PART III. BIOLOGY—OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS. (continued 5)

2202. In many worms the same branchial filaments are converted into hairs or bristles, which are therefore none other than desiccated branchial filaments.

2203. Even the hairs of Mammalia and the feathers of Birds have been left as remnants of the original branchial formation.

2204. Where the branchiæ have assumed the laminated form, they are surrounded by a similarly formed covering or operculum. The shells of the Mollusca are, as regards their signification, none other than branchial opercula, or gill-covers; the same holds good also of the gasteropodal and crustacean shells, and at bottom of every calcareous and horny covering of the body.

2205. To the same category belong also the opercula of Fishes, and even their scales. Fundamentally, the whole epidermis is only a product of respiration or oxydation.

2206. The first saccular or cæcal inversion of the integument, as in the Leeches, Molluscs, and Snails, is at once a predominance of the tegumentary, obtained through the medium of the branchial formation, whereby the skin commences to become a self-substantial organ of respiration.

2207. In the Scorpions the branchiæ are introverted sacs or cysts, into which, however, instead of water, air already enters.

2208. This insaccation is converted in the Spiders into more distinct air-cysts, which finally ramify in the higher insects and become true tracheæ.

2209. Lastly, the respiratory system obtains the upper hand to such an extent, that, together with internal air-tubes, external branchial laminæ are also developed, as in the Molluscs; but in them the tracheæ obtain the preponderance over the blood-vessels, so that these laminæ dry up and become wings or fins.

2210. The wings of Insects are branchial laminæ, converted into air-organs.

2211. The wing-coverings or elytra are branchial opercula, and correspond to the shells of bivalve Mollusca.

2212. Every insect therefore must properly possess four wings and two wing-coverings, of which last, however, rudiments only appear to be left in the nocturnal Lepidoptera.

2213. In the higher organized animals those gills only which are nearer the head are persistent, the posterior or lateral branchiæ being gradually arrested.

2214. These lateral branchiæ remain in Fishes as lateral mucous openings, which constitute the lateral line.

2215. The cervical branchiæ are limited to the number five, which has already begun to be established in the Crustacea; namely, at the origins or roots of the five anterior pairs of feet.

2216. The number five probably derives its origin from the vegetable kingdom, and that indeed from the genesis of the pinnate leaves, so that one kind of numerical law appears to prevail with respect to this organ in both organic kingdoms. It is probably also an imitation of the five organs of sense.

2217. The vessels of the branchiæ of Fishes are accompanied by bony rings, which correspond to the feet of Crustacea.

2218. All Fishes have, with few exceptions, five branchial arches.

2219. When in Fishes the sarcous system begins to produce viscera, then the five branchial foramina pass inwards, and only a single respiratory aperture is left for them in the fleshy body; namely, the external branchial foramen.

2220. In the lower animals water or air passes in and out through the same respiratory aperture, but in Fishes these two courses are preserved distinct; for, except in the Lampreys, the water enters through the mouth, and passes out through the branchial aperture.

2221. Here the attempt is manifested in a still greater degree, to bring the process of respiration wholly under the control of what is animal, this being in the next place, and for the first time attained, when respiratory apertures only are left upon the head.

2222. The respiratory apertures of the head are the nostrils, which are suddenly manifested in Fishes, but are in them simply subservient to the sense of smell, and not as yet to the respiratory act.

2223. All the higher animals have, like fishes, branchial apertures in the neck, only they coalesce and become obliterated at an early period, or so soon as that respiratory process appears, when air passes through the nostrils. In the Salamanders and Frogs these branchial foramina are persistent for a longer time, frequently through the whole period of life; but in Birds and Mammalia they disappear, while they are in the embryo state.

2224. When the branchial apertures close, the vessels separate from the arches, and betake themselves to a glandular body lying in front of them. The thyroid gland is the remnant of the former branchial formation, and is therefore found only in Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.

Lungs.

2225. In Fishes the internal organ of respiration is already indicated by a cæcal eversion of the pharynx, which is surrounded by the branchial arches. This membranous cæcal eversion is called the swimming-bladder, which in the higher animals becomes double on account of their symmetry, and is then called lung.

2226. In the Fish the aquatic and aerial process of respiration are present together, the former being external, the latter internal.

2227. The branchial arches having coalesced, are converted in the higher animals into tracheal rings, into the larynx and the posterior cornua of the hyoid bone, if these are present, as in the Reptiles. The larynx is therefore no special organ, but only a remnant of the branchial respiratory apparatus.

2228. The laryngeal vessels are, like the thyroid glands, branchial vessels, and in Fishes, therefore, the branchial vessels do not correspond to the pulmonary vessels, but to those of the trachea. The pulmonic vessels of Fishes are the blood-vessels of the swimming-cyst, which convey blood directly into the heart, whereby this organ obtains the signification of the left or arterial heart.

2229. When the branchial apertures have coalesced, the nose then opens into the mouth or into the trachea, and in this way the nostrils assume the complete character of aerial foramina.

2230. The nose is therefore originally an organ of smell, and then a part of the respiratory system. It is the animal lung.

2231. As the secretion of bone is a product of the more powerful process of oxydation, so do the bony rings multiply beneath the branchial arches or the larynx, and are called tracheal rings. In the feebly respiring Reptiles the trachea is therefore still in a membranous condition, but in Birds and Mammalia, it is surrounded by many rings, or is a repetition of the larynx.

2232. In Birds even a kind of inferior larynx originates, which is provided with muscles and can produce tones.

2233. The ramification of the trachea into two bronchi or branches is constantly progressing, and at length these tubes divide into a great number of vesicles, which together form the lungs. The lung, which was in the commencement a simple saccular inversion of the integument, has now become a self-substantial organ, to which the respiratory vessels have been subordinated. The lung also divides upon each side into five lobes.

b. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE INTESTINE.

Liver.

2234. The self-substantial development of the vascular, and its separation from the general, system, is most perfectly attained in the Liver.

2235. In the liver, as being the vascular system, which combines with the intestinal canal, the venous system has become independent. The portal vein arises from the intestinal canal, collects into one trunk, and again ramifies in order to unite with the biliary ducts, which are only a ramified saccular eversion of the intestine. This conjunction is represented by the liver.

2236. The liver as being a venous organ stands therefore in opposition to the lung, and produces, instead of oxydes, a basic body, or the bile. The liver, as being the venous system which has become free, is to be regarded as the highest development or blossom of the vascular system.

2237. It is for the vegetative body, what the brain is for the animal; and hence, therefore, the similarity of structure and the sympathy between both organs.

Spleen.

2238. As opposed to the liver, the arterial system also develops itself upon the intestine as a respiratory or branchial organ. These intestinal branchiæ are found in several of the lower organized animals, especially in the Holothuriæ and Aphroditæ.

2239. In the higher animals they are aggregated into a special organ, through which the gastric juice obtains oxygen; this is the spleen. The spleen is the branchia of the stomach; it has therefore no excretory duct and requires none.

2240. Lastly, the salivary glands also in the mouth as well as in the duodenum, the abdomino-salivary glands, and even the odoriferous glands on the rectum, such as the castor-and civet-pouches, are complications of vessels with intestinal ramifications.

C. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.

Kidneys.

2241. The vascular organ of the sexual system is the kidneys.

2242. As the urine is chiefly characterized by the urea and thus by a basic principle; it thus corresponds to the bile, and consequently the kidneys directly to the liver or the lung reversed.

2243. But there is also a sexual branchia in those inferior animals which breathe through the anus, such as many aquatic larvæ.

2244. The remnant of this in the higher animals appears to be the allantois, and in the body itself probably what have been called the primordial kidneys.

2245. The combination of the vascular system with the animal systems is the sense of touch.

3. RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

2246. The respiratory organ is a development of the integument.

2247. The perfect organ of respiration is an air-organ or lung; combined with the tegumentary system, it is a water-organ or branchia.

2248. There are dermo-branchiæ or the branchiæ proper, as in the Worms, Molluscs, Snails, and Crabs.

2249. Intestinal branchiæ in the Holothuriæ, constituting in the higher animals a spleen.

2250. The sexual branchiæ are probably the primordial kidneys.

2251. The branchiæ when united with the osseous system are the branchial arches of Fishes, which subsequently separate into larynx and thyroid gland.

2252. The self-substantial development of the integument into the respiratory organ is a lung.

2253. When united with the vascular system or the vegetative systems generally, the integument forms the tracheal system of Insects.

2254. The tracheæ are spiral vessels as in plants.

2255. The respiratory organ, united with the motor system, is the lung proper, which is situated within the thorax, and covered by ribs.

2256. The proper lung divides also, like the intestine, into two parts, into the cystiform, pharyngeal expansion of the larynx, and into the pulmonic substance, which is equivalent to the stomach, and wherein the analysis of the air takes place.

2257. The trachea, and especially the larynx, is moreover an entire thorax, a ribbed skeleton upon a small and membranous scale. In the larynx, the animal thoracic structure, consisting of ribs and muscles, resides prognosticated. The larynx has originated from the coalescence of branchial arches. The ribs are a repetition of the branchial arches.

2258. The diaphragm is a formation, which admits, by no reasoning from its anatomy, but only genetically, of being explained. Originally, the whole body was only an abdomen, upon the external surface of which the branchiæ were appended. A remarkable instance of this is at once afforded by the Snails, and also the Fishes. As the gills were converted into lungs, a special body or the thorax originated for them, which encroached upon the abdomen. Now, the abdominal wall left between these two cavities, was just the diaphragm.

2259. The diaphragm is not a transverse wall or septum. The idea of such a cross-rail gainsays all sound physiology. It has been the abdominal wall.

2260. The union of the lungs with the nervous system is the nose.

2261. The nose is the cephalic thorax; but it has also the thoracic contents, or the very lung repeated in itself.

2262. The multicavernous ethmoid bone is the lung in the nose, the two nostrils being the stigmata or foremost openings of the trachea. The nasal muscles are homologous to the cartilages of the trachea, and especially to those of the larynx.

2263. The velum palati is the diaphragm between nose and mouth, or between the cephalic thorax and the cephalic abdomen.

Coverings.

2264. The animal coverings are desiccated respiratory organs appertaining to the integument.

Capillary Vessels.

2265. The principal function of the vessel is that of secretion, whereby nutrition is imparted. This secretion must take place in the whole body, in so far as it is opposed to the lung. The vessels then pass over into the finest canals, and are called capillary vessels.

2266. The capillary system of vessels is an organ in antagonism to the lung; what enters the latter organ, passes out through the former.

2267. The capillary system of vessels is the property of the tegumentary system. It may almost be said that wherever there is integument, there capillary vessels are present. The most perfect evolution of capillaries is the integument. It is the proper exsecernent, in opposition to the intestine, which is the absorbent organ.

2268. Evaporation is the essential tegumentary process.

2269. The product of the evaporation is mucus.

2270. In the evaporation, however, the mucus becomes analyzed by the influence of the air and light.

Epidermis.

2271. The external mucus exuding from the skin becomes oxydized, the inferior on the contrary reduced; the oxydized becomes vitreous and transparent. It is the Epidermis.

2272. With the maximum of oxydation the epidermis passes over into a vitreous transparent horn, e. g. scales.

2273. The scales, which invest the toes and digits are called claws, and finally become nails. The finger-nail is nothing but a scale, which in this situation has become particularly large and strong.

2274. That which is reduced beneath the vitrified epidermis determines the colour of the skin. With a demi-oxydation it is uncoloured, appears white. Where the integument is thin, the red colour of the blood appears through it; such integument is therefore white upon the whole, but red in individual places.

2275. With the most complete reduction effected by the highest operation of light, its substratum or under-layer becomes black. The mucus passes over into reduced carbon. Beneath the vitreous epidermis there is thus a metallic pigmentary membrane.

Hairs.

2276. Capillary vessels, which simply convey mucus, but are elongated singly above and from out the cutis, are Hairs. The idea of the hair is a capillary vessel, the contents of which are no longer blood, but reduced mucus. It is an indifferent capillary vessel. The hair is hollow and contains an oil, which determines the colour.

2277. In the hairs the nutritive system is prolonged above the body.

2278. The hairs and scales are the general terrestrial system of the body determined by the air.

2279. Thus the earth has sprung up into a plant. Scales and hairs are like true vegetable leaves, which still continue their process in the animal; they can no longer it is true make their respiratory process hold good for the animal process itself, but are at present content with only oxydizing the material of evaporation. It is properly the integument only, not the entire body, which respires through hairs and scales.

2280. The hairs are dried branchial filaments, and therefore continue to occupy in Man, those situations only where in the lower animals branchiæ or tentacula are placed. Around e. g. the mouth, upon the head, under the arms or in the axillæ, and around the sexual apertures.

2281. The feathers are dried ramified branchiæ, pinnate leaves.

2282. The hairs participate in the electric process of the whole body.

2283. What determines the colour in the plant, determines it also in the animal; only in the plant the colour is more coarsely precipitated, and nothing therefore glimmers from the interior of the body, but all is green. In an animal, however, the colouring matter is transparent, and the interior is thus rendered visible.

2284. With the external coverings, such as scales, and lastly with the hairs, all organs of the trunk, in so far as they are derived from what is vegetable, are exhausted. The vegetable animal, as trunk, is completed, and we must now therefore turn to the sexual organs.

4. SEXUAL ORGANS.

2285. The sexual organs are developments of the integument upon a higher grade, and combinations of the same with the animal systems, like as the blossom is a repetition of all vegetative systems.

2286. They range in the middle between the vegetative and the encephalic animal, and are therefore a totality for themselves, or a sexual animal.

2287. There are vegetative and animal sexual parts.

I. Vegetative Sexual Organs.

2288. Are special developments of the intestine, vessels and branchiæ.

a. SEXUAL ORGANS PROPER.

2289. The proper sexual parts are a repetition of the digestive system on its transition to what is animal, or to the organs of sense.

1. Female Organs.

2290. The female parts are a floral capsule, consisting of an ovary or sac, stigma and ova. All higher development takes place, however, through separation of the complicated organs and processes.

2291. The three parts therefore of the gestative sac or matrix separate, each part becoming self-substantially perfected. The orifice elongates into a cervix or neck, which is gradually rendered more distinct from the matrix, and in its highest and self-substantial completion is called oviduct.

2292. The matrix elongates also at its cæcal extremity or fundus, as well as at its open end. The germinal bodies also become self-substantial, separate gradually from the fundus of the matrix, and are then independent ovaria.

2293. As in the highest animal formation they also assume the animal symmetry, while at first they were only single, or manifold, as in the plicated capsules of Star-fishes, and therefore remained stationary at the number two; so is the ovisac prolonged into two long cornua, or trumpet-like tubes, which at the commencement, indeed, still include the ova, as in Insects and Fishes, but are subsequently left entirely free.

2. Male Parts.

2294. The leaf-formation is elevated to the corolla or the male parts in the plant. They are, however, only the repetition of the plant upon a higher stage. Hence in the animal also the male parts will be upon a higher grade of position to the female.

2295. As the stamina surround the ovarian capsule in the plant, so do animal stamina stand around the orifice of the oviduct; as penes.

2296. In the lowest ovisacs the penes are circularly disposed around the orifice; as is exemplified by the tentacles of a Polyp; by degrees, however, they are resolved, for the sake of symmetry, into two, and then project upon the sides of the orifice, as in the Serpents and Lizards. In the higher animals the two penes coalesce into one.

2297. This penis situated at the orifice of the oviduct is the clitoris. The vagina is separated from the clitoris; but in the male organs they both combine or blend with each other, and the vagina becomes the seminal canal or that of the penis.

2298. As the orifice begins to assume a male character, and the external parts to be more forcibly developed in the direction outwards, so, on the other hand, do the internal parts recede the more, and remain simply as ovaria or ovisacs, in which the ova, instead of being formed as such, dissolve into pollen, mucus, or male semen. These ovaria, which now secrete semen instead of vitelline vesicles, are called testes.

2299. The testes originate, while the mucous ova are being reduced to primary mucus, or to infusoria.

2300. What is male originates through an organic process of decomposition or putrefaction of the ova. The semen is an organic product of decomposition.

2301. The semen must contain infusoria. A semen which does not contain infusoria, is ovum-like, or feminine. Except at the time of heat or rut, and thus when the animals have a female character, the semen possesses no infusoria, and is in that case simply albumen.

2302. Semen, which is devoid of infusoria, is incapable of impregnation. How can one wretched female ovum impregnate or fructify another?

2303. As the trumpet-like tubes or oviducts belong to the ovaria, so are they developed with the testes, and now convey semen instead of ova. The female tubes become the vasa deferentia or spermatic ducts, the uterine cornua, the vesiculæ seminales.

2304. Between the vesiculæ seminales and the vagina or the penis the uterus shrivels up into the prostate gland, into which the vasa deferentia open, like the oviducts do into the uterus.

2305. As the matrix is the proper female organ, so will the spermatic ducts seek to combine with the penis, or at least open self-substantially upon the os uteri. The testes open either through the spermatic ducts into the vagina, as in Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds, or into the penis, as in the Gasteropods, Insects, and Mammalia.

2306. Male and female parts are therefore perfectly homologous, the former having a greater development of the external division, the latter of the internal.

2307. The female parts have undertaken the business of vegetation, or that of the viscera, the male that of the animal excitation.

2308. Since the male parts are no new formation, but the female parts themselves, only characterized by internal arrest, and external increase of development, so do male and female parts appear incapable of occurring together in any animal. Perfect hermaphrodites would, accordingly, be impossible; for where testes are, no ovaria could be, because the testes are themselves the ovaria, or the latter only changed.

2309. Hence androgynism would be possible only by one ovarium remaining as such, and the other being converted into a testis.

2310. This development appears only possible when the two halves of the body are unequal. Asymmetrical animals only can be androgynous. In the snails one of the two molluscan shell-valves has been more largely developed than the other, and therefore one half also of the body is greater than the other. On this account many hermaphrodites are found among these animals.

2311. Thus, there ought to be no androgynous animals with at the same time two ovaria and two testes. Nevertheless, this very peculiarity occurs in many of the lower organized animals, e. g. the worms.

2312. Accordingly, the principle of androgynism is in general to be found in the want of symmetry. Symmetrical animals are as a rule diœcious. No hermaphrodite is found among the Insects, Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.

2313. If such occur, they are formations that have remained persistent at the lower stage of development, or upon the transition of the embryo through the Snail-type of organization; they are thus monstrosities, or malformations.

2314. These malformations also, when occurring in the higher animals, can never possess more than one testicle and one ovarium. The uterus then ranks midway between its condition as such, and that of a prostate gland; the spermatic tube or urethra opens after a female fashion below the root of the penis.

Impregnation.

2315. Since the male sex is related to the female, as corolla to capsule, as leaf to stalk, as air to water, and as light to matter; so is it related also as integument to intestine, as lung to lymphatic vessel, as artery to vein, as nerve to flesh or muscle, as Animal to Vegetative.

2316. Copulation is therefore an irradiation.

2317. Already, in the course of the heavenly bodies, has the highest act of the animal, that of copulation, been preindicated or portrayed. The creation of the universe or world is itself nothing but an act of impregnation. The sex is prognosticated from the beginning, and pursues its course like a holy and conservative bond throughout the whole of nature. He therefore who so much as questions the sex in the organic world, comprehends not the riddle or problem of the universe.

2318. If the female parts have effected a complete transition into the male, so are the sexes necessarily separate and distinct.

2319. Since the male parts are the female that have been more highly developed, so there resides in the latter the constant conatus or effort to convert themselves into the male.

2320. This metamorphosis, or conversion, is, however, no longer possible in the female parts, when already finished or fully formed, but is only attainable in a new attempt being made upon their part, to transform the fluid mass into ova.

2321. Gestation or pregnancy is none other than the propensity of the Female to convert itself into the Male.

2322. The fœtus is the male in a female, or the fœtus is the male sexual parts in the female.

2323. In idea, every fœtus should be male. But, if mascularity be attained with the first production, then the second necessarily subsides into the female. In this manner there of necessity originates an equiponderance in the number of both sexes.

2324. Moreover, if the sexual parts be regarded according to their proper signification in the animal, they are the upper intestinal system, as it has been developed in the mouth, and that indeed in such a manner, that the female parts are the vegetative form or the oral cavity, the male, the animal form, or the tongue with the salivary glands; the former represent the process of deglutition, the latter that of taste.

2325. Into the uterus or into the prostate gland the excretory ducts of the sexual glands, or the spermatic canals and oviducts, pursue a convergent course, like the salivary ducts do into the oral cavity.

2326. The testes, as also the ovaria, are forebodent of the salivary glands. The semen and oviducts are salivary ducts; they open by twos and symmetrically. Semen and ova are secreted like saliva. Semen and ova have also a salivary function, though of this the former is endowed with more than the latter.

2327. The ova correspond, as being an object of the semen, to the object of the saliva, which is the food or aliment. The saliva imparts to the bole or mouthful of food its first animal signification; it renders it for the first time capable of passing over into animal organs; it impregnates the morsel. The semen renders the ovum capable of effecting the transition into an animal; it spits upon the ovum.

2328. Impregnation is a process of smearing with saliva, conception a process of deglutition.

2329. Pregnancy is a process of digestion and formation of blood.

2330. If the internal sexual parts denote the internal visceral parts of the mouth, so must the external parts of the one correspond to the external of the other. The labia pudendi correspond to the lips, and the clitoris to the tongue, which is more perfectly represented in the penis. Both tongue and penis consist of two halves; in cases where the former is fissured or divided, the latter is so also, as in the Serpents and Lizards. In many animals, as the dogs and other Mammalia, there is likewise a bone in the penis, which corresponds to the os hyoides or linguale. The salivary ducts have combined with the penis; or, taken in a more strict sense, it may be said, that in the penis the tongue has coalesced with the oral cavity, so that both form a canal,—that of the penis, into which the salivary ducts (vesiculæ seminales) open.

2331. The sexual passion or venereal desire is a gustatory process of the sexual animal, the copulation being at one and the same time a matter both of taste and deglutition.

3. Germ or Embryo.

2332. In the embryo the whole animal already resides in miniature, as does the plant in its seed.

2333. The embryonic intestine is the vitellus or yelk.

2334. The embryonic integument is the amnion.

2335. The embryonic vascular system is the chorion.

2336. The embryonic sexual system is the allantois. The above propositions can only be perfectly developed in the physiology.

b. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.

2337. The hæmatopoietic or blood-preparing vascular system is the lung; the blood-destroying, exsecernent vascular system is the kidneys. The kidneys are the lung reversed. The liver decomposes the venous, the kidneys the arteriose blood.

2338. The kidneys are the individualized vascular system of the sex, as the liver is that for digestion. They accord with the liver in their glandular structure, in the renal pelvis, which is like the gall-cyst, in the ureters that resemble the biliary ducts, and lastly, in the general signification of the urine as a product, wherein the whole organism, the whole blood-system has been excreted, like the bile, in which the venous blood undergoes the same process.

2339. Every disturbance of the digestive function acts in a striking and very direct manner upon the urine. The jaundice is apparent in urine; and what else is diabetes than a malady analogous to diseases of the liver? In urine we recognize what the bile has done with the food; the urine is the fluid nutritive system, and consequently the fluid organism "in toto;" the sexual blood, or sexual bile.

2340. The urine is the purest mirror or reflex of the bodily condition, and hence ourology or the doctrine of urine is of the most universal importance in semeiotics or symptomatic pathology: the ureters correspond to the tracheal branches or bronchi; thus, the urinary cyst to the trachea; the urethra to the larynx.

2341. In many animals the ureters open directly into the cloaca, as in many Fishes, Reptiles.

2342. By degrees the cloaca is retracted towards the ureters, and then originates a cloaca, which is both urethra and urinary cyst, as in Birds.

2343. In the higher animals, where a perfect ourocyst or urinary cyst has been evolved, the urethra opens into the anterior wall of the vagina, in front of which the urinary cyst then lies, in a similar manner to the trachea in front of the pharynx.

2344. In many Fishes the urinary cyst is absent, their pulmonic sac being also but feebly developed and only remaining as an asymmetrical swimming-cyst—the ureters too open directly into the cloaca, just as the swimming-cyst opens into the pharynx. The pharynx of Fishes, as being surrounded by the branchial arches, is at once pharynx and larynx, like as in many animals cloaca and urinary cyst are of one and the same kind.

2345. In many Reptiles (such as the Tortoises and Frogs) the urinary cyst gives off two cæca or blind sacs, as is the case in the larynx of many apes.

2346. In the Bird the two cul-de-sacs of the urinary cyst are much more developed and have assumed the form of two cæcal intestines, so that they have been actually viewed as such, and their number two been assigned as characteristic of the bird, the other animals meanwhile having only one. The cæca intestinalia of Birds are the lateral and upper extremities of the urinary cyst. The true cæcum of the bird is the vitelline canal or duct, just as in the fishes and all higher organized animals; this being distinctly retained in the aquatic birds.

2347. In the Bird the rectum properly opens into the urinary cyst between the two blind sacs or cæca, and that indeed with a regular vulva, which is a sphincter muscle.

2348. The cloaca of the Bird is an urinary cyst, into which the anus opens.

2349. The orifice of the cloaca is properly that of the urethra; ova and fæces are moistened with urine. In a bird both these egesta are combined.

2350. Like the urethra, so is the trachea membranous in Fishes, and in most Reptiles also.

2351. Urinary cyst and urethra stand in sympathetic relation with the trachea and larynx, and have also similar diseases, such as catarrh, inflammation, &c.

2352. The proper proof, however, of the urinary cyst belonging to the respiratory system resides in its genesis. It proceeds from the allantois, which in Birds is a decided organ of respiration, a branchia.

2353. Out of this urinary cyst issue in the embryo what have been called primordial kidneys, which shrink or dwindle down at a later period, but have entirely the structure of branchiæ.

2354. Here then is a sexuo-respiratory process, which corresponds to the anal respiration, upon a higher stage, of many worms and aquatic larvæ, e. g. Holothuriæ and Libellulæ. This anal respiration is in its signification a sexual respiration.

2355. Even in the acephalous bivalve Mollusca and Snails the respiratory openings are almost always situated in the proximity of the anus; their respiration is still a sexual respiration.

2356. For the first time in Insects it becomes a respiration of the trunk; and for the first time in the higher animals a truly animal, namely, a cephalic respiration.

2357. The urinary system is a double system; it conjoins in itself the two highest galvanic processes, that of secretion and excretion.

2358. Secretion is an hepatic character, excretion a pulmonic character. Secretion belongs to nutrition, excretion to respiration. Excretion is an exspiration, secretion an influx or infusion. Secretion is related to excretion as water is to air, as liver to lung, as basis to oxygen.

2359. Secretion takes place, e. g. of bile and saliva, in so far as the processes of the body, especially those of the digestion, are promoted. Excretion is only effected in so far as that the organs, into which what is secreted enters, may obtain a tracheal signification, i. e. evaporation. All excretory orifices are in a certain sense larynges or tracheal orifices. Thus, this relation between secretion and excretion would have been discovered without recourse to conjecture being had upon our part.

2360. The urine is "par excellence" a double product of this kind. It is secreted in the kidneys for simply one object, like the bile. It is excreted, because it belongs to the sexual system, which is essentially exsecernent.

2361. The object or purpose of the urine has not been subverted in all animals. In Birds, where the urinary cyst and intestine are confluent, the urine enters like the bile into the intestine, at least at a spot where there is intestinal matter, which it renders fluid.

2362. In Insects and Snails it appears to invest as a mucus the ova, and serve for their attachment. The same appears to hold good of the spider's web. What has been called purple juice and ink (in the Cephalopods) ranks probably in the signification of urine.

c. SEXUAL INTESTINE.

2363. The sexual intestine is the colon or large intestine, which, in this respect, belongs to the sexual system, as has been indicated at § 2171.

II. Animal Sexual Organs.

2364. The bones of the sex are the feet with their appurtenances, such as the pelvis with the lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebræ. The muscles, as well as the nerves, are self-understood. But of these we will speak in the sequel.

B. ANIMAL ORGANS.

2365. All organs, which are purely animal, are penetrated or traversed by the nervous system, just as the lower systems are by the tegumentary formation. No higher organ is the wholly pure evolution of one system, but the systems ever combine with each other; and this combination, when individually represented, constitutes the organ.

2366. Organ is distinguished from system in not pursuing its course through the whole body, nor consisting simply of one and the same mass, but by its occupying a definite part of the body and being composed of several systems.

2367. Every organ has therefore a special and specific function also.

2368. The systems of animal life divide only into two kinds of organs, into those of sensation and those of motion, into the solar and planetary, or central and peripheric.

a. MOTOR ORGANS.

2369. Bone and muscle are not societies, but only poles of one system. There is therefore no mere bony organ, and no mere muscular organ. Meanwhile we will here regard them in particular or "per se."

1. Osseous Organs.

2370. The first bones were branchial arches or tracheal rings. When the lungs were developed from the branchiæ, the branchial arches were repeated as ribs or pulmonary arches. Lastly, should bones be formed, which are to be wholly in the service of the animal or the nervous system, so also must they be wholly liberated from the vegetative organs, and become self-substantial, i. e. have nothing else to do, but move. Free motor organs can be none other than ribs that have become free.

2371. These free ribs must inclose the respiratory organ or the integument, which has become an organ of animal life; they are the members or limbs. If we think of ribs, whose office is no longer to inclose lungs, which must no longer be subservient to the uninterrupted vital motion of respiration, and which are no longer united by pleura into a closed cyst or sac—will not such simply retain the self-substantial voluntary motion in themselves? will they not abandon the inferior cystic form, and represent the same, though but ideally and voluntarily? will not such a thorax open in front, like the intestine has opened at its nobler extremity?—will not such ribs be members, arms, digits? The members or limbs are the members of the trunk, or ribs that have opened in front; they are the thorax that has opened in front; and hence are nothing new, but only something emancipated or set free. Such ribs can be none other than motor organs; for they were previously nothing else. Then, however, they performed motion in the service of the viscera; at present, where they are absolved from this service, they execute it only in accordance to the will of the head, simply according to its will, for they are verily nothing more than motor ribs. Where, however, or in what region of the body will the ribs attain unto such freedom? Without doubt, in the neighbourhood of the head, and thus at the very spot where the lungs derive one of their extremities. The limbs are therefore cervical ribs.

2372. The arms are a thorax, consisting quite purely of bone and muscle, and represented as isolated or detached from the viscus, or the lung; on this depends their nobility, or, in other words, upon what is vegetative having been wholly left behind.

2373. The arms, when clasped together by the fingers, are a thorax without viscera, without heart and lungs; they are destined to inclose a whole body in the embrace.

2374. By an embrace that which is embraced has been made our viscus; it has been adopted as our animal heart, and as our animal vital organ—or lung. The embrace has an exalted physiological signification, and precisely that which it unconsciously possesses in the state of pure love. Nature always thinks more nobly than we do. We follow blindfold her beautiful regulations, and she rejoices in the sport.

2375. As the fundamental number of the branchiæ is five, so also must the limbs represent five ribs; they split into five digits or fingers. The feet of the Crustacea and Insects generally do not correspond to our feet; but to our fingers. The lower organized animals have only toes, no feet. The five thoracic feet of the crab correspond to our fingers; its five abdominal feet to our toes.

2376. There are three limbs in accordance with the three totalities of the body, truncal, sexual, and cephalic members, or arms, feet, and jaws.

2377. The members of the body or trunk belong to the thorax, because it is the respiratory system. The abdomen has no members; what have been so-called, are in their signification sexual limbs.

2378. Had the animal no sex, it would have no posterior limbs.

2379. As the three lower cervical and the two upper dorsal vertebræ belong to the arms, so also they appear to commence with five ribs, but then to become arrested, and again emerge to perfection in the digits.

2380. The shoulder appears to consist of five ribs, but this does not as yet admit of being clearly pointed out. Meanwhile, it is certain that the scapula, acromion, and coracoid are particular bones, to which may be added the clavicle.

2381. The middle finger is the elongated radius, and is therefore the longest or radial digit. It is that which is persistent, if only one finger has been left, as in the horse. The ring-finger is the ulnar finger. It is that which, along with the former, appears in the bi-ungulate animals; the spurious or dew-claws are the auricular and index-finger; the thumb is the last ramification, is therefore always arrested, and frequently present only as a wart-like excrescence or papilla.

2382. All animals, which have true digits, are furnished with five of them, more or less completely developed. If what has been called the metacarpal bone of the thumb be numbered, which it must, as a digital articulation or phalanx, every finger has thus one carpal bone, and each bone of the fore arm also one.

2383. The sexual members or feet correspond in all their pieces to the arms: the pelvis is the shoulder repeated; and certainly, the iliac bone is equivalent to the scapula, the ischium to the coracoid process, the os pubis to the acromion, the marsupial bone to the clavicle.

Cephalic Members.

2384. Both pairs of limbs are repeated in the head, because in it the whole trunk is repeated; the upper jaw corresponds to the arms, the lower jaw to the feet. Each jaw consists of two members, which are ankylosed in the higher animals at their point of meeting or in front, but in Fishes are partly, and in Insects completely, separated.

2385. Each jaw consists of the same bony divisions as the limbs of the trunk, of scapula, humerus, and fore-arm; or of pelvis, femur, and tibia. This is easily to be demonstrated in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes.

2386. The digits are repeated in the teeth. The teeth are claws.

2387. There are therefore five kinds of teeth, which correspond to the five digits. The thumb becomes the canine tooth; the index-finger the false molars; the middle finger the laniary molar, the ring-finger the second, and the little finger the third true molar tooth.

2388. The intermaxillary with its incisor teeth belongs, as well as the palatal bones, to the pharynx; and is a visceral or intestinal maxilla.

2389. The lower animals therefore, as the Fishes, have almost nothing but intermaxillary and palatal teeth. They act principally upon the lingual teeth. The reptiles have still palatal teeth, which higher up in the vertebrate series disappear.

Symmetry.

2390. As the cervical ribs have nothing more to inclose, have no longer to respire, but only to move; their symmetrical development is thus undelayed. The symmetry is at first wholly attained by the act of opening or apertion.

2391. The limbs are the most symmetrical organs. They are symmetrical in each smallest part, and these parts again assume a symmetrical arrangement in regard to each other. They are the ideal of symmetry.

2392. They are, however, the free living symmetry. They can create by their motions symmetrical forms. The symmetry consists chiefly in, and has been produced only by, the motion.

2393. The symmetry of the motion is the most exalted, for it is that which is endowed with life. The symmetry of the form is that which is dead.

2394. The symmetry of the form appertains to inorganic nature, the symmetry of the motion is the property of animals.

2395. Dancing and acting are the highest organic symmetrical movements, and also the highest symmetries. They are the symmetry of the motor members, wrought by motion.

2396. Music is a much higher symmetry of motion.

2397. Speech is the highest spiritual symmetry; it is the dance and histrionism of the spirit or mind.

2. Muscular Organs.

2398. The muscles are everywhere attached to the bones, and help to form with them the same set of organs.

2399. The muscles of the larynx are therefore the antetypes of the costal muscles, these of the member-muscles, and the dorsal muscles of the scapular and pelvic muscles.

2400. The muscles of the limbs are found in a state of treble repetition. That the muscles of the arm and leg are of one kind, admits of being demonstrated with tolerable facility. But it is necessary, that in doing this regard be paid to the ligaments.

2401. The ligaments are only stunted muscles. Without bringing them into account, the muscular system does not admit of being explained and understood.

2402. The crural muscles are again found in the lower jaw.

2403. The brachial muscles, on the upper jaw or face.

2404. The movements of the facial muscles correspond to those of the limb-muscles. Upon this depends the interpretation of dumb-show, or the art of physiognomy.

3. Nervous Organs.

2405. Nervous organs are liberations of individual parts of the nervous system, and their endowment with a peculiar function or sensation.

2406. The liberations of the nerves are combinations with the other anatomical systems at the spot where they have attained their highest evolution.

2407. Each system, however, has its peculiar process. Through the reception or adoption of the systems into the nervous system, a peculiar sensation must therefore originate.

2408. Peculiar sensations are sensations of sense.

2409. The combinations of the anatomical systems with the nervous system, whereby the former have been subordinated to the latter, are consequently sensorial organs, or organs of sense.

2410. In the sensorial organs the processes of the several systems attain unto sensation. They are brains of the anatomical systems.

2411. There are as many senses as there are different anatomical systems, and consequently senses belonging to vegetative and animal life.

2412. The number of vegetative systems is 3; the vascular, intestinal, and pulmonary system.

2413. The most complete combination of the vascular with the nervous system is the integument—constituting the tegumentary sense, or sense of feeling.

2414. The most complete combination of the intestinal system with the nerves is the tongue—intestinal or gustatory sense.

2415. The most complete combination of the lungs with the nerves is the nose—pulmonary or olfactory sense.

2416. Among the three animal systems, bones and muscles produce, from their association, only one action—the motion. The most complete and perfect combination of the motor system with the nerves, is in the ear—osseo-muscular or auditory sense.

2417. The nervous system has become a self-substantial organ in the eye—the nervous, or visual sense.

2418. There are therefore only 5 senses; they are none other than repetitions of the anatomical systems in the sensation; they are the highest developments which are possible in the lower systems, being the blossoms or heads of such systems.

2419. These systems are, however, processes of the universe taken up into the organization. In its organs of sense, the processes of the universe are thus felt or perceived. The senses are world-organs, and are therefore placed in contact with the world, or occupy an outward position.

2420. The vascular system is the nutritive system. In it the blood coagulates into the solid parts of the body. The feeling-sense is therefore sensible of the nutrition or rigidifying process of the body. Now, the Solid of the planet is the earth. The sense of feeling perceives therefore opposition—it is an earth-sense.

2421. The function of the intestinal canal is digestion. In taste, the process of digestion is felt. But digestion is a solvent, a hydrapoietic process; in taste the water is therefore felt—it is the water-sense.

2422. Respiration is a process of oxydation. In smell the respiratory process is felt. Oxydation is, however, an air-process—it is air-sense. Thus do the three vegetative senses feel the elements of the planet—are planetary senses.

2423. The animal systems are symbols of the æther, of the gravity with the heat or motion, and of the light.

2424. The motion is only moved matter, and thus a combination of the muscular and osseous system. The ear therefore perceives the motion of the primary matter, or the atomic motion—it is gravity-sense, æther-sense.

2425. The light is the tension-process of the æther; to see, is therefore in an organism to emit light or shine—light-sense.

2426. The signification of the senses is twofold; they are anatomical systems which have become nerves, and on that account also elements that have attained unto sensation.

1. Sense of feeling—vascular, tegumentary, nutritive sense, earth-sense.

2. Gustatory sense—intestinal, digestive sense, water-sense.

3. Olfactory sense—pulmonic, respiratory sense, air-sense.

4. Auditory sense—osseo-muscular, motor sense, æther-sense.

Matter-Sense.

5. Visual sense—nervous, tension-sense, light-sense.

2427. The sensorial organs are not simply combinations of the anatomical systems with the nerves, but also with the bones and muscles. These have been entirely taken up into the signification of the animal body.

2428. Each sense has its own nervous, osseous, and muscular system.

2429. The sense of feeling has its bones and muscles in the limbs.

2430. The sense of taste, its bones in the lingual bone, its muscles in and upon the tongue.

2431. The sense of smell, its bones in the nasal bones, its muscles being frequently very much developed in the snout or proboscis.

2432. The sense of hearing, its bones in the auditory ossicles, its muscles in the auditory conch.

2433. The sense of sight, its bones in a ring surrounding the sclerotic coat and in the eyelids, its muscles in the ocular muscles.

2434. Besides the proper sensorial nerves, each organ of sense is provided with nerves for the motor system and for the vegetative systems, especially those of secretion.

2435. The integument has, besides the nerves of the tactile papillæ, vascular and motor nerves.

2436. The tongue is supplied with nerves of motion and digestion, and has therefore three pairs of nerves.

2437. The nose receives motor and respiratory nerves from the fifth pair.

2438. The ear has likewise three kinds of nerves; the auditory nerves, facial nerves, and a branch from the fifth pair, not to mention those that are distributed to the auditory conch.

2439. The eye has, in addition to its wholly special motor nerves, a number of others, which superintend its vegetative systems, such as the iris and the secretions of the humours.

a. VEGETATIVE SENSES.

1. Vascular Senses.

2440. All senses are only conditionated by the peripheric nervous mass because they are combinations of the nervous mass with the blossoms of the inferior systems.

2441. The most general system of the animal is the vascular system, which is represented externally as integument. The animal was in the commencement nothing but integument, and this again naught but vascular and nervous mass, so that the whole integument was thus an organ of sensation.

2442. Through the integument the animal becomes an individual, or a something distinct from the aggregate of nature. Now as the integument is principally the organ of sensation, so is the primary sensation that act, by which the animal is distinguished from nature. The tegumentary sense is the sense of distinction, of limitation.

2443. Through the act of discriminating, a something foreign or extraneous is granted us. The immediate perception of what is extraneous, is called feeling. Tegumentary sense is sense of feeling.

2444. The feeling-sense is the first in the animal.

2445. It is that which is general in the animal.

2446. The whole animal is naught but a sense of feeling.

2447. Out of the feeling-sense all other senses must be developed, just as all other systems are developed out of the tegumentary formation.

Organs of Touch.

2448. Where, however, the skin has attained to a higher grade of formation, or where it has combined with higher systems, there also will the sense of feeling be supplied by the former.

2449. The combination of the integument with the osseous and muscular system, and with a nervous system of its own, takes place in the limbs. Since the motor members are only a liberated thorax, so no other sense can belong to them but that of feeling, which the thorax previously possessed.

2450. But these sensitive organs are moved, and therefore voluntary organs, digits, or former branchiæ. Moveable or voluntary organs of feeling are called tactile organs. The feeling of the motor members is touch.

2451. The highest feeling necessarily consists in touching, because it has in that become active, while before it was only passive.

2452. In the situation of the sensitive papillæ, the origin of the digits from respiratory organs admits of being still recognized. They are arranged in spiral lines upon the points of the fingers.

2453. The sexual organs belong as tegumentary developments to the sense of feeling. There is no special sexual sense.

2. Intestinal Sense.

2454. Opposite to the general feeling or the integument, the function of the intestine is evolved. In the trunk it is simply busied with its own processes; when it first mounts or ascends into the head, it becomes subordinated to the nervous action.

2455. The combination of the intestine with bones, muscles and peculiar nerves, is presented in the tongue. This is the sensitive organ of the intestine.

2456. The tongue is a feeling-sense in water, just as the skin was that in the air. For it is the blossom of the digestive process. To the tongue therefore belongs the digestive or water-organ of the mouth, which is constituted by the salivary glands.

2457. The sensation of what is fluid in its chemical relations is called taste. Gustation is not a peculiar process, but obviously only the nervous commencement of the digestive process. On that account also the gustatory sense still lies concealed in a cavity. The whole buccal or oral cavity still belongs to the sense of taste.

2458. As in the sense of feeling the motor system still predominates, so does it also in the tongue, as being the second sense, which has been liberated from the plant. The nervous mass is in this sense not preponderant over the muscular and bony mass.

2459. The tongue is still to be regarded as an organ of touch, though one in which the flesh or muscle has gained a mastery over the bones, while in the true tactile organ the bones determine the principal forms and functions. The tongue is a nervous organ in the muscle, the hand is such in the bone.

2460. The hyoid or lingual bone is none other than the first branchial arch, and consists pretty nearly of the same pieces as the arm.

2461. Compound lingual bones, such as occur in many Reptiles, have originated from coalescence of several branchial arches.

2462. Like the limbs, so is the tongue originally a double organ. In most Reptiles it is longitudinally fissured. Such animals have usually also a double penis. In all animals the tongue is divided into two moieties, which are only connate by means of suture. The penis also consists of two connate penes.

2463. As in the tegumentary sense, the nerves could not be peculiar or special in kind, but took their origin from all parts, and particularly from the spinal cord, so also is this the case with the intestinal sense, which is still only an internal tegumentary sense. The lingual nerves proceed from several situations, and that too from the upper part of the spinal cord.

2464. The oral cavity also consists, properly speaking, of mere tactile organs, which have been repeated in the head. Thus, there are tactile organs which are subservient to the gustatory sense, in biting, chewing, and swallowing.

2465. The lips are tactile organs upon the threshold or brink, as it were, of the gustatory sense.

2466. In the oral cavity, however, the glands of the intestinal canal are repeated. The salivary glands secrete fluid, like the pancreatic glands.

2467. The sense of feeling is present in all animals. They are only animals by virtue of it; but the sense of taste appears to be first formed at a later period, after the intestine has separated from the integument; in the animals that have no intestine, its existence is problematical, and even in Fishes and Birds it is but poorly developed.

3. Pulmonic or Lung-sense.

2468. When the respiratory organ is hoisted up into the head, and there becomes an organ of sensation, it passes over into a sense.

2469. That the nose is the thorax, together with its viscera, repeated in the head, has been already remarked. The many convolutions of the turbinated or olfactory bones correspond to the ramifications of the trachea; the nasal cartilages to the tracheal or laryngeal rings; the olfactory membrane to the pulmonic vesicles.

2470. The process of the lungs repeated in the head becomes smell, like that of the intestine became taste. The olfactory sense is the highest blossom of the arteriose vascular system or the branchial net. On this account the olfactory membrane is the most delicate, and the densest tissue of arteries and veins.

2471. The nose is related to the mouth, as the thoracic is to the abdominal cavity; the olfactory membrane to the tongue, as the lung is to the stomach. It is a cephalo-thorax. The nose is not therefore so completely closed as the mouth, but is opened through the two most anterior air-holes or spiracula. The nasal apertures or nostrils are the last persistent remnants of the spiracula, after all those upon the sides of the body have been closed up.

2472. It is the last organ of sense, which has been evolved from the trunk. It is therefore nobler than the two others, and has also a nobler object, the air.

2473. The nerves of the olfactory organ are peculiar to it, and are encephalic nerves. As the sense of smell is the pulmonic or arteriose sense; so also does the arteriose substance of the brain combine with this organ. The olfactory nerves consist of cineritious or gray substance, and are only prolongations thereof.

2474. This is the only phenomenon of the kind met with among all nerves, but it is commensurate with the character or signification of this organ. A sensible pulmonary organ can only have arteriose nerves. As the liver is throughout venous, so is the nose throughout arteriose in quality.

b. ANIMAL SENSES.

2475. It now only remains for us to consider the motor and the sensitive system proper upon their highest stage of development. The motor system, when represented in the nervous system, is a peculiar organ of sensation, as is likewise the nervous system itself upon attaining its highest state of development.

4. Osseo-Muscular Sense.

2476. The lowest condition of the motor system is the limbs, which represent no peculiar sense, but only the sense of feeling refined or set in motion. This motor system ascends into the head, and there no longer exercises its motive powers in prehension, progression, &c., but solely unto sensation. Now, a system, which converts its function into that of sensation, is a sense.

2477. The sensorial organ, which simply through motion, or a resistance presented to that of the atoms, produces sensation, or wherein the motion as such is felt, is the Ear.

2478. The ear is none other than the ultimate development of the bone and muscle, when they are brought under the direct dominion of the nerves.

2479. The auditory ossicles are the limbs subtilized or refined in character. They have joints, are provided with muscles, and move exactly like the limbs. It may be said; that the stapes is the scapula, the incus the humerus, the malleus the fore arm, and the concha with its cartilages, the hand with its digits.

2480. The ear, like the bulk of the limbs, has originated from branchiæ. In Fishes, the auditory ossicles have degenerated into the branchial opercula.

2481. The ear-trumpet (or Eustachian tube), which opens into the mouth, is the internal branchial aperture.

2482. The motor system, however, belongs to the trunk, whose viscera are repeated also in the ear, or in a cavity which has been called its labyrinth. The three semicircular canals appear to correspond to the intestine, the cochlea to the trachea.

2483. The ear has not only a nerve, but likewise a brain, of its own.

2484. The cerebellum is the auditory brain, and from it the acoustic nerves take their rise. For, since the ear is the sense of the whole motor system, and consequently of half the animal, it inevitably follows, that an appropriate or special nervous mass must be developed for it, just as the myelon or spinal chord has been for the trunk. An organ, which is so constantly active, must necessarily have a large nervous mass. The cerebellum is consequently not a brain in the general sense, but one which is wholly individualized. It participates in the motion, which, as sound, is transmitted to the animal.

2485. By its signification as well as by its own brain, the ear gives us to recognize its elevated rank above the other senses.

2486. The ear must stand in relation with the body's limbs.

2487. The ears first make their appearance in animals, associated with a tolerable development of the limbs. With the exception of a few instances, the ears first become apparent in Fishes, being in them at least furnished for the first time with true ossicles and semicircular canals. The ear, like the limbs, with which it constantly maintains a parallel course, is very slowly perfected. In the Fishes which have only fins (as instruments of locomotion) it is wholly concealed within the cranial bones; in the Reptiles it emerges or is more exposed to view; but for the first time in Birds and Mammalia where, generally speaking, the limbs also are first perfected, it attains its completion; in them only is the cochlea fully developed, and an auditory meatus which opens externally.

5. Nervous Sense.

2488. In all lower organs, and even in the senses which have hitherto been commented upon, the nervous system was not the chief, but only the co-ordinate agent. It has only by its conjunction with, assisted in elevating the character of, other systems, so that their material might be converted into spiritual processes. But the nervous is also a self-substantial system, and must therefore attain likewise a free development.

2489. With the highest organs of the nervous system, the relation which has been hitherto maintained, must be reversed. The inferior systems will now be the co-ordinate agents.

2490. The highest nervous organ can only possess that function, which is originally peculiar to the nervous system, i. e. the most delicate polarization, the light-function. There is the Light-sense.

2491. The eye is nothing but a nervous system represented in a state of purest organization, just as the ear was the purest system of motion.

2492. In the eye it is the brain itself, which expands, in order to turn unto or face the light.

2493. As the ear has its own brain, so also has the eye; the cerebrum is the optic brain. (Ed. 1st, 1811. §. 2317.) This is the rationale of our having two brains.

2494. Now the cortical or gray substance has been already diverted from the cerebrum to supply the olfactory sense. Its medullary or white substance remains for the eye. The medullary brain is the optic brain. The medullary is consequently the nobler part of the nervous system.

2495. The brain's medulla is homologous to the light; its exterior or cortical portion is related to the material light, the air.

2496. The eye is only a medullary brain, posited peripherically and in a nervous manner. The brain itself has elongated and become integument.

2497. The visual membrane (or retina) is the cerebral substance cystically expanded. It must be regarded as being originally a closed bladder or cyst. (Ed. 1st, 1811. §. 2321.)

2498. The optic nerve is itself hollow, and unites the cerebral with the orbitar cavity.

2499. The vitreous body, which fills out the cyst of the retina, is the cerebral medulla which has become transparent, or a semi-fluid albuminous mass.

2500. The sclerotic coat of the eye is the continuation of the brain's dura mater.

2501. The vascular or choroid coat of the eye is the continuation of the encephalic pia mater. All parts of the brain have been consequently continued into the eye.

2502. Now, what the brain is for the earthly body, that also must it be for the eye. The eye is not simply brain, but a representation also of the whole body. The brain can, forsooth, be nowhere without its body; if therefore it is elevated into the eye, so also must it take up and elevate the body along with itself.

2503. The eye is an entire body, a whole animal. Again, in the next place, the animal systems, such as limbs, thorax and abdomen, have been most distinctly represented in it. The light is seized, respired, digested, and hence felt by the eye.

2504. As the light represents chaotically the whole of nature, but this material nature enters completely into the animal through the processes of the trunk, so does the light enter it through the eye. The eye is the chaotic representation of all material processes of a body.

2505. The limbs or members of the eye are repeated in the ocular muscles and the sclerotic or bony ring; in many Fishes the eye stands upon a flexible pedicle, as in the Crabs. The ocular muscles move the eye in different directions like a hand.

2506. The sclerotic corresponds to the corium, the cornea to the digital unguis, or finger-nail.

2507. The choroid or vascular coat, is the respiratory system or lung in the eye. The iris corresponds to the larynx, the pupil to the glottis; its expansion and contraction is a respiratory movement.

2508. The choroid coat incloses also an osseous mass, the lens—a vertebral body. The morbid states of the lens are osseous diseases, such as gout.

2509. In the chambers of the eye, water, as being a product of digestion, is constantly secreted.

2510. The orbitar cavity is a mouth with salivary glands—giving vent to tears.

2511. The lachrymal canal is a branchial duct, which opens into the nose, like the Eustachian tubes did from the ear into the mouth.

2512. The eyelids consequently correspond to the lips, and are in like manner fringed with hairs.

2513. As the body has everywhere two halves, and laterally also presents two entire organisms, so also is the formation of the nervous system a double one. Each eye is an entire body.

2514. In the two eyes the halves of the body have completely separated as entire bodies, and each has attained self-substantiality. Each eye is a free animal in the animal body. Each eye is therefore circumscribed by its own integument—is a free animal. It is endowed, like the hand, with omnilateral motion; it has cavities, i. e. its bodily cavities and humours, or inclosed masses—viscera.

2515. An organ, which again repeats in its miniature the whole animal itself, of which it is only a part, must necessarily be the highest point unto which an organism can attain. With the eye the organization, and consequently nature, has been concluded.

2516. The eye is a parasitic animal, of the same kind with the animal upon which it exists.

2517. In a certain sense all sensorial organs are parasitic animals in the animal; only they are not all of the same kind with it. No one of the other senses has e. g. repeated all lower systems in itself, and it is therefore to be regarded only as a subordinate or half-animal, which lives upon that which is more perfect.

Senses of the Sexual Animal.

2518. In essaying to speak concerning the sensorial organs of the sexual animal, we shall only encounter in the latter the emotions of the vegetative senses, and these indeed disposed according to their rank.

2519. The sense of feeling is most perfectly developed in the legs, whereof the pelvis represents the scapula.

2520. The external sexual parts are the analogues of the gustatory sense; the female parts being indeed those of the mouth; the male, which are frequently furnished with bone, of the tongue. The jaws are not repeated in a sexual animal, except in Insects, namely, as the pharyngeal maxillæ.

2521. The analogue of the nose is wholly stunted, and is only left persistent as a trachea or air-tube in the urethra.

2522. In other respects the cavity of the sexual parts is a trunk-cavity "per se," like the thoracic and abdominal; the pelvic cavity contains the viscera of a whole animal.

II.-PHYSIOLOGY.

2523. Physiology is the doctrine or science which treats of the functions of the animal. Like the organology was, so also must the science of the functions be developed. There will be functions of the whole animal, and of the tissues, systems and organs.

A. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL IN GENERAL.

2524. The first act of the animal is an assimilation to the universe, whereby it also receives or takes up into itself the primary function of the universe. This is the perception of the circumscription and totality in itself, its self-manifestation, the feeling of self. The first action of the animal mass is that of self-sensation. Now, through the self-sensation, self-substantiality has been granted.

2525. The animal is consequently a Whole in Singulars only through the feeling of self.

2526. As the universe is only an analysis of the self-consciousness of God; so also can the development of the animal and the formation of its organs, be none other than an analysis of the self-sensation. All other functions (just as all masses are only a metamorphosed nervous mass) are but differently polarized self-sensations, or these as it were dispersed.

2527. The self-sensation of an individual body is not, however, inclosed within itself, like the primary relation of the universe; because it is not the universe, but only a fraction of it, which has sprouted forth like a bud from the great planetary body. The self-sensation is not therefore a simple feeling of self, but a feeling also of something foreign or extraneous, and thus the animal self-sensation becomes, in reference to Nature, an act of discrimination or discernment.

2528. Now, the animal is distinguished only from Nature by the act of being liberated from it. It is therefore comprehended in a constant liberation or severance. The life of the animal continues only by a constantly renewed and indefatigable severance, by a desertion or falling off from Nature.

2529. In so doing, however, it detaches itself from Nature, as being a part thereof; the severance is therefore a conversion of the nature into an animal. In this consists the reciprocal action of both, viz. that the animal is constantly seeking to assimilate the nature unto itself.

2530. The ability or power to assimilate the nature, is called excitability.

2531. Excitability is the most general phenomenon of the organic mass, and appertains both to plants and animals.

2532. But in the animal excitability, the free self-sensation, within which a free motion is necessarily inherent, is superadded or originates. This excitability unto motion I call irritability.

2533. Thus this irritability belongs only to animals.

2534. Irritability does not depend directly upon motion, but throughout upon sensation. Without sensation no irritability is possible. If the sensation ceases, so also does mobility, or the capacity for motion, cease.

2535. Since irritability originates from the antagonism of the animal with the world; so is it parallel to an antagonism of the heavenly bodies, or to that of sun and planets. The mutual operation of these two heavenly bodies is, however, an interchange of polarity, a polar excitation. The irritability is a polar process; but one which is pure and devoid of material excretions, just as the sun excites the earth without eliciting therein any material change or transition. The animal becomes polarized by the incentive agent or stimulus.

2536. Through the irritability there originates a double polarity in the animal. In the first place one between the world and the animal; in the second, one between the exterior of the animal and its interior. The world-polarity gives the feeling or sensation, the body's polarity the motion.

2537. In the sensation the animal always transcends itself; there is thus only excitability. In the motion the animal abides or remains within itself; but the self-sensation proceeds from both conditions. Accordingly, in self-sensation the world, and the animal within the animal, convene or come together. The animal is itself universe, and it at the same time comprehends the great universe. Now, in both conditions or in both functions has the animal been turned towards the world and also towards itself. In feeling it turns itself towards the world, in order to adopt this spiritually into, or repel this from, itself; in motion it turns itself towards the world, in order to materially adopt or to repel it. In both cases of assumption it turns itself towards itself.

2538. Both these properties belong to the animal body; if individual organs are deficient in them, it happens therefore, from their having superadded or adduced other properties, which are predominant, to the original ones. This is the essence of what is animal in a living body. Thus, if from an animal all the vegetable systems could be subtracted, it would do nothing but feel and move.

B. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL IN SINGULARS.

I. Functions of the Tissues.

a. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

1. Functions of the Point-Tissue.

2539. The point-tissue is also spiritually represented, and this spiritual manifestation or expression is the stamp or impress of the arrangement of the matter into points.

2540. The point-matter is the matter of sensation; the sensation is, however, imparted by polarization. The act of feeling is a conduction of the polarity from point to point; this is the light-polarity. This light-like polarity transmitted from point to point is sensibility.

2541. The sensibility is not the result of a peculiar nervous fluid, or even of mechanical vibration, &c., of the nerves; but of an antagonism between animal and world, brain and tegument, sun and planet.

2542. The point-tissue is in every respect the æther which has become the mucus, and has in every respect also to act in accordance thereunto.

2543. The sensibility or the nervous power, viewed in relation to the smallness of the body, operates instantaneously upon every spot. It is not first conducted or tardily conveyed hither and thither; but everywhere, where an antagonism, a stimulus, a planet is, there also is the "vis nervosa." Where a planet is, there also is the solar tension.

2544. But abstractedly or ideally considered, the nervous force certainly requires a time to elapse for the propagation of the stimulus, just as the light-tension darts through the æther only in a given time. As light traverses at the rate of 40,000 miles per second, so must the nervous power, if it obey similar laws to those of its prototype, and the length of a man be estimated at 1-5000th of a mile, glide through the human body in 1-200,000,000th of a second, which, "quoad" the phenomenon, cannot, of course, be observed.

2545. Accordingly, it is theoretically certain that the nervous power does not operate with absolute or unconditional velocity. To the validity of this statement, observations of many kinds, especially those made in diseases, and by astronomical computations of the strokes of the chronometer, afford additional evidence.

2546. Thus, for a stimulus impinging upon the brain, to act or be transmitted from thence into the toes, there elapses 1-200,000,000th of a second. In the event of disease, a retardation in the process is conceivable, and may admit even of being observed.

2. Function of the Globe-tissue.

2547. The dense or solid form is the matter, when it has died away; the function also, or the crystallization, died therein, so soon as the crystal was represented. The office of the bones is only to preserve the counterpoise to the nerve, to supply a limit, and therefore a support to its action, by which means the achievement of the latter first becomes possible.

2548. The business of the bone, is to play an antithetic part to the nerve, and nothing else, or to serve the latter as a "terra firma," upon which it may execute its plans. The bone suffers, and in this consists its office. The other offices of the bone, such as its being the firm and solid framework of the body, its protecting the nervous mass, &c., are subordinate matters, which are at once clearly understood.

3. Function of the Fibrous-tissue.

2549. There is the active motion. The primary motion is, however, a result of the polar tension induced in the æther by the light. Just as the heat has been produced in the æther by the light-polarity, so has been the animal motion in the fibres by the polarity of the nerves.

2550. Every fibre, when it is in motion, has necessarily two polar extremities. For the fibre stands between the artery which is oxygenous, and the nerve which is basic, or between a zinc and silver pole.

2551. In the conditions of rest the two poles must be neutralized, or, generally speaking, not in existence. This is only possible by disjunction of the galvanic circuit or chain.

2552. Since the artery is constantly operating upon the fibre, but the nerve only, when it has been stimulated; so must this change in the condition of the fibre reside in the change of the nervous influence.

2553. In unirritated conditions the nerve does not act upon the fibre; the latter is not illuminated, nor does it stand in a state of tension with the nerve, which is not in itself polar, but is only, when stimulated, a sun towards the fibre, or polar within itself. If the chain be then dissevered, the fibre is in a state of indifference.

2554. Thus, in the event of tension, the nervous extremity of the fibre becomes negative, the arterial extremity positive; both ends necessarily attract each other in order to discharge or unload themselves. This attraction is an abbreviation or contraction.

2555. After the discharge the fibrous extremities are homonymous; they repel each other, and relaxation or extension ensues.

2556. The motion of the fibres is consequently a perfectly galvanic process, devoid of material interference, between nerve, fibre, and blood. The nerve is silver, the artery zinc, and the fibre moist card. All theories of motion based upon swelling of blood, elementary change, and such like causes, are not animal, though organic in character; the former are injections, the latter chemical processes.

2557. Through the fibrous tissue being shortened and elongated, the entire animal is self-displaced.

2558. Through the fibrous tissue the animal appears as animal, through the point-tissue it is (and that in essence) an animal. God is in himself, but he first appears in the world. This elucidates or explains the relation of "noumenon" and "phenomenon."

4. Function of the Cellular Tissue.

2559. This tissue has no other function than that in the plant. Many saps or juices are effused into the cells. The latter are engaged in constant expansion and contraction, whereby they decompose and propel these juices. They are the proper seat of the nutritive process, since they coincide with the capillary vessels.

2560. But as every rigidification is combined with volatilization, so does a process of evaporation occur in them at the same time.

2561. This process is the property of the teguments or membranes, both of those lining the internal cavities, as also of such as are placed externally.

2562. But the process of evaporation is principally the function of the true skin or corium. As an organ of evaporation the corium is similar to the lung. It is consequently aeriform water, which of necessity constitutes the principal mass of evaporation.

2563. The water is, however, mucous in character, the mucus becomes oxydized in the air, and through this also carbonic acid is formed.

Heat.

2564. The chief function of the cell-formation is the process of heat. The cell-process and heat-process are one in kind. Heat is the product of the process of condensation and rarefaction, and thus of the nutrition and evaporation, both of which happen in the cells, or, if we please, in the capillary vessels.

2565. In the skin the process of temperature is individualized.

2566. All temperature depends upon the process of condensation and rarefaction. At one time it is the nerves, at another the vessels, anon, external influences, which alter or modify it. Animal heat, like the cosmic heat, has been produced by change of the fixation. This change, however, takes place principally in the nutrition and evaporation.

2567. The fat is the "residuum" or the antagonism of the process of evaporation or water-formation. It is therefore deposited everywhere on the water-organs, beneath the integument, along the intestine and the vessels, around the kidneys, and so on.

2568. It is, like the adipocire, a product of the aqueous decomposition. On this account it is subservient to the process of temperature. It is the only isolator of heat, while all other animal bodies are conductors.

II. Functions of the Systems.

2569. The functions do not concern the whole body, but only its principal parts.

a. VEGETABLE FUNCTIONS.

2570. The vegetative functions are matter-changing processes, which, consequently, correspond directly to the chemical processes, or are rather of one kind with these, but altered by organic elemental bodies.

1. Functions of the Intestinal System.

2571. The general function of the integument consists in the secretion of juices, of which there are principally two kinds, the general and special.

2572. The general intestinal juice is mucus; it acts by rarefying.

2573. The gastric juice is of an aqueous, mucous, and acid nature. It acts as an acid and is endowed with chemically solvent properties.

2574. The bile is of a basic, inflammable, alkaline nature. It acts also chemically by analysing and precipitating.

2575. The saliva is the gastric juice of the head. It is a juice secreted under the influence of the sensibility, and is on that account indifferencing, and nullifying in its effects; it is the highest poison.

2576. As the indifferent saliva precedes the gastric juice, so does the indifferent pancreatic fluid the bile.

2577. The proper function of the intestinal system is the digestion with all its divisions. There is an animal and a vegetative, or oral and abdominal digestion.

a. Oral Digestion.

2578. Oral digestion is a mortifying or putting to death of the food.

2579. Since what is organic only serves as aliment for the animal, but nothing can be assimilated to the latter, without its having been previously reduced to the original condition of Infusoria, so also must the first act of the digestive process depend upon this, or converting the organic into primary organic bodies.

2580. This reduction to the primary condition is a putting to death of the organic individual. Organisms only which have been killed, can be converted into infusorial matter, and are then nutriment for the animal. The first act of digestion is consequently an act of putting to death.

2581. The act of killing consists of two moments, the mechanical and dynamical, or in lacerating and poisoning.

Laceration.

2582. The mechanical act of putting to death commences with the search after nutriment, and thus with the movement of the feet; to this succeeds the prehension, or seizure with the claws or hands.

2583. This motion of the limbs is then repeated in the cephalic members, or the jaws.

2584. The seizure of the food with the cephalic arms or jaws, is the infliction of a wound commensurate with the position and form of the teeth. The teeth are digits of the cephalic limbs, or being devoid of any fleshy layer, claws. A gripe with such digits is in itself the infliction of a wound. For, in order that the food be grasped with only sufficient firmness to admit of its being drawn into the mouth, the sharp digital points of the mouth, i. e. the teeth, must make an incision therein.

2585. To seize, bite, wound, and kill, is in an animal one and the same act. For, so soon as the food or prey is seized, and consequently wounded, it is drawn deeper into the mouth, and therefore a new grasp and bite is essayed.

2586. Upon this the food is twirled about in the mouth by the muscles, or is chewed, whereby the parts are separated into mechanical atoms.

Poisoning.

2587. Mechanical atoms are, however, not yet dead, because the vital polarity is not extinguished. It is requisite for a dynamic act, which suppresses all galvanism, to operate upon them.

2588. As this act of killing has directly for its object the death of the Organic and that alone, so is it a venenation or process of poisoning. To poison is not merely a chemical act, but one having for its immediate purpose, to separate the connexion of the organic atoms.

2589. The first act performed by the animal is that of poisoning.

2590. Poisoning, as being a direct aggression upon and destruction of life, is a destruction of the galvanic process. Now, the galvanic process is destroyed by suppression, destruction, and separation of its poles. The demolition of poles is a polar equilibration. Poisoning is equilibration of poles on the galvanic organism, or their neutralization.

2591. The primary change of poles is, however, in the blood. Poisoning is a balancing of the blood-poles.

2592. Indifferent blood is no longer blood, but chyle or infusorial primary mass.

2593. The nutritive fluid or chyle is poisoned organic substance. There is no aliment except what is wrought by poison.

2594. The poisoning of the aliments must take place through the medium of their blood, or their sap. If poison therefore does not get into the blood, the death does not ensue. The digestive juice is poison only for the blood, but not for the other systems.

2595. Chemical bodies which induce death, act by destruction of the bodies themselves, not merely by their neutralization or excessive polarization. They do not operate very differently from iron when in a state of red heat. Such is the case with sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalies and arsenic.

2596. Now, if these bodies be called poisons, there are thus three kinds of poisons, mineral or chemical, vegetable and animal poisons.

2597. The chemical poisons destroy the mass; they convert the Organic into minerals.

2598. Vegetable poisons reduce the animal to the plant; they do not effect the destruction of the mass in a general sense, but only that which is purely animal, or the nervous system—they are nervous poisons.

2599. The animal poisons destroy what is vegetable in the animal, or the galvanic process—are blood-poisons.

2600. The saliva is the digestive poison.

2601. The saliva is not present, in order to macerate, and so prepare the dry aliments for digestion, but to poison them. Everything else is only a subordinate operation. Now, the process of poisoning takes place only in the blood. The saliva does not act without inflicting a wound.

2602. Strictly regarded, all saliva is poison. There are examples of the saliva of birds, and even of men when inflamed with passion, having acted as poison.

2603. All other animal poisons, contagious principles or miasmata, are analogous to the saliva, being partial salivæ, partial poisons. Diseases of the skin produce tegumentary poisons or salivæ; glandular diseases, glandular poisons; nervous diseases, nervous poisons; diseases of the lungs, pulmonary poisons. The saliva is the blood-poison; the hydrocyanic acid, the nervous poison.

2604. During mastication saliva imbues every atom of the food, whereby the mass is throughout neutralized, or annulled.

Docimasy or Testing.

2605. The oral digestion or that of the mouth cannot, however, occur by itself, without its being a nervous process also. The intestinal function taken up into the nervous system is the taste.

2606. Taste is the chemism resident in the head, the digestion in the nerves. Taste therefore happens according to the theory of the digestion or the chemism.

2607. The lowest element of the chemism is the water, the highest repetition whereof in the earth is—the salt. The former is therefore the object of abdominal digestion, the latter of nervous digestion. To taste is to digest salt. In order to taste the salt, every part of the food must be brought in contact with the tongue; this is only possible through comminution of the aliment by means of the teeth. The mastication dissolves the aliments mechanically into atoms, just as digestion will resolve them chemically into "infusoria."

2608. That which should be digestible, must have a saline character, must be soluble. The tongue is accordingly the test-organ of the digestive process.

Deglutition.

2609. At first the tongue tastes only with its apex or tip; but after the salts which operate upon the tip are neutralized and examined, the tongue will also taste with its root, the two extremities of the tongue and their gustatory sensations being thus mutually opposed. It therefore takes the morsel upon the root and presses it against the palate, whereby the pharyngeal muscles clasp and swallow it.

2610. In deglutition the object of the tongue is not to give over or surrender the morsel to the pharynx, but to enjoy it "per se." During this fruition, however, it is robbed of it. Deglutition is therefore a result of an undesigned mechanical contrivance. Each organ works for the other, while fancying that it works for itself, which again it actually does, while it reaps the enjoyment so derived. Has the tongue finished tasting the food, then the pharynx obtains it involuntarily.

2611. To the saliva, and thus to a morsel, the acidulous gastric juice is polarwise related; both therefore seek to unite, and with this their organs also, namely, pharynx and stomach. The stomach obtains the preponderance, because it is acidulous; the pharynx moves towards it and with it also the morsel.

Rumination.

2612. If the food, when received into the stomach, continue acid by virtue of its nature, or from not having been properly chewed and imbued with saliva and so neutralized, it is then homonymous with the gastric juice. The stomach therefore seeks to neutralize it, by restoring it again to the action of the saliva.

2613. Acid aliments cause vomiting. Grass which has not been masticated, and therefore enters acid or non-killed, and susceptible of fermentation, into the stomach, is regularly brought back into the mouth, and to the saliva, i. e. is ruminated or rechewed.

2614. Rumination is a regular act of vomiting, which has originated from the antagonism of the saliva and gastric juice and from the acid nature of the morsel.

b. Intestinal Digestion.

2615. The intestinal digestion is the perfect chemical process taken up along with all its moments into the animal.

Gastric Digestion.

2616. The stomach exercises by means of the spleen the oxydizing process of the intestine, the solvent function, and thus the action of the water. The gastric juice is related to the food, like water is to earth. The gastric digestion is liquefaction, unto which oxydation makes the preliminary step.

2617. Through the process of liquefaction, the poles are only potentially augmented, but are not dissevered, nor new substances formed. The gastric digestion creates no new bodies, but only mixes the old in the most homogeneous and intimate manner with each other.

2618. The gastric digestion is an animal process of fermentation. In deranged states of the stomach there is therefore a propensity to acid eructation, development of carbonic acid, and even formation of sugar.

2619. This digestion consequently reduces the (animal) food to the signification of the plant. Gastric digestion is a process of vegetable germination. The salivary process is a reduction to the animal death, digestion a reduction of this dead something itself to a lower kingdom.

2620. The gastric juice alone, like an acid, effects the solution of the aliment; with this, the movement of the gastric walls, which only tends to produce an easier mixture of the alimentary particles, having nothing to do.

Hunger.

2621. Through the digestive process the gastric juice is consumed by the food, and the stomach deoxydized. If there is a deficiency of dephlegmatizing and deoxydizing aliments, then the peroxydation of the stomach must produce a feeling—called appetite. If this be not appeased, the oxygenic tension in the stomach is elevated or increased, and then begins to become unpleasant; this is Hunger.

2622. Here the feeling of the stomach's peroxydation is an obstructed process of fermentation, dependent upon want of food and alkaline principles.

Thirst.

2623. The feeling of the reverse condition to the above is Thirst. It originates through a too rapid deoxydation of the stomach, through deglutition of the gastric juice on account of an excess of food. But it may also originate from a deficiency of gastric juice, or from an alkaline tendency in the latter; just as hunger resulted from a superabundance of gastric juice, or a disposition to form acids.

2624. Thirst is the feeling of too powerful a digestion, or of too rapid fermentation, whereby the product or leaven of the latter becomes, as it were, bankrupt; upon this the blood flows in greater quantity, in order to secrete the gastric juice; the arterial nature becomes elevated, and finally, an inflammatory condition, associated with a sense of dryness, originates, and is propagated as far as the mouth.

2625. Thirst and heat rank, like hunger and cold, parallel to each other. The feeling of dryness appears as heat, that of moisture, as cold. Cold therefore at once extinguishes or quenches the thirst; but produces hunger, which again is mitigated by heat.

Biliary Digestion.

2626. The stomach is the pulmonic intestine; the duodenum, through its combination with the liver, is the vascular intestine, having a predominant venous character; or the one is the arteriose, the other the venous stomach.

2627. The gastric digestion has reduced the food to the state of a vegetable; but this does not yet suffice for it to become a nutritive matter, namely, a new organism. As the primary organism originates, so also must the body originate in the process of nutrition, and thus from the element of the Organic. Now, this primitive matter or element is the mucus, the "infusorium." There is still therefore a process necessary to redissolve the vegetable and convert it into protoplasma or primary mucus.

2628. This, however, occurs only through the process of putrefaction being wrought in the food. This process is not simple solution, but decomposition, or separation of the constituent parts. The acid vegetable parts, which had been active through the process of fermentation, must be therefore decomposed, and in such wise, indeed, that what is mucous shall be separated from them.

2629. This separation or analysis takes place by means of the Bile, which combines with the acid of the chyme.

2630. The biliary digestion is an alkalizing or saponaceous process. Through it the chyme becomes separated into nutritive juice or chyle, and into excrement.

2631. The excrement is what is vegetable, or the product of fermentation combined with the bile. The chyle is what is infusorial, or the product of decomposition. Nutrition therefore begins anew. Its process is a "generatio originaria."

2632. In digestion the processes of both organic kingdoms, namely, the fermentative and putrefactive, are repeated.

Absorption.

In the intestine, not merely lung and vascular system, have been represented, but also the integument or organ of absorption.

2633. After the animal food has been reduced to the vegetable, and this again to the infusorial state, it can be taken up by the body. It now becomes absorbed in the small intestine. The small intestine is the tegumentary system, or the root-bark.

2634. The chyliferous or lacteal vessels stand in antagonism with the lung, or the skin as being the original respiratory organ. It is only, therefore, the infusorial chyle that has been absorbed, not the excrement, because between the latter, as the product of oxydation, and the lacteal vessels, repulsion takes place. The chyle, having been absorbed, enters into the thoracic duct, and from thence into the lungs.