the body, with even the branchial and intestinal membranes, originates.

1927. The earth-system can only be developed where the two last systems coincide, or where the intestinal and branchial processes enter into mutual contact; in short, where the mucus is oxydized, and thereby separated into what is aerial and rigid.

1928. This spot is only in the middle between the two. The process of precipitation and the formation of elemental matter occurs, consequently, between the two layers of integument, or at present between the two teguments that have become self-substantial, or between intestine and skin.

1929. A new formation must be evolved, whereby the two shall be held together; a formation, whereby the antagonism shall be conducted from one to the other; and thus whereby the mucus shall be conveyed to the skin, but the air to the intestine.

1930. Were intestine and skin entirely separated from each other, each would perish; the former would no longer be oxydized, the latter no longer nourished.

1931. With their separation they must continue to be attached to each other at certain points, and thus undergo eversion at certain points. Thereby tubes originate in the intestine, which pursue their course toward the skin; in this again tubes, which pass to the intestine.

1932. A tube, which receives mucus from the intestine, air from the skin, and includes both within itself, is a long cyst. A cyst, which conducts mucus to the skin and air to the intestine, is a Vessel, a vein.

a. Unclosed Vascular System.

1933. The vessel has, in virtue of its essence, two extremities, an air-extremity, which is polar, and a water-extremity, which is indifferent. Every vessel has been rooted in two systems, in the intestine and skin, and is subservient to both.

1934. The vessel is no longer a something single, like the last-mentioned or preceding cysts, but double. Every vessel hath two poles.

1935. The organization necessarily produces two kinds of vessels. A vessel, which conducts the mucus to the skin, cannot also convey the air to the intestine. There is consequently a mucus-vessel and an air-vessel, or a water-and an air-vessel, an indifferent and a different.

1936. The mucus-vessel is called absorbent, the air-vessel respiratory duct or trachea.

1937. Air-and absorbent vessel stand in antagonism like skin and intestine, like water and air. The air-vessel is the skin or the branchia, which passes to the intestine, the absorbent vessel is the intestine, which passes to the air; the one the intestinal branchia, the other the branchial intestine.

1938. So long as intestine and skin were one in kind, this vascular process was in every situation. With their separation therefore the vascular structure has of necessity originated between two opposed situations. There is no point in the skin and none in the intestine, where there might not be an air-and a water-vessel, a respiratory and absorbent duct.

1939. There are therefore numerous vessels, and consequently a Vascular system.

1940. Air-and water-vessel must abut against each other; because they are polar, because the one leads to this place and the other to that.

1941. The system of water-and air-ducts can form no closed vascular system; for they only grow towards each other, as did formerly intestine and skin.

1942. They would not have originated if both cysts had not separated from each other. These vessels are not therefore to be met with in animals that have no intestine. The transition of the water-into the air-ducts takes place in the higher animals through the union of the thoracic duct with the subclavian vein, which conveys the blood directly to the lungs.

1943. The vascular system is properly the primo-cellular tissue, which occupies the middle, and at whose extremities the two cysts remain approximated, in order that they may continue to live.

1944. The vascular is the original system, since its two extremities already carry in themselves the air-and mucus-process, so that branchia and intestine are only to be viewed as peculiarly perfected conditions of these extremities. I would even have developed the vascular system first of all, had not another course been required to render the subject intelligible.

1945. The first animal cyst is a vessel with two kinds of extremities, whereof, like the plant, one draws its supply from the water, the other from the air; but in the animal this is effected by its own motion.

1946. The branchia is nothing but a vascular tissue in the air, the intestine none other than a vascular tissue in the water. Thus, do I wish that these organs should be understood, and not as mere cystic walls.

1947. Every point therefore in the intestine and skin absorbs, and thus every part is perforated with infinitely numerous holes or pores. Here they absorb air, there water.

1948. Every absorbent point of integument is drawn out as a tube towards the respiratory system, in order to let what it has absorbed become oxydized. These tegumentary prolongations into tubes are the lymphatic vessels.

1949. In all teguments there are necessarily lymphatic vessels, but more of them in the water-than the air-teguments. On that account the lymphatic vessels are much more numerous in the intestine than the skin. They are there called chyliferous, or lacteal vessels.

1950. The lymphatic vessels are the first of all vessels. Many animals, as perhaps the Acalephæ and Distomata, appear to have only this kind of vessel.

1951. Lymphatic vessels are present in the skin, only in so far as it has resigned the respiratory function to special organs.

Meaning of the Unclosed Vascular System.

1952. The action of this unclosed vascular system is wholly similar to the motion of sap and air in the plant, there being only an ascent of the first, and a fall or descent of the last. In the absorbents the sap ascends out of the root (intestine) into the leaves (branchiæ); in the respiratory vessels the air descends from the foliage (skin) to the intestine and the whole body of cells.

1953. This vascular system is therefore the pure remnant of the plant, and has as yet assumed no properly animal character, except that both its sets of vessels or tubes are self-substantial, and ramify, while in the plant they are only intercellular passages or non-ramified spiral vessels.

1954. In insects this system has been most perfectly evolved; there the air-tubes, being well parcelled out, are in great number, and run directly to the intestine and dorsal vessel, which is, as it were, only the trunk of the lymphatic vessels, or the chyliferous duct.

1955. Now, such a vascular system, merely oscillating, as it were, between intestine and skin, can be but persistent in animals, which express only the vegetable type of organization. If other significations be introduced, so also will this vascular system be otherwise evolved.

1956. The unclosed vascular system will be present along with an energetic antagonism between skin and intestine; with an antagonism that is almost suppressed, there will be none. There are then only cells, or there is only point-substance, as in the Infusoria, polyps, and Acalephæ or sea-nettles.

1957. The dermal vessels exist only in the air-insects, because in them nothing but air and water are engaged in conflict. Externally there is desiccated horn, internally mucous water.

1958. A perfectly unclosed vascular system appears to be developed only in animals which respire air. At least there are only genuine air-tubes and lymphatic vessels in such as breathe air; e. g., in the Mammalia, birds, reptiles and fishes, the latter set of vessels being probably not present in insects.

1959. Through the predominance of the air-process, as in insects, the mucus that is conveyed to it becomes so rapidly decomposed, that no more remains behind, for which a new vessel would be necessary.

1960. The galvanic process is at every instant annulled, and only renovated by a new afflux or supply. Here the galvanism does not subsist in itself as a peculiar and independent system.

b. Closed Vascular System.

1961. The unclosed vascular system is not yet self-substantial, because it is a cæcal eversion of the intestine or inversion of the skin, being itself only a ramified intestine and skin. Every system, however, attains its perfection, by being rendered independent of its origin. Thus the leaf is the spiral vessel that has become free, the root the cellular tissue in a like condition, the blossom the liberated vegetable trunk. The vascular system will therefore aspire also to the achievement of its blossom.

1962. If the decomposition that is effected by an inferior amount of polarization, does not happen rapidly enough, for what has flowed thither, to disappear, during its afflux, by evaporation or precipitation; the rest of the mucus which has obtained the air-polarity, is now repelled by the respiratory vessels, because both have become synonymous.

1963. The oxydized superfluous mucus is at once, however, attracted by the intestine, because they are not synonymous. There consequently originates a vessel in the mass of mucus or parenchyma, that has been secreted between the intestine and skin, which begins in the respiratory membrane and terminates in the intestine.

1964. This vessel will commence at the end of the absorbents, or at a point, where it devolves upon the respiratory vessels, to take up their contents, namely the oxygen, together with the nutritive substance, and convey them to the intestine. The mucus, which previously stagnated and moved but slowly from one spot to another, is now again carried back by another vessel without interruption to the intestine.

1965. The vessel which conveys oxydized mucus from the respiratory to the intestinal system, is called artery.

1966. On the intestine, however, this polar mucus is again reduced to ordinary mucus. It has now become synonymous with the intestine, is repelled from it and attracted by the branchial membrane.

1967. One and the same fluid or sap is consequently brought back from the branchia to the intestine, and from thence again to the branchia. This last vessel is called vein.

a. Arteries.

1968. The artery is, according to its signification, an air-vessel, which is prolonged or elongated as far as the intestine. Essentially, the artery conveys nothing but air, though this is effected by means of a medium or vehicle, which is the undecomposed mucus (blood). It is an air-tube, that has been self-substantially dismembered from the skin, in order to become a special independent air-tube, or such as is commensurate with animal nature.

1969. In the artery the external integument has been repeated in the nutritive system, and hence the galvanism has become of a continuous character.

1970. The artery must therefore be the highest vessel, the most total of all terrestrial processes. For it is the air-duct united with the intestinal vessel. It contains mucus, which carries the properties of both poles of the body in itself; there is oxydized mucus.

1971. The artery contains the whole body, lung and intestine, in short, the whole animal, (whereas it was previously dispersed in two vessels,) in a fluid state within itself. From the artery therefore nutrition will directly take place; from it the animal will be formed.

1972. The air or respiratory vessels may be viewed as arteries carried to the very extreme. In the lung the arterial system has attained its highest purity, the oxygen only, without the indifferent substance, being contained therein. The trachea is the roughest artery—Arteria aspera.

1973. The arterial system, in accordance with its signification, makes its first appearance in water, because the aquatic mode of respiration is less energetic, and thus the mucus is more feebly decomposed. The Mollusca, snails, and many worms have a perfect arterial system. The branchiæ do not, like respiratory tubes, pass into the body, as in insects; but there are vessels which take up the oxygen and convey it into the body.

1974. As lung and absorbent belong to the pure air or the pure water, so do artery and vein to the water combined with the air. The two former are therefore present only where aerial respiration occurs, and the two latter where water merely is respired.

1975. The last system is only present in animals, in so far as they are aquatic in their habits.

1976. Insects, as being purely aerial animals, have therefore arteries and veins only so long as they are in the larva or worm-like condition, and as flies or perfect insects may continue to live without them. On the contrary, the purely aquatic animals appear enabled to live without true respiratory and absorbent vessels. It in fact appears, that lymphatic as well as respiratory vessels are wanting in the molluscs, snails, and worms, since the water directly bathes or washes the arteries.

1977. Animals with both systems of vessels, the unclosed and closed, must be more perfect in structure, and must at once combine worm and insect in themselves. They are insects from having absorbent and respiratory vessels, but worms as having arteries and veins.

b. Veins.

1978. The veins are developed as mucus-vessels at the intestinal extremities of the arteries, which absorb the arterial mucus (blood), after it has deposited its air on the tegumentary substance, just as the lymphatic vessels absorb their fluid from the intestine or any other part of the body.

1979. As the artery is a respiratory vessel that has become self-substantial, so is the vein a similarly conditioned, and dismembered lymphatic vessel. In the one it is the lung, in the other the intestine, that has become the free vascular system. But in the proper vascular system both lung and intestine are repeated, the former as artery, the latter as vein.

1980. These arterio-lymphatic vessels (veins) necessarily convey their arterial mucus or blood into the stem of the original lymphatic system, or the thoracic duct. For every Indifferent must be brought toward the respiratory organ.

1981. The tegumentary lymphatic vessels (absorbents) consequently unite with the arterio-lymphatic vessels (veins), before arriving at the respiratory organ, and pursue their course thither in common, where they pass over into the air-vessels. The usual notion or idea is, that the lymphatic vessels, from conveying their fluid into the veins, should be subordinated to the latter. But the true philosophical view, is of reverse import, although the veins are larger than the thoracic duct. In the investigation of such relations, recourse can by no means be had to quantity or size, but to the importance of the quality or contents.

1982. The veins are, properly speaking, subordinated to the lymphatic vessels, just as the arteries are to the tracheæ, or air-tubes, and the former therefore pass over into the lymphatic vessels.

c. Circulation.

1983. Through the veins, as arterio-lymphatic ducts, the vascular system has become a closed system in itself, because, on account of the polarity, the vein unites at both extremities directly with the artery. It is a continuation of the artery, like the air-duct is of the skin, and the lymphatic vessel of the intestine. Thereby a Circulation of the arteriose mucus or blood originates.

1984. In its essence the circulation is a combination of the intestinal with the branchial system into one anatomical system.

1985. The circulation is therefore a higher formation, since through it the vascular system repeats in itself the totality of the vegetable organism.

1986. On that account the circulation is the vital process proper.

1987. But for that reason also, the circulation is impossible in the plant, since it is devoid of arteries and veins.

1988. It makes its appearance in the aquatic animals, for they have, generally speaking, vessels. Molluscs, snails, worms, and crabs already possess a circulation; it is wanting, on the contrary, in those animals that are without intestine, and ceases in insects, when, or in whom, the air-vessels obtain the preponderance.

1989. In circulation the galvanism is restricted. In the skin, intestine, air-and lymphatic vessel there is also galvanism, but distributed upon organs that are remote and subservient to different purposes.

d. Blood.

1990. The blood signifies the earth in the animal, combined with water and air.

1991. The blood is the proper nutritive matter for the animal.

1992. The blood is earth, which carries all terrestrial elements in itself, such as the air through the medium of the gills, the water through that of the intestine, and is consequently a complete planet.

1993. The blood is a fluid planet.

1994. The blood is the fluid body.

1995. The body is the fixed or rigid blood. Blood and body are wholly equivalent, have the same elements in themselves; only here the latter are stationary, there they course along. Both consist of mucus or gelatine, albumen and fibrine.

1996. The blood is half combusted mucus, the body mucus, that has been wholly subjected to combustion.

1997. After the vascular system has attained its own circulation, or to the closed galvanism, no higher development of the tegumentary formation is any longer conceivable; as little as after the blossom anything more could originate.

1998. After all three elements are united into one point, into one system, as is the case in the circulation, where the venous blood represents the water, the arterial blood the earth and air, no new system can further originate in the vegetative body.

4. SEXUAL SYSTEM.

1999. In so far as the animal adopts into itself, or is rather based upon, the whole plant, the blossom or Sex is also developed in it. The vegetable sex consists of seed, capsule, and corolla.

2000. The seed is the first part of the blossom which is put forth in the plant. The most inferior or asexual plants have only seeds devoid of capsule and corolla, and produced without the concurrence of female and male parts. The blossom in the animal is therefore in the beginning also nothing but seeds or ova. Thus these animals are asexual. Such as the Infusoria, whose body directly divides into new animals, like the fungi.

2001. The second floral organ is the capsule, which contains on its borders or dissepiments the seeds, and on its apex the stigma, or the opening of the cyst.

2002. So also in the succeeding forms of animal life the animal capsule or uterus originates. The orifice corresponding to the stigma is the mouth of the womb; the seeds upon the septum become ovary.

2003. The lowest animals, as the Polyps, are fundamentally none other than such an uterine system. The polyp's mouth is the os uteri; the sac formed by the polyp's body is the uterus, in which ova-cysts or ovaries develop, that open into the margins of the month.

2004. In such animals the uterus and intestine, as likewise the mouth and uterine orifice are fundamentally one organ; nutritive matter and ova are also one in kind. External tegument as branchial organ is at the same time also a tegument of the uterus.

2005. The higher animals are distinguished from the lower by separation of all these intricate and, as it were, coalesced organs.

2006. Digestion, respiration and nutrition, growth and propagation, are originally of one kind. But with further development come the male parts also, which belong to the category of the organs.

Parallelism of the Animal and Vegetable Body.

All vegetative systems of the animal body being now developed, the attempt to co-ordinate them with those of the plant admits of being made.

2007. What the sexual parts correspond to in plants, needs no exposition.

2008. And just as little that the lung is the parallel organ to the leaves or foliage. The relation of the other organs is, on the contrary, difficult; the striking resemblance, however, of the sexual parts and the lungs to the same systems in plants, is ground sufficient for assuming also the parallelism of the other organs.

2009. If the root be compared with the intestine, then the stalk, as being the medium of the vascular system, must be regarded as heart.

2010. The bark will correspond to the skin, the liber to the veins, the wood as a tracheal body to the arteries.

2011. The vegetable tissue will be transformed into the lowest organs of the animal; the cells into the mucous tissue, the intercellular passages into the lacteal vessels, the tracheæ, or spiral vessels, into the lowest kind of respiratory tubes or the cutaneo-lymphatic vessels. We have accordingly the following parallel series:

A. Tissues.

1. Cells Mucous tissue.

2. DuctsAbsorbents.

3. TracheæCutaneo-absorbents.

B. Systems.

4. BarkSkin.

5. LiberVeins.

6. WoodArteries.

C. Members.

7. RootIntestine.

8. StalkHeart.

9. FoliageLung.

D. Sexual parts.

10. SeedOvum.

11. OvaryUterus.

12. CorollaTestes.

B. ANIMAL SYSTEMS.

2012. As in the blossom the light allows the whole vegetable trunk to be once more developed, though with coloured signs or marks of distinction, so also is the animal body taken up into the sense of light, and the vegetative systems are elevated unto light-or rather æther-systems.

2013. A new animal originates upon the old animal and is equivalent to it. Every perfect animal is twofold in its nature, being a planetary and solar animal, a vegetative and animal being.

2014. Three animal systems must be developed out of the three vegetative, an earth-, water-, and air-system, each being refined or purified through the agency of light, and forming the bones, muscles, and nerves, which correspond to the gravity or materiality, the heat or motion, and the light or tension.

2015. Everything that is higher in its nature can only be developed out of that which is its direct antecedent, like the blossom from the leaf. Now the artery is the ultimate Vegetative. In this therefore, must the elements of the osseous, muscular and nervous systems reside. Now, the artery consists, of four parts, of the cellular, fibrous, dense serous coat, and of the blood. The cellular coat or tunic is the remnant of the whole tegumentary formation. The fibrous tunic is the embryo of the muscular system. The serous tunic is the embryo of the osseous system; for in old age it attains to ossification, bony lamellæ being deposited around it. The blood is the embryo of the nervous system. It is only requisite for it to coagulate, and it is then nervous mass. Nervous globules are blood-globules quiescent, or in a state of rest. Accordingly, in the artery, the whole body has been actually prefigurated or typified.

2016. Every animal system necessarily exists under a duplex character, being once in the service of the vegetative systems and once for itself; or it exists as trunk and as blossom. There is, therefore, a vegetative and animal nervous system, and, under such binary conditions, osseous and muscular systems likewise.

2017. All three systems are offsets from the arteries, and therefore their constant companions. The animal systems are called flesh.

1. NERVOUS SYSTEM.

2018. The nervous mass is coagulated blood. The nervous system is thus a higher arterial system. The highest arteries, however, are the air-tubes. The nerves therefore run parallel with the tracheal systems.

2019. What the tracheæ are for the vegetative body, namely, the vitalizing and motor principle, such are the nerves for both the animal and vegetative body.

2020. The nerves are distributed like the tracheæ of plants, in individual threads or filaments, which run near to each other arranged in a fascicular manner, and then mutually separate.

2021. The nervous filaments everywhere accompany the arteries, and, as far as their ultimate ramifications, like the tracheæ of insects pass to all parts of the body.

2022. The nervous mass has been separated into an arteriose and venous mass, the former being the cineritious or gray substance, the latter the medullary or white. The nervous system is therefore an entire blood-system, with two poles; it is therefore alive and active for itself, or independent of other systems.

2023. Both nervous masses are in a state of constant tension against each other, and consequently in constant tension with the whole body.

2024. The nerves are filaments that, upon the separation of the parts of the body, have remained behind, just like the arteries are tubes individualized in the general parenchyma, throughout which the sap was previously dispersed as in the vegetable trunk. The first individualization necessarily takes place at the oral extremity. The first nerve is a ring surrounding the pharynx or gullet. Thus, if the body consists of several consecutive rings or cysts, as in the Worms, each ring will or can have its nervous ring, which inferiorly gives off nerves to the vegetative organs, and superiorly to the animal, if these be present. Such a point for giving off nerves is called a ganglion; since also every ganglion sends off nerves to join other ganglia; so both below and above a nervous cord or string will originate in the longitudinal direction. The nerves, which have been left behind in the vegetative parts, form the vegetative nervous system; those that remain in the animal parts, the animal system.

a. Vegetative Nervous System.

2025. The vegetative nervous system is the nervous mass that has remained behind, after the greatest part of it has become converted into tegumentary formations. Now, as these tegumentary formations, being surrounded in the higher animals by flesh, were thus viscera, so may the vegetative nerves be called also Visceral or Splanchnic nerves.

2026. These visceral nerves govern the vessels, the intestine, and lung; with the sexual parts also, yet in their case in combination with the animal nerves, because the sexual parts are at one and the same time organs of vegetative and animal life.

2027. These visceral nerves everywhere accompany the vessels, and are therefore like these distributed in a cystic manner between intestine and skin. They form a large cyst which concentrically surrounds the intestine.

2028. They do not, however, like the intestine, form any closed cyst, but only a cystimorphous net, like the vessels.

2029. The two nervous masses are in them separated from each other, like as the branchiæ have been distributed along the whole body and separated from the intestine. The gray or branchoid substance has separated itself from the white medullary substance into individual ganglia, or as it were into individual nervous branchiæ. The medullary substance has also retained its connexion though only in a ramular manner, and not uninterruptedly like an integument. It is called plexus.

2030. The ganglia and the plexuses stand in mutual opposition, like the branchiæ and intestine, like artery and vein, like blood and lymphatic vessels. The ganglia oxydize, polarize; they are the active. The plexuses suffer, digest, and are the recipient.

2031. The visceral nerves, like the viscera, act for themselves, being unconcerned for the animal systems.

2032. The visceral nerves have a vegetable sensation for themselves, a sense of touch, such as the blossom might have in the instant of the pollenization.

2033. As all formations have become symmetrical through and in accordance with the vascular system, so does the vegetative nervous system separate into two parallel stems which accompany the arterial trunk. They are called intercostal nerves. These ramify and form plexuses that accord with the visceral organs, which they govern.

b. Animal Nervous System.

2034. The animal nervous system is the repetition of the vegetative, and is combined therewith to constitute an unity. The nervous cyst that was previously dissevered in a reticular manner, becomes a closed tube, which is placed upon the light-exposed side of the other animal systems, and thus upon the vertebral column. This closed nervous tube is called the myelon, or spinal cord.

2035. The spinal cord is worth as much as all the visceral nerves taken together; it is the felted system of intercostal nerves; and is, properly speaking, none other than the posterior double cord of ganglia. It consists therefore also of ganglia and plexuses, but both have coalesced, on account of the increase of the mass and its endeavour towards the attainment of union.

2036. The ganglia form a tube, which is inclosed by the tubes of the plexuses. The ganglion-tube is the gray, the plexus-tube the medullary substance.

2037. If the gray substance appear to reside within the medulla, this is the result only of involution or a folding in. The parietes of the spinal marrow stand therefore in everlasting tension with each other, like ganglia and plexuses, and like arteries and veins.

2038. The spinal marrow is the content of the bones and muscles, like the intercostal nerves or the visceral cord are the contents of the abdominal cavity, and as the blood is that of the internal and fibrous coat of the arteries. Bones and muscles are the animal parietes of the nerves, as the two vascular membranes are the vegetative walls of the blood. The skin, as branchia, incloses all, like the cellular membrane does the vessels.

2039. As the intercostal ganglia give off plexus-forming ramules; so does the spinal marrow; there are the spinal nerves. The spinal marrow is, first of all therefore, the coalescence of the two intercostal nerves.

2040. These spinal nerves are, however, animal plexuses, which partly encroach upon the visceral nerves, and partly pass to the animal systems.

2041. There are therefore two kinds of spinal nerves, vegetative and animal, and as many of them as there are divisions in the viscera and in the animal systems.

2042. The nerves pass off symmetrically from the spinal cord, because the nervous mass belongs to the symmetrical osseous system. They form therefore rings both anteriorly and posteriorly.

2043. The nervous system does not consist of individual cysts, like its two animal teguments, or bone and flesh. It is at one time the type or image of the vascular trunk and its ramifications; at another the indifferent æther-mass, which does not crystallize; it is lastly the organic primary mass that has remained persistent, and must thus be coherent in texture. It is the blood continually streaming from the animal divisions of the heart.

2044. The whole animal nervous system is a tegumentary cyst with tubes passing off from it symmetrically in the form of rings.

2045. The spinal cord cannot be the highest. It has only the lowest signification, in so far as it stands in the service of the viscera and the sense of touch, and thus follows the position and arrangement of the bones. Thus the spinal cord is first of all an osseo-nervous mass.

2046. The nerves, as running for the most part forwards, are musculo-nervous mass; those running backwards or outwards are tegumentary or sensitive nerves. This signification furnishes us, also with the physiological function of these two divisions of nerves. The nerves are homologous with the flexors, the spinal cord with the extensors; the nerves with the air, the medulla with the earth; the former with the arteries, the latter with the veins; the nerves are thus what is more active, the medulla that which is more inert.

2047. On that account the nerves only are in intercourse with the world, while the medulla broods within itself. Consequently, both these nerve-formations are not as yet the pure self-substantial nervous blossom, which no longer imitates flesh and bone, but only itself.

Brain.

2048. The highest point attained by the lower systems are the orifices of the viscera, the mouth and the nose. The mouth is the first animal sign, which the plant gives off in the blossom from itself. The Noblest lies therefore at the anterior extremity of the animal, or in man in the direction upwards.

2049. It consequently occupies the middle point, or one that is between the anterior flesh and the posterior bones, and at the same time the spot, from which all vital processes emerge, or the mouth.

2050. The oral nervous mass is the Brain. It forms originally the posterior ganglia of the pharyngeal ring.

2051. The situation of the brain is essentially in front of or above the body, in opposition to the sexual parts, which are the lower totality.

2052. It is, however, above and behind; for it is originally situated posteriorly. The brain can therefore originate only, when the posterior medulla inclines from above forwards, making a curve in the latter direction; the brain is a spinal cord that has been bent from above forwards.

2053. The more the spinal cord is curved forwards, so much the nobler is it. This is self-evident.

2054. The brain is a spinal cord which makes the transit from the signification of bone to that of flesh.

2055. In the brain therefore the tendency must principally reside, to give off nerves, and perfect them into self-substantial nervous organs.

2056. In man the brain with its nerves curves round like a crosier, and that more perfectly than in any other animal. The spinal cord therefore in the highest formation of the brain returns again parallel to the direction, in which it has ascended.

2057. In the brain there is of necessity the greatest quantity of nervous mass. The brain is the nervous trunk, as the liver is probably the vascular trunk.

2058. In the brain the cystic formation has been most purely represented; as e. g. in the cerebral cavities or ventricles. The brain is the stomach of the nervous system or its lungs.

2059. The brain consists essentially of two substances, of one accommodated to the flesh, and one to the bones, or of one arteriose, and the other venous. The former is the gray or cortical, the latter the white or medullary substance. The cortex is the lung of the brain, the medulla the liver or the intestine.

2060. The bark or cortex is the polarizing, active, oxydizing; the medulla the patient or suffering.

2061. This nervous pulmonary substance is continued along the spinal cord and even along the nerves, there as veritable gray substance, here as the vascular membrane of the nervous mass.

Head.

2062. The brain, as being a system that has been separated superiorly from the other systems, determines the Head. The head is only there in so far as a brain is there.

2063. Head and trunk are antagonistically disposed, as Animal and Vegetable, or still more exactly, like nerve and bony flesh are to the viscera.

2064. The head is naught but a nervous organ.

2065. The concomitants of the nervous mass follow the brain, but, instead of the medulla having been previously subordinated to, or at least co-ordinated with, these, it is they that are thus related to the brain. The bones of the brain are the brain-case or cranium, the flesh of the brain, the face or countenance. On the head, bones and flesh have been disposed in the strictest manner according to their dignity or worth. Posteriorly there is almost pure bone, in front almost pure muscle.

2066. The cranium can be none other than the vertebral column continued around the brain. It consists of three vertebræ, the face of one. This will become clear in what follows.

2067. If the bones of the head are the repetition of those of the trunk, so also must the flesh of the head be a repetition of that of the trunk. Pectoral and abdominal muscles are ennobled in the muscles of the face.

2068. The face must have been principally formed by the orifice of the intestine—the mouth, and by the opening of the lungs—the nose, and by the apex of the vascular system—the members which are repeated as jaws. The month is the stomach in the head, the nose the lung, the jaws the arms and feet.

2069. The salivary glands are the liver in the head, as the mouth is its stomach. The liver that was originally also symmetric in form has become wholly symmetric in the higher organized head and forms two glands. The salivary ducts are the hepatic or biliary ducts.

2070. The tongue is the pharynx elongated upon the anterior side, because in front there is more flesh. The tongue is the extremity of the intestine converted into muscle.

2071. The nose includes pectoral muscles, the mouth arthric muscles or those of the limbs.

2072. If pectoral and abdominal muscles are repeated in the face, so also must the anterior bones, ribs, and limbs be repeated. It will be shown, in treating of the organs, that the nose is a vertebra, the jaws members, and their muscles those of the limbs. The head is the whole trunk with all its systems. The brain is the spinal marrow, the skull the vertebral column, the mouth intestine and abdomen, the nose lung and thorax, the jaws are members.

Senses.

2073. The perfect animal again consists of two animals, the spiritual or solar, and the terrestrial or planetary. The animal nervous system does not continue to remain simply in the service of the other systems, but seeks also to gradually render itself self-substantial or independent. Now, the operation of the nervous system for itself is sensation. The parts of the nervous system having become self-substantial, will be therefore pure organs of sensation. Yet as the nervous system cannot emancipate itself from the other systems, so will its highest development be attained only in combination with the highest development of the other systems. There are therefore as many stages of the self-substantial nervous development, as there are special anatomical systems.

2074. Sensation must be modified according to the processes performed by those systems, with which the nervous system combines. These systems are, however specifically distinct from each other. Sensations that are specifically distinct are sensorial sensations. Organs of sense are accordingly the combination of the highest part of an anatomical system with the nervous system. Sensorial sensations are different processes of the anatomical systems perceived in the nervous system.

2075. The first combination of the nerves with the vascular system that has become free, or with the integument, is the sense of feeling—vascular sense. The intestinal system emancipated and combined with the nerves, is the tongue—gustatory sense—intestinal sense. The lung upon its highest evolution with the nervous system is the nose—olfactory sense—pulmonic sense. These are thus the sensorial organs of the vegetative systems—senses of vegetative life.

2076. There are indeed three animal senses; but as the osseous and muscular system form in their conjoined operation but one system or the motor system—there can be therefore only 2 animal senses. The osseo-muscular or motor sense is the ear. If the nervous system becomes wholly self-substantial, the nervous sense thus originates, or the eye, in which the brain itself has been planted outwardly, and acts independently of all other systems.

2077. The vessels form the general system, and therefore the tegumentary sense surrounds the whole body. Its brain is the spinal cord.

2078. The four remaining senses are perfections of individual systems at their perfect extremity, and thus in the proximity of the mouth and the brain. They together form the head. The jaws and the tongue obtain their nerves from the medulla oblongata, and this is therefore the brain of the gustatory sense. The brain for the nose is the gray cerebral substance, because the olfactory nerves are its elongations. The ears obtain their nerves from the cerebellum, which is consequently the auditory brain. The eyes are developments of the great brain or cerebrum—optic brain. Such is the rationale and signification of the divisions of the brain.

2. OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

2079. The nervous mass consists of indifferent, deoxydized blood-globules. If these be peroxydized, then the highest oxyd of the planet is deposited in them, namely, the earth, and that indeed which was the last remnant in the order of their production, or the calcareous earth.

2080. Vesicles or cells replete with calcareous earth are globes. The osseous texture consists therefore of globes; is only a dense cellular tissue, and thus ranks nearest to the vegetable structure. The basis of the bones is at first a cellular gelatine, which, with increased oxydation, is converted into cartilage. Finally, calcareous earth is deposited in this cartilage.

2081. In the lower organized animals, who breathe for the most part by means of branchiæ, the acid combined with the calcareous earth is an inorganic, or the carbonic acid, i. e. oxygen combined with carbon, or the earthy Inflammable; in higher animals it is an organic acid or phosphoric acid, i. e. oxygen combined with phosphorus, or the aerial Inflammable. Phosphoric acid may be regarded as peroxydized gelatine, as acid of gelatine. The bone is therefore earth, salt and Inflammable.

2082. The first appearance of the osseous mass is in the oxydizing organs. It is formed from the dense or internal coat of the arteries, since in old age bony lamellæ are deposited upon this. In the hearts also of many animals bones are formed.

2083. The first regular formation of bones is exhibited in the trachea or air-tube, which has been directly exposed to the oxydizing process of the air. These first forms of the bones are rings.

2084. The antetype of the bone is, however, the intestine, as the air-vessels are the antetype of the nerves. The bone is a tube, an ossified intestine.

2085. There are two osseous systems, a vegetative and an animal; the one surrounds the tegumentary systems, as, e. g. the scales of Fishes and Reptiles, horny rings of Insects; the other the nervous systems.

a. Vegetative Osseous System.

2086. The vegetative osseous system is divisible into dermal, tracheal, intestinal, and vascular bones.

2087. The dermal bones are tegumentary rings, which surround the whole body, and are tracheal rings in so far as the skin is originally a respiratory organ. Such are the rings of the body in Insects, the shells of the Gasteropods and Molluscs, with scales and scutes in general.

2088. The tracheal bones are the branchial arches and tracheal rings.

2089. The intestinal or splanchnic bones are tubes environing the intestine, as in the corals, or imperfect annular segments, which at one time are found in the stomach, as in the Mollusca, at another in the pharynx, as in the Worms, Snails, Sea-urchins, and Holothuriæ; constituting what are called pharyngeal maxillæ. The branchial organs are fundamentally also none other than pharyngeal rings. The lingual and palatal bones, with the intermaxillary bones, belong also to the same category.

2090. The vascular bones are displayed in the hearts of many animals. The three last divisions may be called visceral or splanchnic bones; and then we have tegumentary, splanchnic, and nerve-bones.

b. Animal Osseous System.

2091. The animal or nervo-osseous system must separate from the vegetative system of bones, and be placed upon the side exposed to the light. The side of the inferior animal that is exposed to the light, or averted from the earth, is the upper surface, dorsal region or back.

2092. The back holds the same relation to the ventral side as light does to the darkness, as sun to the earth; therefore the dorsal side is of a dark, the ventral of a faint or pale colour.

2093. Back and belly are related polarwise to each other.

2094. Through the medium of the bones the distinction between back and belly has been definitely established in the animal, and, as a consequence thereof, the distinction also of right from left. Before a formation of bone exists, the animal is for the most part a round cylinder.

2095. The osseous system can in itself be only symmetrically constructed.

2096. The osseous is the only symmetrical system in an animal. The other organs are so only in so far as they follow the arrangement of the osseous system.

2097. The animal osseous system is, from its being a repetition of the intestinal canal, a tube. This tube is surrounded, like the trachea, by rings, between which the tegumentary tube suffers constrictions.

2098. The back is a series of numerous bony rings.

2099. These bony rings are the bodies of the vertebræ.

2100. The vertebræ have originated through polar repetition, through the muscular cysts.

2101. In addition to the series of vertebræ on the back, a vertebral column is formed moreover along the ventral surface, and without doubt there only where the air-organ, the branchia or lung, is situated. This inferior vertebral column is the breast-bone or sternum.

2102. All the systems, even those that are of a subordinate character in the animal, follow the direction of the main vertebral column. The intestine, as well as the vessels, are placed in accordance with it. Thus the principal trunks of the vessels take their rise along the vertebral column, the other vessels being given off from them in this situation, like the lymphatics from the intestine.

2103. The vascular ramules which surround the intestine and the skin, run out from a main stem, and are directed in a symmetric manner downwards and upwards (in the horizontal body of animals), or towards the belly and back.

2104. If new bony rings originate, they must also take these directions. They accompany the vessels that run in a circle, as the vertebral column accompanies the vascular trunks. These annularly-disposed bony twigs or apophyses constitute in the direction downwards the ribs, in that upwards the vertebral arches. Anterior and posterior to the vertebral column there consequently originates a long canal formed by the bony rings. In the anterior canal lie the galvanic or vegetative organs, in the posterior or upper, the organs of light must be situated "par excellence." The former of these canals is called the thoracic and abdominal cavity, the latter the vertebral canal. The vertebral canal is not the bony or medullary cavity itself, but it has been formed by several bony cysts in the same manner as the thoracic cavity. It consists of the body and the two arches. These are thus posterior (superior) ribs. The vertebral canal has the same signification as the thoracic cavity has; it is only a posterior thoracic cavity. It therefore contains, like the anterior canal, viscera dissimilar in kind to bone; the one including the spinal cord, the other vessels, intestine, and lung.

2105. The bony cysts that have originated through constriction do not all harden into calcareous matter, but they remain as alternating membranous cysts. Between the rings there are permanent cysts. The membranous cysts form the joint, or articular capsule. An articular capsule is a bone which has remained soft.

2106. This change in the ossific process takes place through the attachment of muscles, concerning which we shall treat in the sequel.

2107. The whole osseous system is consequently a symmetrical arrangement of several polar cysts and rings.

2108. The vertebra is not a single ring, but is at once a tolerably compound osseous system. The whole osseous system is nothing but a vertebra repeated.

2109. The number of the vertebræ necessarily conforms to that of the pairs of nerves or ganglia of the spinal cord; for they are indeed only the periphery or envelope of the latter. The number of nerves is, however, adapted to that of the organs, which they have to take care of.

2110. Now, the nervous organs are the senses. There are consequently as many divisions of vertebræ as there are senses. Thus there are vertebræ appertaining respectively to the senses of touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. Now as the four latter senses make up the head, but that of touch or feeling is distributed over the whole body, and superintended by the spinal nerves, the vertebræ thus divide into two principal sections, into vertebræ of the head and trunk. The number of cephalic vertebræ is 4; namely, nasal, ocular, lingual, and auditory vertebræ.

2111. To a perfect vertebra belong at least five pieces, namely, the body, in front the two ribs, behind the two arches or spinous processes; every vertebra of the head consists therefore of five pieces also. In those vertebræ which are removed from the respiratory organ, the ribs are smaller, as in the ventral ribs, and anchylosed with the body, as in the cervical vertebræ, where they are represented by the perforated transverse processes, and in the lumbar vertebræ they disappear entirely.

2112. The formation of the cervical vertebræ, where the ribs have been impacted or interposed between the body and spinous processes, is continued into the cranial vertebræ. These are only expanded cervical vertebræ. At the base of the skull four vertebral bodies lie in a series one behind the other; the body of the occipital bone, the two bodies of the sphenoid, and the vomer. Upon the sides of each of these bodies are situated alar processes, which correspond to the transverse processes of the cervical vertebræ, or to the ribs; e. g. the articular heads or condyles of the occipital bone, the alæ majores and minores of the sphenoids, and the two sides or lateral surfaces of the vomer. Behind these are placed the two broad cranial bones, which correspond to the spinous processes; as the occipital ridge or crest, the parietal, frontal and nasal bones. The occipital vertebra consists of the body, the two condyles and the occipital crest. The parietal vertebra consists of the body of the posterior sphenoid, the alæ majores, and the parietal bones. The frontal vertebra consists of the body of the anterior sphenoid, the orbitar wings or alæ, and the two frontal bones. The nasal vertebra consists of the vomer, the ethmoid and the two nasal bones. The occipital vertebra is the auditory vertebra; it incloses the auditory bones and the cerebellum, which gives off the nerves of hearing. The parietal vertebra is the lingual vertebra; the maxillary and lingual nerves passing through its alæ majores. The frontal vertebra is that belonging to the eye; through the orbitar plates or wings the optic nerves pursue their course, and it environs the cerebrum, from which these nerves originate. The nasal vertebra contains the olfactory nerves.

2113. Each cranial sense has thus only one vertebra, and the skull will consequently be formed of four vertebræ, whereof three appertain to the cranium, one unto the face. (See Oken's Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen, 1807.—Isis, 1817, S. 1204.)

2114. Several vertebræ are, however, found for the sense of feeling or touch, because it includes all the organs of the trunk. There must be therefore as many vertebræ in the trunk as there are particular organs placed therein. Of these there are three, the respiratory, digestive, and sexual system, or thorax, abdomen, and pelvis. To the thorax belong the neck, the arms, and the entire set of ribs. 5 vertebræ must appertain to the arms, because they have 5 digits and 5 nerves. But the ribs, and consequently also the digits, are determined by branchial vessels, are only repeated branchial arches, whose number in almost the entire class of fishes is 5. There are therefore also 5 thoracic or pulmonic vertebræ. Since the larynx consists of the 5 original branchial arches, and lies in front of the neck; so must the 5 superior cervical vertebræ stand in the signification of branchial vertebræ. The odontoid process of the second vertebra must be regarded, from its being separated from it in the fœtus, as a particular cervical vertebra. Accordingly, in the Thricozoa there are eight cervical vertebræ. The 3 inferior cervical, and the 2 upper costal or rib-vertebræ, give off through their interspaces the nerves of the arms, and are consequently the brachial vertebræ. The 3-7th rib are thus appended to the 5 proper thoracic vertebræ, which stand in the signification of the pulmonary vertebræ. To these succeed the 5 short ribs which belong to the abdomen; their vertebræ are thus intestinal vertebræ. The succeeding vertebræ belong to the sexual system, and are indeed the 5 lumbar or pedal vertebræ, because they furnish the pedal or foot-nerves, the 5 sacral vertebræ being the proper sexual vertebræ. The coccygeal or caudal vertebræ correspond to the cervical vertebræ, and are present for the sake of the sexual branchiæ; usually one and the other is arrested. Thus there are,—

3×5 Respiratory vertebræ. 3×5 Sexual vertebræ. 1×5 Digestive vertebræ.

The number of the sensitive vertebræ is consequently 7×5=35, which are distributed into three groups, in accordance with the principal cavities of the body, whereof the 2 terminal groups consist of 15, but the abdominal group, which combines or unites them, only of 5. The body is accordingly not merely laterally, but also in length, a perfectly symmetrical structure, which has been parcelled out in the following manner into its five stockworks, stories or floors:

I.Dermal vertebra.

A. Sexual vertebræ.

a. Coccygeal vertebræ5,

b. Sexual vertebræ5,

c. Pedal vertebræ5.

B. Abdominal vertebræ5.

C. Thoracic vertebræ.

a. Pulmonary vertebræ5,

b. Brachial vertebræ5,

c. Cervical vertebræ5.

II.Auditory vertebra1.

III.Lingual vertebra1.

IV.Optic vertebra1.

V.Nasal vertebra1.

This regularity is found too only in the human skeleton. The animals are irregular men. (Vide Oken's Zahlengesetz in den Wirbeln. Isis, 1829, S. 306.)

Cavities of the Trunk.

2115. The osseous system forms the trunk or body, because it follows the vascular system; the two other galvanic systems, the dermal and intestinal systems, form the large portions of the trunk or its cavities; to them is added the sexual cavity or pelvis.

2116. There are thus three truncal cavities, a pulmonary, an intestinal, and a sexual cavity, or thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavity.

2117. The osseous system will develop itself most feebly around the abdominal, because it is the indifferent cavity. Therefore there are either no ribs at all, or they are so short that they do not reach to the anterior vertebral column or the sternum. The short or false ribs are, according to their physiological sense, abdominal or splanchnic ribs. The thoracic ribs must be perfectly developed, i. e. abut against both vertebral columns, be entire ribs; the entire or perfect ribs are thoracic or pulmonary ribs. The sexual ribs are arrested on the pedal and coccygeal vertebræ, but on the proper sexual vertebræ, namely, the sacral bone, they are still present as rudiments.

3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

2118. As the intestinal system reappears in what is animal under the condition of a vertebral column, so also does the aggregate of the vascular system ascend, and the vessels become animal.

2119. The animal vessels are the muscles, or filled-up vessels. The polar process enters the body through the vessels; thereby the tubes obtain two strong poles, and are drawn out lengthways. They are fibres, and consist of a series of strongly oxydized blood-globules.

2120. The fibre is chiefly apparent in those vessels, such as the arteries, in which the influence of air operates more forcibly. Now an artery has, in addition to the external cellular coat, two coats, like the first animal body, or one wall turned towards the mucus, and one towards the air. The internal arterial wall is enteroid, the external dermoid in character; the one being simply granular, the other fibrous membrane. The two membranes separate into two cysts or tubes, which likewise adhere within each other like intestine and skin. The external will become fibre, the internal bone.

2121. There is a vegetative and an animal fibre-or muscle-system. The one is associated with the tegumentary formations, the other with the bones and nerves.

a. Vegetative Muscles.

2122. The muscles of vegetative life are simply fibrous tunics, as in the arteries, and are found in the skin, in the intestine, and in the vessels.

2123. The tegumentary muscles lie under the skin, and are inserted into it, or into the dermo-osteous system, when such an one is present. If the fibrous membrane be strongly developed under the skin, then it receives the name of a Panniculus carnosus.

2124. The intestine has also its fibrous coat, which, upon the stomach, anus, and pharynx, is frequently developed as a panniculus carnosus.

2125. The same holds good of the vessels, especially of the arteries and trachea.

2126. The fibres are either elongated or else annular fibres. The latter obtain the preponderance at the extremities of the tubular formations, as on the pharynx, anus, lips, and eyelids.

2127. We have consequently a dermal, splanchnic, and osseo-muscular system.

b. Animal Muscles.

2128. In the oxydizing part of the vascular system the formation of fibres must be preponderant over that of cells, and thus at the root of the lungs.

2129. The vessel becomes in the lungs a fleshy cavity. The fleshy vessel is the heart.

2130. The heart is a vascular fragment, with a preponderating development of fibrous membrane.

2131. This fibrous membrane is developed at a spot where all vascular systems enter into mutual proximity, such as the respiratory ducts and the intestinal lymphatic vessel, the artery and the vein.

2132. In the union of all the highest galvanism is attained, and then the formation may launch out into what is animal.

2133. The heart is the animal in the plant.

2134. The first heart is an arterial heart. There is originally no venous heart. In the embryo, particularly in that of the bird, this is extremely distinct; the arterial heart also emerges for the first time, and per se, in the lowest animals, in the Molluscs, Snails, and even in the Fishes, although in the latter it is regarded as a venous heart.

2135. The arterial heart is the central, the venous heart the peripheric.

2136. The heart is the prototype of the muscular system. All muscles must be a metatype of the heart.

2137. The muscle is hollow. It is a cyst.

2138. The muscular system is a manifold and serial juxtaposition of fibrous cysts or of hearts. In this respect the muscle has been formed in a corresponding manner to bone. Both are rows of cysts.

2139. But the muscle, as being the external fibrous tunic, is the enveloping or external cyst.

2140. In idea, the muscle can only directly envelop the bones, and not the other parts, for it ranks upon the same grade of development with the bone; it is the arterio-fibrous wall, while the bone is the internal arterial wall.

2141. Bone and flesh stand in antagonism like air and earth. The muscle is that which is polarizing—moving, the bone what is polarized, moved. The muscle is heart, the bone the moved blood. Bone and muscle are related as that which is contained and what is containing. The muscle is the wall of the cyst, the bone, the fluid which has been secreted from it and rigidified.

2142. As therefore the muscle is an individual cyst, a heart, which cannot invest the whole body like a single large cyst, so also must the muscular contents be only a discrete cyst. The uninterrupted character of the bones depends therefore upon that of the muscles, and the latter upon the meaning of the heart.

2143. A physiological rationale of the joints is accordingly afforded in the heart.

2144. A bone is a rigidified, ossified heart; the osseous system is a series of mutually dependent, alternately ossified and non-ossified (arteriose and venous) hearts.

2145. The muscular cyst includes the soft bone, or the joint.

2146. At its two extremities there is preponderance of oxydation, whereby the soft osseous cysts are combusted into hard calcareous earth.

2147. The muscle is a cause of the alternating ossification.

RELATION TO THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

2148. As the formation of bone predominates upon the side exposed to the light or the nervous, so does that of muscle upon the shady or vascular side. The abdominal side of the animal is the muscular, just as the dorsal side is the osseous. Upon the thorax, abdomen, on the members which belong to the anterior region of the body, and on the face, the muscular layer is by far the most predominant. Posteriorly, however, or upon the back, it is slightly wanting, and the bones there project.

2149. The back is related to the anterior surface (when regarded in man) as bone is to muscle. What is in front is muscle, what is behind is bone. The anterior side is therefore more active, nobler, more powerful and more spiritual than the posterior. Posteriorly stands the earth inert and rigidified, while in front is the air in ceaseless capacity for, and actually in, motion. The anterior muscular layer is more active and powerful than the posterior.

2150. In every muscular cyst there are two kinds of layers, an anterior and a posterior, or stronger and weaker layer.

2151. The stronger layer is the flexing, the weaker the extending. For the limbs have been necessarily bent forwards. The direction alone of the joints at once resides in the structure, which is even determined by these relations. Such a muscular layer, which mostly consists of several bundles, is termed a muscle.

2152. A muscular cyst consists of flexor and extensor muscles. The individual muscle is therefore only a piece of a cyst, and therefore not in itself hollow. It is only an entire muscular layer of flexors and extensors which is the pattern of the heart. The flexors are the strongest and are placed in front, the extensors lie behind.

2153. In the heart the flexor layers have not yet separated from the extensor layers, because the vegetable flesh has as yet no symmetry in itself.

2154. Flexors and extensors occur in pairs; because the osseous system is in pairs.

2155. There resides in the osseous and in the muscular system no cause for a diversity in the two halves of the body. Thus, if there be a difference, it must only reside in the asymmetrical galvanic systems.

3. Organs.

2156. Organs are parts of an anatomical system, which separating, combine with a part of another system, and thereby obtain a peculiar or special function.

2157. For each system therefore there are as many organs, as there are possible combinations of systems. There are vascular, intestinal, pulmonary, sexual and tegumentary organs, with furthermore, osseous, muscular and nervous organs.

A. VEGETATIVE ORGANS.

1. INTESTINAL ORGANS.

2158. The intestinal or splanchnic system falls first of all into three great divisions, into that of the viscera, the sex and the head; the visceral intestine separates moreover into pulmonic, venous and tegumentary intestine, and this in constant accordance with its combinations and functions.

a. Visceral Intestine.

2159. In the digestive system it is the chemical process that takes precedence. This, however, divides into three moments, into that of solution, separation and formation, or crystallization, which is here absorption. Thus the intestine separates also into a solvent, secernent and absorbent intestine, and that indeed through its combination with the pulmonic, vascular and tegumentary system. The solvent viscus is the stomach, the second or secernent, the duodenum, the third or absorbent, the small intestine (jejunum and ileum).

Pulmonic Intestine.

2160. All solution is accompanied by oxydation. The gastric juice is in its action an acid.

2161. The gastric juice obtains its oxygen from the spleen. The spleen is the stomachic lung. This is attested by its position and close approximation to the stomach; by its black, venous, and deoxydized blood, which in certain diseases has been secreted even in the stomach; by its want of any excretory duct; by its tissue, which resembles that of the oxydized placenta; furthermore by the natural character of this function when contrasted with the unnatural quality of other useless functions that have been assigned to it; and lastly too, by the fact that, without this opinion be admitted, it must remain a superfluous organ, and as regards use, unknown. After a series of years, during which this doctrine has been combated upon all sides, without, however, a single reason, save and except that it was not believed, being advanced by its opponents, I must still persist in the correctness of the above view.

Vascular Intestine.

2162. In the duodenum the analysis of the food takes place through the medium of the bile. It is consequently the biliary intestine or stomach.

2163. The biliary intestine does not stand upon a par with the other intestines, but has an equal rank with the stomach. It is therefore not confined within the mesentery, but can expand itself like the stomach; it has its vessels and nerves. In it the separation of the chyme into chyle and excrementitious matter takes place.

2164. What the spleen is for the stomach, that is the liver for the duodenum; it is the hepatic stomach, and consequently the vascular stomach.

2165. The liver is the ramification of the intestinal canal along with the whole vascular system.

2166. Now, as the analysis is the principal function in the whole process of digestion; so is the liver the chief organ of all digestive organs.

2167. The liver is the centre, the brain of the digestive system, because it is the blossom, the synthesis of the vascular system. From it everything emanates, and upon it everything which concerns digestion, ay, the whole body, retrogressively operates. If the liver suffers or undergoes functional derangement, the whole vascular and tegumentary formation then becomes a liver, as is exemplified in the disease called jaundice.

2168. The bile effects the analysis or separation through its basic or alkaline character, since it combines with the acids of the chyme, and thereby forms the excrementitious matter.

2169. That which mediates between the acid and what is alkaline is the fluid secreted by the pancreatic gland. The pancreatic gland is the ramification of the intestine along with the arterial system.

Tegumental Intestine.

2170. That in the jejunum and ileum or the small intestine proper, and in that alone, absorption and thus the tegumentary function, but nothing else, occurs, is well known. By this absorption the chyle becomes removed from the intestine, so that the excrement alone is left.

b. Sexual Intestine.

2171. The sexual is pre-eminently that which is exsecernent or excretive, since one sex strives to redintegrate itself upon the other, becomes ingestive for the other, but egestive for or in relation to itself. It is therefore an essential property of the sexual parts, that they secrete and excrete.

2172. Every galvanic system, which has been adjoined or appended to the sexual parts, is excretive. They are, taken in a rigid sense, the only system of excretion. The co-operative processes of the sex are those of the vegetative systems, but they take place in the reverse direction. The latter convey inwards, the former outwards. The kidneys are a reversed or evacuating lung, an excrement-forming liver; the urinary cyst is an exspirant, a trachea containing refuse matter; the urethra is a glottis reversed; their diseases are therefore similar. They thus expel products of the individual respiratory system.

2173. And in this is the sexual apparatus distinguished from them, namely, that it expels the products of all systems, the products of the whole organism, or the organism itself. In the semen the whole male body with all its parts transudes, or passes over in a fluid state, into the female parts; in a child, the female together with the male body, passes over—formed or fashioned into the world.

2174. The sexual intestine must therefore be expulsive also. It is that which conducts the intestinal juice and the refuse of the aliment out of the body.

2175. The evacuating or efferent intestine is the large intestine. It is consequently the Sexual intestine.

2176. The large intestine is related to the abdominal or small intestine, exactly like the urinary cyst is to the kidney, and this to the vascular system. The small intestine passes therefore by perforation into the large, not the latter into the former. The small enters by perforating the large intestine, and therein evacuates its alimentary residue, as into a special-cyst, that has nothing to do with the intestinal system. The large intestine is the excrement-cyst, just as that which has been called bladder is the urinary cyst.

2177. The large intestine no longer digests, but only receives what is left from the process of digestion and expels or casts it out.

2178. The large intestine begins with a cæcal extremity, or with an obtuse cyst, and opens into the anus, exactly like the original animal cyst, the polyp. The blind extremity is called cæcum. With this the small intestine communicates by perforating it at an acute angle, and that indeed in a direction which runs towards the obtuse cystiform extremity; so that both intestines lie in mutual juxtaposition like a fork, whereof the pharynx and the rectum are the two prongs, while the cæcum is the handle.

2179. The two intestines are consequently by no means correlated. In the perfect animal there are two intestinal systems thoroughly distinct from each other; two intestines, which belong to two different animals, the sexual and encephalic animal, or the plant and the animal. The genesis of the large intestine and all its relations, which are principally seen in the cæcum and rectum, plead for this philosophical derivation of the two intestines.

2180. The rectum appertains wholly and entirely to the sexual system, and especially to the uterus. It is devoid of mesentery, and supplied by special vessels; it stands in most obvious sympathy with the uterus, with its diseases, and with menstruation. Even hemorrhoids are a sexual disease, a disease of the sexual intestine.

2181. The anus is thus the intestinal mouth of the sexual animal. In the lowest organized animals, the oviducts seminal and urinary ducts together run into it, as into a proper mouth. The anus is a true oral cavity in the fishes, reptiles, and even in the whale.

2182. The pharynx opens into the mouth, and so does the rectum into the anus; the trachea opens into the month, and so does the urethra into the anus; the salivary ducts open into the mouth, and so into the anus do the oviducts, with the spermatic canals in the lower animals. The rectum moreover lies behind the urinary cyst, like the gullet behind the trachea.

2183. The sphincter or occlusor muscles of the anus have been formed like the sphincter muscles of the pharynx. The anus is a mouth without a head, and therefore a mouth without lips, or an pharynx.

Cephalic Intestine.

2184. The union or combination of the intestine with the animal systems, such as the nervous, muscular, and osseous, occurs in the head.

2185. In so far as it combines with bones and muscles, it becomes an organ of motion, and, when with the nerves, an organ of sensation. The animal or sarcal intestine is pharynx and mouth.

2186. The motor organ is an organ of prehension. The organs of prehension are endowed with independent motion, and therefore move towards the food. The first general organs of motion are the members of the body. In the higher animals the thoracic members are at once the prehensible organs. Instead of the aliment being obliged to flow, as unto the plant, in a state of suspension in water, the animal moves itself toward its food.

2187. The members are the first organs of prehension. But these are repeated in the head as jaws and teeth. The teeth are the second organs of prehension, but the first which belong to the cephalic intestine; they are called organs of seizure or prehension.

2188. The organ of digestion is, however, one of a chemical character. It must be therefore repeated as such in the head. This is shown in the salivary glands. The saliva is the animal gastric juice, and is therefore directly solvent in its properties. It is poison.

2189. After and during the operation of the saliva, the aliments in the mouth are subjected to the action of the molar teeth and ground or chewed. These comminuting or crushing organs are only a repetition of the act of prehension, and consequently belong to the prehensile or biting organs.

2190. The mouth is the stomach repeated in the head.

2191. The union of the intestine with the nervous system is the tongue.

2192. The intestine, when repeated in the head's muscular system, is the organ of deglutition, as is seen in the pharynx and oesophagus.

2193. The prehensile and manducatory, venomous, gustatory, and deglutitory organs, are the forms into which the intestinal system divides, when it is repeated in the after-animal, or in the sphere of animal life. The gustatory organ is the nerve-intestine; the prehensile organ the bone-intestine; the organ of deglutition the muscular intestine; while the poison-organ is the proper cephalic intestine, or the stomach.

2. VASCULAR ORGANS.

2194. The vascular system regarded "en masse," or in a general sense, has to participate in the nutrition of the body; so far it takes the place of the cellular tissue, and cannot therefore be developed for itself into any special organs. If, however, certain vessels separate from the general system, and combine with other systems unto the performance of special offices or functions, organs then originate, which, nevertheless, do not, in a rigid point of view, belong to these systems.

2195. There are therefore as many vascular organs as there are possible combinations; thus with the tegument, the lung, the intestine, the sexual parts, and with the systems of animal life.

a. CUTANEO-VASCULAR ORGANS—BRANCHIÆ.

2196. The development of the vessels unto a special organ in the integument are Respiratory organs; or, more properly speaking, the development of the integument to constitute a special organ in combination with the vessels, is a respiratory organ.

2197. In the commencement the branchiæ are only a vascular network upon, and therefore subordinate to, the integument. They pass, however, through all possible stages of development, until they have subjected and converted also the integument into a vascular system; a point which is attained in the formation of the lungs.

2198. The branchial membrane already commences in the earthworm to concentrate itself and dilate, so as to form what have been called the sacculi or pouches; in the leech it is folded inwards, so as to form lateral vesicles or cysts, that prognosticate the air-passages or stigmata of insects; in the Nereids the vessels project upon the back from above the integument as free branchial ramules, a formation, which is again found in the nudibranchiate Gasteropods.

2199. These branchial ramules form at first two rows extending along the whole dorsal region; by degrees, however, the posterior set disappear, and the cervical branchiæ only are left, as antetypes of the gills of fishes.

2200. In the Mollusca the branchial vessels unite to form laminæ upon the ventral sides, and are already surrounded by a kind of thoracic cavity, the mantle, as is exemplified in the tectibranchiate Gasteropods. Here again the branchiæ are either a simple vascular net enveloped in a fold of the mantle, or elongated into filaments disposed like the teeth of a comb, or into laminæ, &c.

2201. The lateral branchiæ of the Nereids usually emit filaments resembling feet, upon the root of which the true branchiæ are then placed. In the Crustacea these filaments harden into actual feet provided with joints. The feet are therefore nothing else than branchial filaments, which have lost their vegetative function.