PART III. BIOLOGY—OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS. (continued 3)

1498. Indefiniteness in form, size and number, is the character of the plant, although a law lies at the basis of all this. The animal has a definite size, because several animals do not grow around each other.

III.—PHYTOLOGY.

1499. Hitherto the organs of the plant have been considered in a general point of view or as to their idea in time; to this now follows the development of the plant in a special sense, or its representation in space.

1500. The vegetable tissues, systems, and organs have only by degrees been disengaged from each other and independently perfected. The independent or self-substantial development of the organs constitutes definite or individual plants.

1501. A plant, in which all the organs are present, separately or self-substantially developed and yet combined, is without doubt the highest in point of rank.

1502. Before it attains to this separation, nature can only produce lower forms, in which fewer organs have attained to independence. These forms constitute the diversity of plants and their plurality, for nature establishes every principal form as a finished organization.

1503. There are as many plants different from each other as there are organs, namely, tissues, anatomical systems and members.

1504. The sum of all plants is called the vegetable kingdom; this is the self-substantial representation of all vegetable organs. (Ed. 1st, 1810, p. 123.)

1505. The vegetable kingdom is consequently the expression of the vegetable idea, or of the perfect plant represented in the multiplicity of individuals; it is the plant disintegrated, or anatomised, by nature herself.

1506. Were we therefore acquainted with all vegetable organs, we should know their rank and developmental series; and thus also recognize the character, rank, and developmental series of the plants themselves, or their divisions. There can be no doubt that the lowest organs, e. g. the tissues, have been first developed and independently perfected as plants; later on they separate into anatomical systems and finally into members, whereby perfect plants must originate. The division or classification of the vegetable kingdom is consequently that of the vegetable organs. The Systematic of plants is a copy of that of their organs, or a plastic representation of the philosophical vegetable anatomy. With this every thing has been granted, which is requisite for the building or erection of the vegetable system. All principles, together with the methods, rest in the proposition that has been expressed.

1507. The artificial systems of plants are related to the vegetable kingdom, as the lexicon or dictionary is to language. Those systems which have hitherto been termed natural, but which should properly be called methodical, are related to the vegetable kingdom, as the ordinary grammar is to a language. The vegetable system must, however, be related to the vegetable kingdom, as the philosophical or genetic grammar is to language. This only agrees with the essence of the language, or is natural. The vegetable system is necessarily a philosophical or genetic one, that alone being truly or legitimately natural. (This system was first propounded by Oken, in the Ed. 1st of the Naturphilosophie, 1810; further developed in Dietrich's Garten Journal, 1813; carried out in his Naturgeschichte fur Schülen, 1821, and in his Lehrbuch der Nat. Gesch. Botanik. Weimar, 1825.) The artificial system collects the materials for the edifice, but leaves them to lie without order and in confusion; the methodical or what has been called the natural system separates these materials and arranges them in homogeneous groups; the genetic, philosophical or truly natural, system, again mixes them amongst each other, but thereby actually erects the edifice. All three systems are therefore necessary and good, and no one of them merits being despised by the other; it is only when one of them imagines that it is the other, or can render the others unnecessary, that it trespasses from out its circle, and deserves reproach. Thus for Floras, whose ultimate object is to find out rapidly the names of plants upon botanical excursions, as also for the labelling of specimens in botanic gardens, the artificial system is the best; for the description, however, of foreign plants the methodical; but for insight into the whole vegetable world the philosophical or natural system. Would we compare Floras with each other, the latter system must certainly come into play; but then the matter to be dealt with is not about an excursion-book.

VEGETABLE SYSTEM.

1508. Taken in a strict sense all the diversity of vegetable structure of vegetables has reference first of all to the difference in the tissues; these being either unseparated, or separated, into special systems and members. At first the tissues lie confusedly, or without order, amongst themselves. They then separate in a concentric and tubular form into systems, that are encased within each other, like the bark, liber, and wood, which form the shaft. Furthermore they separate into members, and appear one above the other, as root, stalk, and foliage, which collectively may be called the stem; these are repeated as seed, pistil, and corolla, which together are called flower, and combined, fruit, namely, nut, plum, berry and apple. I designate by the term stock or trunk all the parts as far as the blossom; and this together with the fruit I name thyrsus. The vegetable stock, whose tissues have not yet separated into members, I style, from want of a better word, thallus. As we divide political kingdoms into provinces and circles, so also may these titles be suitably applied here. It is evident, that the plants which simply consist of tissues and have as yet no sheaths and members, are the Acotyledones; those, however, provided with sheaths, but devoid of true roots, stalk, and foliage, Monocotyledones; those with true foliage or reticular-veined leaves are, on the contrary, Dicotyledones. The natural system of vegetables stands accordingly in the following manner.

A.—STOCK-PLANTS.

Province I. Histophyta, or Tissue-plants—Acotyledones. Class 1. Cell-plants. 2. Duct- 3. Trachea- II. Thecophyta, or Sheath-plants—Monocotyledones. 4. Bark-plants. 5. Liber- 6. Wood- III. Arthrophyta, or Member-plants—Dicotyledones. Circle 1. Axis-plants—Tubulifloræ. 7. Root-plants. 8. Stalk- 9. Leaf-

B.—BLOSSOM-PLANTS.

Circle 2. Flower-plants—Thalamopetalæ. 10. Seed-plants. 11. Ovarium- 12. Corolla- Circle 3. Fruit-plants—Calycopetalæ. 13. Nut-plants. 14. Plum- 15. Berry- 16. Apple-

1509. A slight glance at the above table shows us the procedure of Nature. The higher she ascends, the more and more she separates, and thereby increases, the organs. There may therefore be plants which have only a single organ or tissue, as well as others, which possess all.

1510. There cannot, however, be any plant which could simply possess the higher without the lower organs. Higher organized plants are not such therefore, by virtue of their having some one organ more perfectly developed, or separated into several parts; but through this, that they actually possess several different organs. The higher grade of organization depends accordingly not upon the perfection of the Singular, but the number of the Different. The Perfected consists in the multiplicity combined to constitute unity, but by no means in the simply homogeneous multitude of the parts. Numerous stamina may render a corolla higher, but not on that account the whole plant; many digits may make a hand nobler, but not on that account, the animal. But with many digits also that hand is nobler, in which the digits are dissimilar.

First Province.

HISTOPHYTA—ACOTYLEDONES.

Devoid of, or without true spiral-vessels, leaves, corollæ, and pistil.

The vegetable kingdom ascends, in accordance with the five main positions of the organs, by five stages; these are again separable into larger groups, which may be called asexual and sexual plants.

1511. The tissues are a something internal, being, as it were, the viscera of plants or their parenchyma, which does not meet the light, and can therefore have no light-organs, which are developed only out of the foliage or leaves. The anatomical systems and organs are tissues that have become external, have attained to air and light, and are hence developed into air-and light-organs. Now, the light-organs are sexual organs. The Tissue-plants can therefore have no sexual organs; and plants divide accordingly into asexual and sexual plants. The asexual are female plants, and are consequently the first or lowest. Thus there can be thus no sexual or male plants, without the female being found that belong to them.

1512. Male or androgynous plants are only possible, if spiral vessels or tracheæ be present. They first, however, originate when the tracheæ become external, or form a circle in the stalk, i. e. are accessible by light; as in the Mono-and Dicotyledones.

1513. The asexual plants are not cryptogamic, but agamic. They do not perform self-impregnation clandestinely, but not at all; for they do not attain light-difference, and consequently not male organs. Analogues of stamina may make their appearance in the mosses, but they invariably fail to attain the development of pollen. What have been called male parts in other cryptogamia, do not merit consideration. Such projections or prefigurations are besides to be found everywhere.

1514. The asexual plants are simply formations of the tissues, of the galvanic vesicle, and are thus of a female nature. They are nothing more than a great utricle full of small vesicles, which by desiccation subdivide into germinal dust or sporules, each granule whereof attracts other mucous vesicles out of the moisture, in order to form again a large utricle.

1515. The asexuals cease in the process of vegetation, where the other plants begin. With the rupture of the gemmal-or bud-vesicle in the higher plants a new world for the first time emerges into view, such as stem, leaves, blossom, and then the ultimate bud ruptures for the first time as the pericarp, and scatters its higher organized germinal powder as true seeds.

1516. An asexual plant is one, which, without all the intermediate organs of the stem, at once represents the capsule or ovary. It consists only of the beginning and end of the plant.

1517. The higher plants differ from the lower by the interposition of new organs between the two terminal organs, namely, the primary vesicle and the true seed. It may be said, that the asexual plant is naught but seed, and that the seed of the higher plants is a fungus upon a leafy peduncle, a fungus more highly organized by light.

1518. The asexual plants have no true root, stalk, and leaf; they have not even a true bark, liber, and wood, in so far as these first make their appearance through separation. Tracheæ are first exhibited in the higher ferns, and then only as constituting a single string, which occupies the middle of the plant, and consequently forms no circle or zone.

1519. As again the true seed is a leaf-formation, and possesses therefore cotyledons or seed-lobes, such seeds must be wanting in the asexual plants; they are therefore Acotyledones. From the same cause, however, the germinal leaves or plumula must be also wanting; they are therefore germless, or anembryonic.

1520. The farinaceous or granular matter, lying next to the germ when within the shell of the true seeds, is called the albumen or perisperm; the seeds of the asexual plants are therefore nothing else but albumen. They are therefore devoid of the funiculus or, what has been called, umbilical cord.

1521. The involucre, wherein, in true seeds, the germ and albumen are found, is the seed-coat or testa; consequently what has been called the capsule of the asexual plants (of mosses and ferns) corresponds simply to this spermoderm or seed-covering, and is no true ovarium. The capsules of mosses and ferns are therefore seeds full of albuminous dust.

1522. If any of these be regarded as a capsule, it can be the calyptra of the mosses. This, too, is probably nothing else than the external testa; the proper capsule being its internal coat.

1523. The indusium of ferns incloses several capsules as they have been called, or properly seeds, and might therefore, if considered alone, be compared with an ovarium, but it is probably none other than the covering corresponding to the perichœtium that surrounds the base of the setæ in mosses. The sorus is an accumulation of seeds with pulverulent albumen contained in a membranaceous covering, the indusium.

1524. The life of the asexual plants consists simply in the galvanic process. They are the primary organisms, planted in air.

1525. As being simply galvanic process, they would require but little light and air; they therefore seek the darkness, like the roots, and thrive also in a corrupt atmosphere, in caves, mines, cellars, and such like situations. They can from the same cause thrive only in moisture, in water, upon marshy meadow lands, after rain, copious dew, and so on.

1526. They are devoid the process of fermentation, as being that which is imparted by the oxydation of air, and they therefore yield neither sugar nor acids. They are simply the organized process of putrefaction; their ultimate product is therefore germinal powder, infusorial matter. Their remaining secretions are alkaline bodies; to which belong the pungent, fetid, and nauseous excretions, as the hydrogen gas and ammonia of the fungi, the mucus of the fuci, the carbonate of lime in the lichens, the cell-threads of the mosses, the fetid principle of ferns.

1527. Very few of these plants require the course of a summer in order to perfect or complete the vital course; a single ray of light of one day's, aye, of one hour's duration, is sufficient with most of them to evoke the feeble difference, to rouse the swell of the sap, and precipitate the infusorial powder.

1528. Automatic movements, as in the leaves and stamina of the higher plants, scarcely occur in them, or at most in the ferns, from their possessing spiral vessels. They divide, according to the tissues, into three classes, into Cell-, Vessel-, and Trachea-plants.

CLASS I.

Cell-plants—Fungi.

Here belong those plants which consist simply of cellular tissue, having no sap-tubes and tracheæ. Such plants, too, possess no regular or hexagonal cellular tissue.

1529. The cellular tissue, in which there is only a single active process, cannot essentially alter its primary form. It is therefore an accumulation of round or cylindrical mucus-vesicles.

1530. Mucus-vesicles, in which the air-process is not as yet active, cannot be coloured green; but must have the colour of the earth.

1531. Plants, composed of amorphous and earth-coloured cellular tissue, are Fungi. The fungi are simply clusters of mucus-vesicles joined together in a more or less regular manner, their union being effected in dark, hollow and wet situations.

1532. They may therefore originate wherever mucous juices are evolved by the potential agency of a higher organization, and thus by putrefaction. The fungi originate by æquivocal generation. They are the anal-organizations of the higher plants and animals; the corrupted and luxuriating juices.

1533. Nevertheless the fungus is propagated by division of its vesicles, which again, in accordance with their peculiar laws of polarity, attract mucus-vesicles, and thus obtain the form of the earlier or parent fungus. This is only a more regulated kind of æquivocal generation.

1534. The origin of the fungi may therefore happen in a twofold manner, namely, by formation from other juices, and by that of their own, which is called propagation. Still at bottom both are one in kind.

1535. Their granules or vesicles are seeds, properly sporules, which are self-developed without male polarization.

DIVISION.

1536. The fungi pass moreover through stages of development, which range parallel to the vegetable classes; since it is impossible for any other organs to originate in them but such as belong to the idea of the plant. The lowest fungus can therefore change only, by endeavouring to develop in itself ducts, tracheæ, roots, and such like parts.

1537. There are accordingly as many developmental stages of the fungi as there are vegetable classes. These divisions are called families.

1538. The vegetable families range parallel to the classes. This law must hold good of all the classes. There are therefore in each class 16 families. An association of families upon each stage may be called an order.

1539. At first the fungus is none other than a mucus-vesicle or a small cluster of vesicles, e. g. an uredo or mildew. Such a vesicle next becomes longitudinally extended, and includes within itself other vesicles or granules, e. g. mould. These mould-filaments or threads unite again so as to form a common mass, which is surrounded by an external membrane, and is then called puff-ball. The pulverulent granules, which were irregularly accumulated in the puff-balls, unite at length in a regular manner to constitute a trunk of varied form, as in the ascomycetes, e. g. sphæriæ. Finally, the mould-filaments with their sporules are regularly collected together in an investing membrane, which, like a puff-ball, is supported upon a stipes or stem, e. g. the sarcomycetes or agarics. There are therefore 5 developmental stages of the fungi, which correspond to those of the classes; viz. the parenchyma, shaft, stem, flower, and fruit; and constitute orders.

1540. Each order is resolvable again into three divisions or families, which correspond to the organs. Thus there are in each class 16 tribes or families, which obviously range parallel to the vegetable organs or classes. (Vid. Tab. B.)

1541. A tribe or family is consequently the representation of a vegetable organ within a class.

1542. The genera obey the same law; for essential differences are only conceivable through the presence of different organs.

1543. Species is in the animal kingdom that which copulates without necessity and compulsion. The same definition is applicable to plants. The species range, without doubt, according to the diversities in the individual organs themselves, which admit of a great multitude of combinations, the number of which is not as yet to be determined.

1544. The component parts of the fungi are either perfectly indifferent, mucous or gelatinoid matter; or they are of an alcaline nature, being acrid, poisonous, and such like. Their odour is usually dead, disagreeable, and loathsome, or analogous to their essential process of decomposition.

CLASS II.

Vessel-or Duct-plants—Mosses.

1545. The intercellular passages or succigerent vessels of plants make their first appearance in a state of perfection, when, the cells being extended lengthways, have become hexagonal and are placed in regular juxtaposition. In these plants therefore we meet with regular cellular tissue, but still without spiral vessels or tracheæ.

1546. As the vessels or ducts constitute the fundamental tissue of the liber, while this is the principal system of the stalk; so now does the stem begin to be manifested and separated from the fruit. The seeds are no longer therefore distributed in the present class throughout the whole trunk, but developed in a special involucrum or theca, which corresponds to the puff-ball, or to the pileus of the higher organized fungi.

1547. Plants with vessels, and consequently a cauliform formation, have at once also the commencement of a bark, and next the green colour. The vascular are the first green plants, and differ chiefly through that character from the fungi. They are the Fucacæ or Sea-wracks.

1548. They have the colour of the water, because the course of the sap corresponds to the aqueous process; they are aquatic, just as the brown fungi are terrestrial, plants. Their component parts are aqueous, indifferent, mucous, and filose. Their habitation is the water itself or bogs. If they occupy dry situations, they live only when it rains.

1549. They likewise pass through the five stages of vegetation, and form therefore five orders.

1550. Order 1. The lowest or Tissue-mosses, corresponding to the Uredines; are again naught but cells or mucous pellicles, but, from growing in water, and being consequently exposed to light and a stronger oxydation, they are green—Tremellini.

1551. They multiply by subdivision, since new vesicles or granules are developed in their interior, which become separated, and subsist or continue to grow for themselves. They therefore originate also by æquivocal generation, but by such an one as constantly occurs in water and light.

1552. The second order, or the Vascular mosses corresponds to the sheaths, or to the Hyphomycetes. They are long filaments replete with granules, growing in water, and therefore green—Confervaceæ. These plants begin to ramify, and either increase by this means or by effusion of granular matter.

1553. The third order, that of the Tracheal mosses, corresponds to the stem, or to the Gasteromycetes. A membranous trunk originates in water, which in certain places secretes the seeds in special vesicles or cysts—Fucales or connate Confervæ. The fuci have at once the form of a stalk with root and leaves, because they correspond to these three organs of the axis.

1554. The fourth order, the Floral mosses, endeavours to obtain the blossom, and therefore elevates itself out of the water, but loses on that account the trunk-like character, and exhibits for the most part only membranous expansions, upon which seeds are secreted, which being usually of a beautiful colour, thus assume the appearance of corollæ—Lichenales. The lichens are fuci in dry situations. They correspond to the Pyrenomycetes or Sphæriaceæ.

1555. As the variegated colours appear in the blossom, so do they also in the lichens; but here they are for the first time chemically developed, distributed throughout the whole substance, and concealed. Most lichens yield colouring matters.

1556. As the stem is, in accordance with their signification, wanting to the lichens, they thus require a foreign trunk for their nutrition. They are therefore developed for the most part upon other plants, and principally upon the bark.

1557. Lastly, the fifth order, Fruit-mosses, originates through the development of a self-substantial fruit upon a cauliform stem—the Mosses proper.

1558. As these are the highest plants of this class, and those that directly precede the tracheal formation, so the bark already resolves itself into individual leaves, which are, however, still destitute of spiral vessels.

1559. What have been called the seeds or sporules are accumulated in a capsule-like fruit upon the summit of the stalk. This fruit corresponds to the pileated fungus, and therefore springs up in an opercular manner like the latter.

1560. But this capsule is only a spermoderm, which incloses albuminous granules that have no proper germ or seed-lobes; they are plants with seed-vessels or pyxidia, upon an open-leaved stalk.

1561. They divide likewise into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS III.

Trachea-plants—Ferns.

1562. At first a fascicle only of spiral vessels can originate, which is necessarily surrounded by cellular tissue, and therefore lies in the middle of the plant. Such plants are the Filices or ferns.

1563. As the spiral vessels are the antetype of the leaves, so does the trunk here obtain the form of the leaf, without itself producing true leaves. For, in the ferns, the fruits lie upon the back of the apparent leaf, which can only be the trunk.

1564. The fruits, being further removed from the fungi, no longer spring up in an opercular, but in a valvular, manner like the higher capsules.

1565. Green plants with imperfect spiral vessels and blossoms, and also with naked seeds devoid of true capsules, belong to the class of Ferns.

1566. I therefore place in this class the Coniferæ or trees with acicular foliage, because they have no ovarium, but naked seeds; and besides these, some other plants, though doubtfully, on account of their very abortive blossoms, as the Naiadaceæ. There are therefore Tracheal plants without and with stamina. The first portray the stock or trunk, the second, the thyrsus or blossom; they live mostly in dry situations, and produce resins or fetid matters.

1567. First order. Parenchymatous ferns—Aquatic ferns. I here place the aquatic ferns, because, as water-plants, they occupy a lower situation, because they support the fruits upon a radical trunk, and finally, because these fruit-vesicles have two kinds of contents, all of which seems to remind us of the fuci and lichens; they correspond to the Tremellini.

1568. Second order. Sheath-ferns—Club-ferns. Here commence the land ferns, and those kinds indeed whose so-called capsules open in a valvular manner, just as in the liverworts; or almost after the fashion of a pyxidium by an orifice, somewhat as in the mosses; the trunk is provided with squamose leaves or lobes, e. g. Lycopodiaceæ and Osmundaceæ; they correspond to the Confervaceæ.

1569. Third order. Stem-ferns—Annular or Ring-ferns. Here we meet with phylloidal involuted capsules or seeds upon the back of a stem that is likewise leaf-like; e. g. the typical or true ferns.

1570. They have rudiments of roots and a stem, together with foliage, because they are the prototypes of these three organs.

1571. The ring of their capsules corresponds to the midrib of the leaf. In the preceding order the capsule was only an upsprung stalk; but it is here an upsprung and unfolded leaf, the prototype of the bud-development.

1572. The fern-capsules, namely, the true seeds, are an accumulation of leaf-buds at the extremity of the fascicle of spiral vessels. The indusium is the upraised epidermis, which opens in a spathose manner; it consequently stands in the signification perhaps of the floral spathe or involucrum. They correspond to the Fuci.

1573. Fourth order. Floral ferns—Fluviales. If the tracheal plants be exalted unto the flower, male organs cannot fail in at once beginning to develop. I place therefore in this order the Naiadaceæ with very arrested blossoms, and simply stamina without calyx and corolla. The spiral vessels are rather doubtful.

1574. Fifth order. Fruit ferns—Coniferæ. Tree with imperfectly-formed spiral vessels, stamina without corollæ, seeds without ovarium; thus agreeing with the Cryptogamia even to the stamina; they form likewise sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

SEXUAL PLANTS.

1575. So soon as the three tissues separate completely from each other into bark, liber, and wood, while the tracheæ are arranged circularly into several clusters or groups, does the antagonism of these organs also make its appearance, and exhibit itself as sex in the floral organs.

1576. This separation can only be attained through the influence of the air and light, whereby the sexual organs are conditionated. These plants have therefore the several organs of the trunk and blossom.

1577. Anthers can be wanting to none of the following plants. Now, the anthers are leaf-buds; the leaf-formation must be therefore developed also in their antagonism, or in the seed. The leaves of the seed, however, are called seed-lobes; consequently all seeds of sexual plants have seed-lobes or cotyledons.

1578. Now the perfect seed is the whole plant in miniature with root, stalk, and leaf. This formation is, however, only possible where there is a sex, or where the vegetable tissues have emerged self-substantially from each other.

1579. But the anthers are buds upon a floral rib; consequently all sexual plants must have a part of the blossom, which ranks in the signification of leaf, and thus either the calyx or, with this also, the corolla.

1580. All sexual plants must have a shaft or scape, in which its three parts, bark, liber, and wood, are to be distinguished; even so must the three parts of the stem, the root, stalk, and leaf, have the parts of the blossom which correspond to them, viz. seed, ovarium, and calyx or corolla.

1581. The sexual plants next divide into Stock-and Blossom-plants, the former of these parting into Shaft-and Stem-plants.

Second Province.

SHAFT-PLANTS—MONOCOTYLEDONES.

1582. In the Shaft-plants the invaginate character is predominant, the wood being surrounded by liber, and this by bark; they are therefore tubular in form—tubular plants.

1583. The cellular tissue preponderates in them, and the tracheal fascicles form therefore no closed circle, but are dispersed; scattered fasciculi cannot, however, ramify but only pursue a straight course and form streaks—striated plants.

1584. Ramification is wanting unto these plants, partly on account of their tubular form, partly on account of the smaller quantity of tracheal fascicles—aramose plants. A vegetable stem without branches is called shaft or scape; thus they are shaft-plants.

1585. The blossoms do not stand upon ramules, but upon the stem itself; thus, if ever ramification originates, it can first occur in the floral peduncles.

1586. As they are deficient in branches, so also are they in buds—agemmal or budless plants.

1587. The tendency to produce branches forms nodes, which are only imperfect ramal zones—nodose plants.

1588. Where the formation of branches is wanting, the minor ramification of ribs must be also wanting in the leaves; they are parallel-ribbed.

1589. The leaf is only a ruptured and expanded tube or spathe, which surrounds the shaft—spathose plants.

1590. Where branches are wanting, there can be also no petiolated leaves; they have therefore only radical leaves, from the midst of which the shaft or scape sprouts forth, only as a floral-peduncle—radical-leaved plants.

1591. If all these leaves be still sheathed or encased within each other, they are called bulbs—bulbose plants.

1592. Since the corolla is the repetition of the leaves, so also must its structure resemble theirs—spathose corollæ.

1593. But as there are here only radical leaves, so also is the corolla only a radical leaf-corolla. In the blossom, however, the radical leaf has become spathe, the cauline leaf, calyx, the ramuscular leaf, corolla. Such blossoms consist therefore either of a spathe only, as in the Aroideæ, or of a calyx—calycine plants.

1594. The stamina originate from the calyx. In calycine flowers therefore all the stamina must range opposite to the corolla-petals. These plants have only opposite, no alternate stamina. It has been generally assumed that the Monocotyledones have no true corollæ, but only coloured calyces. Philosophy agrees with this opinion; but adds thereunto that the corollæ of the Monocotyledones may be also merely spathes or involucra.

1595. The separation of the bud-formation here takes place for the first time in the blossom, namely, in the stamina. The number of the floral parts must be limited to three; for this is the first number, in which the leaf-ribs may divide. Corollæ, stamina, and capsules are ternary—trinity-plants.

1596. As the seed is only an undeveloped leaf-bud, so in it only can the number of the leaf be found. Since, however, the leaf does not ramify in the present group of plants, but is only a single spathose leaf; so also does the seed consist only of one such leaf or of one seed-lobe—Monocotyledones. The wheat-seed or grain is none other than a grass-leaf with a short spathe and very dense, highly farinaceous, lamellæ. In germinating a new leaf emerges from the short spathe; it is the germinal leaf.

1597. Thus plants having a tubular stem, and such kind of foliage, corollæ and seeds, are Monocotyledones.

1598. The chemical bodies are more diversified in these than in the remaining members of the vegetable kingdom. In the roots, as in the tubers of the Orchideæ we meet with distinct mucilage; in the bulbs with alkalies or acrid matter; and with sugar, as being a feeble conversion of the starch in the stalk. The mucilage of the root becomes, when repeated in the seed, flour. Oily matters or acids seldom occur, and fleshy fruits scarcely ever.

1599. The ovary is almost throughout this region of plants either a single spathose leaf or caryopsis; or three spathe-leaves are united together, which thus, as follicles or carpels, usually burst open upon the internal edge.

DIVISION.

1600. If we now proceed to survey the Monocotyledons, in the order just set before us, we shall recognize among them three typical groups, to which the others are allied; they are the Gramineæ, Liliaceæ, and Palmaceæ.

1601. The Grasses obviously rank the lowest as well in respect of their root, stalk, and foliage, as also of their stunted blossoms, ovarium, and seeds.

1602. To them succeed the Lilies, which have a well-marked root, a more perfect, though still always herbaceous, stalk, and a few spathoid, more numerously ribbed leaves; lastly, their corollæ, ovaria, and seeds are perfect; but still they invariably have no genuine fruits.

1603. Finally, the Palms are elevated above all by their stem being rich in tracheæ and wooded, as also by the perfection of their fruit. Scientifically, the scapose or shaft-plants must also resolve themselves into three classes; into Bark-, Liber-, and Wood-plants.

CLASS IV.

Bark-plants—Gramineæ.

1604. In these plants the whole stalk must have assumed the form of the cortex or bark, and consequently be hollow—tubular, or culmaceous plants.

1605. A mere bark cannot ramify. But the tendency unto ramification is manifested as nodes—nodose plants.

1606. The leaf which still represents the bark, is only imperfectly slit up, and therefore still forms a tube. Such leaves are called tubular or spathe-leaves proper.

1607. Such tubular leaves being only half slit up can only shoot forth gradually from each other, and that indeed in such a manner that they stand actually by twos, encased in, or opposite to, each other.

1608. Since the blossom is, as it were, an impression, or copy of the leaves, so will it here also consist only of spathiform, involucral, or calycine leaves, and only of two, one of which, though opposite to, is surrounded by the other. Such floral parts are called glumes—glumaceous plants. If four glumes are present, then the external pair of them corresponds to the involucrum or spatha, the internal to the calyx.

1609. The corolla-petals are of necessity arrested in plants such as these, where no true leaf is as yet developed; frequently two only are left persistent as pellicles or lodiculæ.

1610. This is still more the case with the ovary and seed; in each only one leaf attains development, and the seed has entirely coalesced with the ovarium. This kind of fruit is called caryopsis.

1611. Nodose plants with hollow scape or shaft, tubular leaves, glumose blossoms, and cariopsidal fruits are Grasses.

DIVISION.

1612. The Bark-plants pass moreover, together with their subdivisions, through the five stages of vegetable organs, and they will therefore produce also a more perfect stalk, leaves, and flowers. The whole calyx will, however, never be coloured or corolla-like in its character. Cortical plants are thus herbaceous plants with hollow stalk, and with an arrested or green calyx, without sarcose or fleshy fruit.

1613. Those, which have simply glumose flowers, are without doubt the lowest in rank, as corresponding to the tissues and stock, but not yet to the flower.

1614. These again divide into two great groups, whereof the one includes plants with simply uni-seminal cariopsides, the other, on the contrary, capsules containing a free seed—Grasses and Reed-grasses. The grasses which have a cariopsis or grain-fruit reascend by two stages; the most inferior in rank do not attain to a ramification, but the flowers stand crowded together in spikes; the others, on the contrary, are pedunculated and ramify in panicles.

1615. Among the higher kinds instead of glumes there are regular flowers, of which, however, the calyx is still glumose or at least green. The cariopsis is converted into a multilocular capsule, as in the Restiaceæ, Commelineæ, &c.

1616. The first order, or the Parenchymatous grasses, have glumose flowers with a cariopsis for fruit, borne upon culms or nodose straws, and do not attain to any ramification—spicate grasses. In their seeds we meet with the greatest amount of starch developed, though doubtless at the cost of the trunk.

1617. The second order of Spathose grasses are similar, and support ramified flowers—paniculate grasses. In this division occur grasses of a dendroidal character, and having occasionally fruit-like ovaria, as in the bamboos.

1618. The third order consists of the Cauline grasses. Here the leaves at once separate completely from the shaft, which is therefore free from nodes. Nut-like capsules, though still inclosed in glumes, also make their appearance—reed-grasses.

1619. The fourth order, Floral grasses. The leaves are still only radical; the shaft is anodal; the flowers are separated into green calyx and coloured corolla, with three or six stamina, and mostly with a trilocular capsule—Junceæ, to which the Commelinaceæ are allied.

1620. The fifth order, Carpal grasses. Hollow anodal shafts, with scarcely spathiform, mostly broad leaves, the ribs of which begin to ramify; with similar calyces and corollæ, and numerous capsules—Seeroseæ, to which the Alismaceæ and Hydrocharideæ are related.

1621. The highest kind of fruit attained by this class is nut-like, never fleshy in character. The stalk is nowhere woody as in some grasses. The grasses divide, as do all other orders of plants, into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS V.

Liber-plants—Liliaceæ.

1622. The substance of the stalk is soft and succulent; its structure devoid of nodes; the leaves are tolerably free and ribbed; calyx and corolla coloured, both being perfectly formed and invariably tripartite, as is likewise the capsule, which has many seeds upon its inner angle. These plants are the Lilies. In the present class all parts have been developed in conformity to the liber, are rich in sap, and have become dense and fleshy.

1623. The roots are mostly tubers or bulbs, containing a superior kind of mucilage, or aromatic principles. The shaft is not hollow but, though herbaceous, filled up; the leaves are elevated upon the stalk. One division of these plants has irregular corollæ with stunted stamina and capsules, the latter containing mostly dust-like seeds, as in the Orchideæ and aromatic plants.

1624. The other division has regular 2 × 3ary corollæ, with, perfect glume-capsules and middling-sized seeds, as the Irideæ and Liliaceæ proper.

1625. The first order, Parenchymatose lilies. The corollæ are irregular, bilabiate, and stand upon the calyx and a membranous sexlocular capsule with very small seeds; are divided according to the pollen—e. g. pulverulent Orchideæ.

1626. The second order, Sheath-lilies. Characters similar to those of the preceding order, but the pollen is agglomerated into waxy granules—granular orchideæ.

1627. The third order, Stem-lilies. The corollæ are likewise bilabiate and situated above the calyx, but the ovarium contains few seeds, and the capsule is mostly nut-like—aromatic plants, such as the Scitamineæ and Musaceæ.

1628. The fourth order Floral-lilies, have regular blossoms, separated into calyx and corolla, placed above the capsule, and mostly furnished with three stamina. Here belong the Hypoxideæ, Hæmodoraceæ and Irideæ.

1629. The fifth order, Fruit-lilies. The leaves have not yet completely separated from each other, but still form bulbs; the corollæ are regular, have six stamina, and are placed beneath the capsule, as in the true lilies. To this order belong the Colchicaceæ, Aloinæ and Liliaceæ. Their bulbs contain mostly acrid matters. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS VI.

Wood-plants—Palmaceæ.

Plants with woody shaft and with fruits, mostly enclosed in spadices.

1630. The desiccation of the cells and fibres is promoted by the increased process of oxydation. Where therefore the tracheæ attain the preponderance, there the conversion into wood originates.

1631. The stalks of these plants are not hollow, but have a dense interior, because the fasciculi of tracheæ lie within the liber, and there increase.

1632. The main bulk of the stalk will consist of tracheæ.

1633. As the tracheæ are longitudinal organs, and the other tissues also extend lengthways, so does the stalk or stem in these plants predominate over the other parts.

1634. In this class the most perfect leaves as regards their present stage are developed; for they are only expansions of the tracheæ, which are here present in superabundance. As regards the form also, these leaves must rank higher than those of the preceding class; the spathe is shorter, the leaf itself usually broad, many-ribbed, and frequently pinnate. The leaves are also perfect as to position, being no longer mere radical leaves, but situated upon the stalk, even on its apical extremity.

1635. The ramification gradually emerges into view, where forsooth its occurrence is possible in the shaft-plants, or in the inflorescence. It is always multiple in character, mostly spadici-, muscari-, and paniculiform.

1636. As regards the blossom the ovarium is most perfectly evolved, because it is developed out of the stalk; it is ternary and becomes elevated into a fruit with few seeds.

1637. The corollæ are frequently stunted, yet regular and 2 × 3ary, though insignificant on account of the preponderance in size of the fruit.

1638. In this class we meet with the first true or genuine fruits; because in it for the first time the three anatomical systems are completely separated.

1639. Plants having a ligneous stalk, free and many-ribbed leaves, ramified inflorescence and ternary fleshy fruits, are the Palmaceæ. The Palmaceæ have a woody, very hollow stem, with many-ribbed, divided, and often pinnate leaves; a muscariform inflorescence lodged in spathes, sexanary corollæ with nuts, berries, or drupes. With the palms are associated the Typhaceæ, Aroideæ, Piperales, Pandanales, Dioscoreæ, Smilaceæ, Asparagi, Convallariæ, and Bromeliæ; for their stalks are mostly woody, the leaves broad, and placed upon the stalk, the corollæ stunted, while, on the contrary, the ovarium is carpoidal or fruit-like. The five orders may be disposed as follows:

1640. Order I. Palmaceæ parenchymatosæ. Cynomoridæ, Typhaceæ, Aroideæ.

1641. Order II. P. thecales. Saurureæ, Piperaceæ, Pandanaceæ.

1642. Order III. P. axonales. Dioscoreæ, Smilaceæ, Parideæ.

1643. Order IV. P. florales. Asparagoideæ, Convallariæ, Bromeliæ.

1644. Order V. P. carpales. Palms.

1645. The plants of the first order are very imperfect herbs with spadices. Those of the second have mostly a ligneous, nodose stalk, with one-seeded fruits in spadices, without corollæ. The third have separated corollæ disposed in an open form of inflorescence. The fourth have perfect sexanary corollæ, with a frequently woody stalk and ternary, many-seeded berries. The fifth order consists of trees having large leaves, muscariform spadices, and perfect fruits, nuts, plums, and berries, ternary and one-seeded. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

Third Province.

RETICULAR-LEAVED PLANTS—DICOTYLEDONES.

1646. With the separation of the stock or trunk into root, stalk and leaf, the latter organ attains its perfection; it becomes a reticular leaf—the plants possessing it being called reticular.

1647. The retinerved or reticular leaf is, however, only the result of a modified organization in the stalk, and indicates a ramification or foliiform arrangement of the tracheæ in the stem. The foliiform arrangement of the tracheæ in the stalk is their circular disposition. These plants have woody zones. Through this zone or ring of wood first originates the perfect separation into wood, liber and bark, whereof each formerly occupied the whole stalk or stem.

1648. The stalk is no longer a shaft or scape, but it divides into branches and twigs—ramular plants.

1649. The reticular-veined are ramular leaves, and are no longer therefore spathiform but petiolated—petiolated leaves. It is only at the root that spathose leaves may occur, and this only in the plants of the inferior classes.

1650. With the disappearance of the spathose leaves, and the appearance of the ramules, the nodes and bulbs also disappear.

1651. The blossoms stand no longer upon a radical peduncle or stipes, but upon ramules; in other words, upon a plant, which again stands upon another plant, namely, the stalk.

1652. As all the higher separations of leaves here occur, so also does the flower obtain its higher amount of separation; it becomes quinary—pentaschematose plants. The ovarium passes through all numerical conditions, being 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and polycarpellar. In like manner all the forms of ovaria and fruits occur in the present class, such as caryopsis, follicle, legumen, siliqua, capsule, nut, plum, berry and apple.

1653. As the seed is a leaf-formation, so must it resemble the reticular leaf. But reticular leaves are not spathes or simple tubes, but ramified or separated ribs. The seed has therefore several leaves, and two indeed for the first time, which are called seed-lobes. These plants are therefore styled Dicotyledones.

DIVISION.

1654. The Dicotyledones are, in the first place, empirically divisible into apetalous, monopetalous and polypetalous, or into plants with calycine, tubular and petalous corollæ.

1655. It might be believed that the Apetalæ were, without further trouble, the lowest in point of rank; but, when closely considered, they appear as Polypetalæ with stunted corolla-petals, and are obviously allied to the Rosaceæ. Moreover, they all bear nuts, a fact which occurs in no other class, and they must be therefore placed among the fruit-bearing plants. Since, however, they are epigynous and perigynous, so must the other polypetalous Perigynæ enter into proximity with them, and in like manner forsooth come among the Fruit-plants.

1656. Thus the Dicotyledones separate into the Monopetalæ, hypogynous Polypetalæ, and perigynous Polypetalæ, along with the Apetalæ. Viewed in a scientific light, they separate according to the principal members of the plant into three districts, Axis-, Flower-, and Fruit-plants.

FIRST CIRCLE.

Stem-plants—Monopetalæ.

1657. The Monopetalæ or Tubulifloræ are the lowest in rank, and must therefore take the place here assigned them. They are still spathose corollæ. Among them are found for the most part only cariopsides and membranous capsules, rarely fruits. They are usually, too, merely herbs, rarely bushes, and still more rarely trees.

1658. They divide into Epigynes, Peri-and Hypogynes, of which the former are the lowest, the latter the highest; for in that which is left similar the coalition is an inferior sign.

1659. Their essential or typical character does not, however, reside in the blossom, but in the trunk, and that indeed in the root, stalk, and foliage. The question therefore may now be asked, whether in the Epigynes the root, in the Perigynes the stalk, and in the Hypogynes the foliage, be the principal organ.

CLASS VII.

Root-plants.

1660. That the Tubulifloræ with superior blossoms and fleshy root are radical plants, admits of being easily demonstrated. The preponderance of the root is evident from its size, its quantity of contained sap, or special chemical ingredients. A root that is rich in sap, and much denser than the stalk, is called a turnip. These plants are thus turnip-plants.

1661. Among the Monopetalæ, however, there are napiform roots only in the Epigynes, namely, the Syngenesia or salad-plants, and among some Perigynes, namely, the Campanuleæ, as well as the Cucurbitaceæ. The Syngenesia are consequently the radical plants. The roots of the Scorzoneræ, Pastinaceæ, Cichoraceæ, and Tussilago or coltsfoot, &c., belong to this class.

1662. That the Scabiosæ and Valerianeæ are directly related to the Syngenesia is likewise indicated by their roots. Unto these succeed in point of structure the Campanulaceæ and the Cucurbitaceæ, which have frequently, too, napiform or turnip-shaped roots.

1663. The number of the Syngenesia is so great that they fill up all the orders of the trunk. In accordance with their whole structure they are obviously the lowest, the stalk being for the most part herbaceous and placed within a circle of radical leaves, but being itself provided with few, imperfect, and scarcely ever pinnate leaves; they have moreover numerous stunted blossoms that are connate with the single or solitary seed, and crowded together, like spadices, grass-spikes, or the fungal pilei, upon a carpoclinium or receptacle.

1664. They are a repetition of the fungi and grasses; of the former in their fleshy root and inflorescence, of the latter likewise in the inflorescence and in the spathoidal root-leaves; above all, in the single large seed, confluent with the ovarium and calyx. The principle of their division must, where it is possible, and for obvious reasons, be drawn from the organs of the trunk.

1665. First order. Radicariæ parenchymatosæ.—Syngenesia, having radical leaves and uniform florets, tubular or wholly stunted ligular florets—Cichoraceæ and Thistles.

1666. Second order. P. vaginatæ.—Syngenesia, with opposite leaves and different kinds of florets, such as radiated, partly lingual and partly tubular corollæ—Sunflowers, Silphieæ.

1667. Third order. R. axonales.—Syngenesia, with alternate leaves and diversified florets—Anthemideæ, Senecionidæ, Astereæ.

1668. Fourth order. R. florales.—Here the ovarium is no longer dense and confluent with the calyx, and it begins to become trilocular—Scabiosæ, Valerianeæ, and Campanulæ.

1669. Fifth order. R. fructuariæ.—Here a perfect fruit is developed, which is connate with the calyx—Asarideæ, Passifloreæ, and Cucurbitaceæ. They have apple-like 3-5 ry fruits, and many of them have napiform roots, e. g. the Gichtrüben. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS VIII.

Stalk-plants.

1670. Plants with a predominating development of stalk, leaves narrow, mostly opposite, quaternary corollæ upon the calyx, ovarium multilocular, and containing few seeds.

1671. Here everything, both root and leaf, must be stalk-like in character; the stalk is therefore woody, the root fibrous, the foliage twig-like or narrow, like needles.

1672. This structure is chiefly found in the Heaths and Stellatæ. The stalk is mostly woody; the foliage either aciculiform or leathery in texture, and never pinnated. The leaves are either arranged in whorls or opposite, a position which indicates a lower grade of development. Moreover, they are related to the plants of the preceding class; they are either Epigynous or Perigynous. The corolla and ovarium follow the opposite position of the leaves; the former being quadripartite, the latter bi-and quaternary. Most of them grow in hot countries upon dry ground, and their virtues reside in the stalk, e. g. the Peruvian bark.

1673. The Stellatæ or Rubiaceæ are without doubt the lowest, because they are epigynous and have a quadri-petalous corolla, with a binary and frequently only follicular ovarium.

1674. First order. Cauliariæ parenchymatosæ. The Stellatæ proper along with the Coffeaceæ, all of them being two-seeded.

1675. Second order. C. vaginatæ. The Rubiaceæ with bilocular many-seeded capsules—Rondeletiæ and Cinchoneæ.

1676. Third order. C. axonales. Rubiaceæ with fruits—Guettardidæ, Hameliæ, Gardeniæ.

1677. Fourth order. C. florales. Quadripetalar Perigynæ, with similar capsules or berries—Epacrideæ, Vacciniaceæ, Ericaceæ.

1678. Fifth order, C. fructuariæ. Quaternary Perigynes with fruits—Myrobalaneæ, Olacineæ, Diospyroideæ and Sapoteæ. (For the arrangement of their families vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS IX.

Leaf-plants.

1679. Herbs having broad leaves, quinary hypogynous corollæ, and bilocular capsule. Here the whole stem has become leaf; all the parts are soft; they are herbs in the propermost sense of the word.

1680. Here belong the hypogynous Monopetalæ: Primulaceæ, Personatæ, Solaneæ, Gentianeæ, Asclepiadæ, Cariceæ, Asperifoliæ, Sambuceæ. The roots are fibrous; the stalk herbaceous, being wholly covered, and that indeed with large leaves; calyx and corolla quinquepartite, frequently bilabiate; the germen a bilocular membranous capsule, which seldom becomes fleshy, and contains few seeds. It is these plants which serve chiefly as food for cattle, and whose whole trunk is officinally known under the name of herbage; relations which express the leafy character.

1681. First order, Foliariæ parenchymatosæ. Herbs with bilocular capsules, in which there are many seeds placed upon a median cone. The capsule dehisces, while both carpels separate from each other—Primulaceæ, Scrophulariæ, Solaneæ.

1682. Second order, F. vaginatæ. For the most part herbaceous, their many-seeded carpels springing open at the dorsal suture—Orobanchaceæ, Rhinanthaceæ, and Bignoniaceæ.

1683. Third order, F. axonales. Regular quinary corollæ with seeds borne upon the margins of the two carpellar valves—Gentianaceæ, Asclepiadaceæ, Jasmineæ.

1684. Fourth order, F. florales. Few seeds in one capsule; the pistil becomes nut-like or trilocular—Labiatæ, Polemoniaceæ, Convolvulaceæ.

1685. Fifth order, F. fructuariæ. Herbs and shrubs with fruits; as nuts, plums and berries. For their sixteen families (vid. Tab. B.)

B. BLOSSOM-PLANTS.

1686. Flowers polypetalous.

SECOND CIRCLE.

Flower-plants.

1687. Calyx, corolla, stamina and ovarium perfectly separated from each other—Pedunculate corollæ, Stielblumen or Hypogynes. The blossom must be here developed in the most perfect manner; i. e. all its parts must be complete and separated from each other. This is the case only in the hypogynous Polypetalæ.

1688. The lowest organized kinds must, from being a repetition of them, remind us of the grasses and Syngenesia. They are therefore polycarpellar or multi-ovarial.—Ranunculaceæ, Malvaceæ, Magnoliaceæ.

1689. Unto these are allied those plants whose ovaria consist of several carpels, but that are connate with each other, and mutually separate for the first time with their maturation or decay, as in the Rutaceæ, Polygaleæ, Malvaceæ, Aurantiacæ, Platanaceæ, Malpighieæ, Sapindeæ.

1690. The highest are characterized by coalition of the carpels into a single ovarium with stunted dissepiments, and by corollæ that are well developed and distinguished for colour, delicacy, and magnitude—Carnations, Violets, Cistaceæ, Siliquosæ, Poppies, Gamboge-trees.

CLASS X.

Seed-plants.

1691. Plants having a preponderance of seed, that draws after it all the floral parts.

1692. The ovaria have become seed-like, have separated from each other, and inclose for the most part only a single seed.

1693. As in the grasses and Syngenesia many flowers are collected into a spike or upon a receptacle, so here are many carpels in a single corolla—Ranunculaceæ, Geraniaceæ, Tiliaceæ, Malvaceæ, Magnoliaceæ.

1694. The stamina are usually of indefinite number, and mostly connate.

1695. All forms of stalks are here met with; such as herbs, bushes, shrubs, and trees. All forms also of leaves; spathose leaves, petiolated leaves, simple and divided, yet rarely pinnated.

1696. The component parts are usually mucilage, as in the roots of the Syngenesia.

1697. They divide into two great groups, into the quinary and sexanary. Since among the quinary, herbaceous stalks with nodes and spathe-leaves, but capsules only, occur; they must be arranged in the lowest rank. The sexanary bear fruits.

1698. First order, Seminariæ parenchymatosæ. Herbs with nodes and spathose leaves, together with numerous, mostly one-seeded, carpels, attached in an irregular manner to a median columella—Ranunculaceæ and Geraniaceæ.

1699. Second order, S. vaginatæ. Trees having many-seeded carpels, coalesced like the style, Theaceæ, Tiliaceæ, Elæocarpaceæ.

1700. Third order, S. axonales. Bushes and shrubs with free, mostly simple, leaves, ovaria, mostly one-seeded, and arranged in a circle around the mediate axis or columella; anthers bilocular—Hermanniaceæ, Dombeyaceæ, Sterculiaceæ, and Büttneriaceæ.

1701. Fourth order, S. florales. For the most part trees, having frequently divided leaves and similar ovaria, yet mostly many-seeded and connate—Malvaceæ and Bombaceæ.

1702. Fifth order, S. fructuariæ. Corollæ mostly sexanary, ovaria in a circle without a columella—Magnoliaceæ, Menispermaceæ, Dilleniaceæ, Anonaceæ. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS XI.

Ovarium-plants.

1703. Hypogynous Polypetalæ with perfect multilocular ovarium—Polygaleæ, Melieæ, Aurantiaceæ, Platanaceæ, Malpighieæ, Sapindeæ.

1704. While in the preceding class the number of the carpels was usually indeterminate; it is here limited to three and five. In the one, they usually stood around a middle columella or axis, in the other, they form a true capsule with perfect partition-walls or septa, and a single style. The number of the seeds is moderate, i. e. there are more than one, but they are easily counted. They are therefore of mediate size, having no kernels, as is the case in the nuts, but also no granules, as in the berries or poppy capsules. In the preceding class the fruits were rare; here they occur frequently in the upper orders. The number of the floral parts is, throughout the present class, five, that of the stamina five or ten, and they are seldom coalesced; the stalk also passes through all the stages of development from that of the herb through the shrub into the tree. The leaves are seldom spathe-like, but frequently coriaceous and aciculate, as in their predecessors the Heaths; many are pinnated.

1705. First order, Capsulariæ parenchymatosæ—Rutaceæ. Herbs and shrubs frequently provided with aciculate and coriaceous leaves; corollæ regular with ten stamina; ovarium consisting of five carpels, which separate when ripe, and contain few seeds—Rutaceæ, Diosmaceæ.

1706. Second order, C. vaginatæ. Shrubs and trees with similar corollæ and ovaria, which are nevertheless frequently separated and fleshy—Quassiaceæ, Ochnaceæ.

1707. Third order, C. axonales. Mostly shrubs and trees with irregular corollæ and bilocular ovarium—Polygalaceæ, Vochysieæ, Pittosporeæ.

1708. Fourth order, C. florales. Trees with a woody or berry-like ovarium, having several cells—Cedreleæ, Melieæ, Aurantiaceæ.

1709. Fifth order, C. fructuariæ. Trees; flowers quinary, ovarium mostly ternary, becoming a winged or fleshy fruit. (Their sixteen families probably pursue the order indicated at Tab. B.)

CLASS XII.

Corolla-plants.

1710. Corollæ stipaceous, having free stamina; ovaria with stunted septa, and numerous marginal seeds—Carnations, Violets, Cistaceæ, Siliquosæ, Papaveraceæ, Guttiferæ.

1711. The stalk passes through all the stages of formation, from the nodose herb unto the shrub and tree. The leaves occur likewise under all forms, modes, division, and arrangement. The plants of this class are found in all climates, and yield etherial or volatile and fatty oil with resins. They divide first of all into quinary and quaternary; the former being mostly herbs with a hollow capsule; the latter herbs, shrubs, and trees, with siliquæ or berries.

1712. Their strength or virtue resides in the flower, which, is therefore of large size, beautifully coloured, sweet-scented, is frequently appreciated and adopted as an ornament. On the contrary, the ovarium and seed are stunted. The former is a siliqua or hollow capsule, which therefore supports the numerous smaller seeds on the septum.

1713. First order, Corollariæ parenchymatosæ. Nodose herbs with spathose leaves, quinary corollæ, and ten stamina; many seeds upon a columellar or median placenta situated within a hollow capsule—Portulaceæ, Carnations.

1714. Second order, C. vaginatæ. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, with similar but mostly multi-staminal corollæ, and seeds on the capsular septa—Droseraceæ, Hypericineæ, Violaceæ, Cistaceæ, and Bixeæ.

1715. Third order, C. axonales. Herbs with quaternary corollæ and a siliqua—Siliquosæ.

1716. Fourth order, C. florales. Bushes and shrubs with quaternary corollæ and numerous stamina; ovarium a siliqua or multi-valvular hollow capsule—Capparidæ, Berberideæ, Papaveraceæ.

1717. Fifth order, C. fructuariæ. Trees with quaternary and quinary corollæ, numerous stamina, and a fruit—Guttiferæ. They divide into the usual sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

THIRD CIRCLE.

Fruit-plants—Apetalæ, Perigynes.

1718. Stunted calycine corollæ, with nuts, plums, berries, or apples.

1719. They are perigynous Polypetalæ, and include the Apetalæ and Diclines.

1720. The nut consists of a large seed, connate with the woody ovarium, and frequently with the calyx.

1721. The plum is a legumen, between the coats of which fleshy matter has accumulated, and whose internal tunic or endocarp has become woody. The berry is a many-seeded hollow capsule, which, as well as the calyx, has become soft and succulent.

1722. The apple is an ovarium surrounded by a fleshy calyx.

CLASS XIII.

Nut-plants—Apetalæ, Diclines.

1723. Ovarium woody, and inclosing only one seed. Here belong the Apetalous and Diclinous Exogens.

1724. These plants repeat the fungi, grasses and Syngenesia, and have therefore imperfect corollæ, the calyx of which has alone remained, and usually closely surrounds the nut.

1725. The stalk is indeed usually woody; yet is still found to be also herbaceous and nodose with spathiform leaves. The leaves are simple, frequently needle-shaped or else arrested. The principal ingredients are starch, as in the Gramineæ and Syngenesia.

1726. The inflorescence is mostly amentaceous, as in the Agarics, Grasses and Syngenesia.

1727. They divide into androgynous and diœcious plants.

1728. First order, Nucariæ parenchymatosæ. Hermaphrodite herbs with nodes and spathose leaves, calyx green, superior, and quinquepartite with five opposite stamina; nut mostly triangular and utricular.

1729. Second order, N. vaginatæ. Form of vegetation pretty nearly as in preceding order, but the calyx is corolla-like, and the stamina mostly alternate—Phytolacceæ, Illecebreæ.

1730. Third order, N. axonales. Hermaphrodite, calyx corolla-like, superior and wholly quaternary; herbs and shrubs bearing nuts and plums—Nyctagineæ, Daphneæ, and Santalaceæ.

1731. Fourth order, N. florales. Trees, calyx corolla-like but inferior; capsules, plums and berries—Proteaceæ.

1732. Fifth order, N. fructuariæ. Diclines; herbs, shrubs and trees without corollæ, but with nuts or plums. (Their sixteen families stand in the order exhibited at Tab. B.)

CLASS XIV.

Plum-plants—Papilionaceæ.

1733. Polypetalous calycine corollæ, with a drupe or its fundamental form, the legumen. Here belong the papilionaceous plants, Rhamnaceæ and Terebinthaceæ.

1734. The stalk is frequently herbaceous with nodes; but mostly fruticose and arborescent.

1735. The leaves here attain their highest development, and are mostly pinnated, sometimes endowed with the power of independent motion.

1736. The corollæ are mostly irregular, quinary, arranged like pinnate leaves, with ten, rarely more, connate and free stamina.

1737. The ovarium is a single carpel, owing to the four others being arrested; it is usually compressed and bivalved, with few seeds; it is a legumen, frequently converted into a fleshy fruit.

1738. The Papilionaceæ are so rich in number that they include all the orders of the trunk, and even transcend or exceed its limits; their allied families are the Rhamnaceæ and Terebinthaceæ with fleshy fruits.

1739. First order, Drupariæ parenchymatosæ. Papilionaceæ with herbaceous, nodose stalk and pinnated leaves; corolla-petals and single stamen free; seed-lobes thin—Hedysareæ, Astragaleæ, Glycineæ.

1740. Second order, D. vaginatæ. Herbs and shrubs with ternary or tendrilless leaves; the corolla-petals or stamina frequently confluent—Trifoliaceæ, Genisteæ, Galegeæ.

1741. Third order, D. axonales. Bushes, shrubs, or trees, frequently training with pinnate leaves and tendrils; calyx large, seed-lobes thick—Vicieæ, Beans, Dalbergiæ.

1742. Fourth order, D. florales. Shrubs and trees, with tolerably regular flowers and separated stamina; legumens with frequently transverse septa, embryo straight—Geoffroyæ, Swartzieæ, Detarium, Mimosæ, and Cassiæ.

1743. Fifth order, D. fructuariæ. Regular flowers with separate stamina and multilocular plums—Stackhouseæ, Empetreæ, Celastrineæ, Rhamneæ, and Terebintheæ. (For their sixteen families vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS XV.

Berry-plants—Umbelliferæ, &c.

1744. Ovarial and calycine corolla with a single perfectly soft fruit or berry, on which are five corolla-petals, with a moderate number of stamina. This fruit is wholly edible, and has only one or two styles; stalk and leaves pass through all the stages of formation.

1745. They divide first of all into two groups, having few or many stamina; of these the fruit of one is dry, of the other fleshy. The dry fruits are also perfectly edible, as the Caraway-seeds.

1746. First order, Baccariæ parenchymatosæ. Epigynous; nodose herbs with two seeds in the calyx; only five stamina—Umbellatæ.

1747. Second order, B. vaginatæ. Mostly shrubs with quinary corollæ and bi-or quinquelocular berries—Mistletoes, Elders, Araliaceæ, Vines.

1748. Third order, B. axonales. Bushes and shrubs with quaternary corollæ, only one style and one multilocular many-seeded capsule—Epilobeæ, Salicariæ.

1749. Fourth order, B. florales. Mostly shrubs with quinary corollæ and manifold stamina; capsule or berry multilocular—Melastomaceæ.

1750. Fifth order, B. fructuariæ. Trees with many, frequently fasciculated, stamina; fruit multilocular and many-seeded—Myrtaceæ. These plants likewise divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)

CLASS XVI.

Apple-plants—Rosaceæ.

1751. The fruit is an apple, i. e. several carpels, containing but few seeds, adhere in one calyx, upon which there are five corolla-petals, with four to six times as many stamina. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with different kinds of leaves are here met with; the corollæ are mostly small and perigynous, the style separated, and thus polycarpal. Perigynous Polycarpæ. They grow, dispersed over the whole earth, in dry situations; several of them yield edible fruits, and are pretty generally cultivated.

1752. The apples are without doubt the most perfect fruit, as well in reference to their structure as their chemical ingredients. The apple consists of all the parts of the blossom: seed, capsule, and fleshy calyx, and is besides polycarpellar, i. e. composed of separate carpels. Its edible substance or flesh is not simply a sweet-meat, but a true aliment, which admits of being eaten after it has been kept fresh for a year, of being dried, exported, or cooked as a kitchen vegetable; in cases of exigency too it occurs in such abundance that the whole human race might live upon it, which cannot be said of any other fruit. The apple quenches at the same time the thirst, and thus supplies also the place of drink. All the other fruits are either a dainty relish only against thirst, or a simple amylaceous medium of nutrition. However, most of the plants belonging to this class produce only dry capsules and calyces.

1753. They divide into two groups, having few or many stamina.

First order, Pomariæ parenchymatosæ. Herbs with few stamina and five or more carpels, as the Crassulaceæ and Mesembryanthemaceæ.

Second order, P. vaginatæ. Shrubs with few stamina, only two to three carpels and few seeds.—Tamaricaceæ, Bruniaceæ.

VEGETABLE SYSTEM Table B

FIRST PROVINCE. HISTOPHYTA—ACOTYLEDONES.

CLASS I.CLASS II.CLASS III.

Cellulares.Vasculares.Tracheales

ORGANS.Fungi.Mosses.Ferns.

Ord. I. Parenchyma.Roste.Schleim-Moose.Wasser-Farren.

F. 1. Cells. Entophyta. Diatomaceæ. Marsileaceæ.

2. Ducts. Epiphyta. Nostochineæ. Pilulariæ.

3. Tracheæ. Tuberculariæ. Batrachospermeæ. Equisetaceæ.

O. II.Sheaths.Schimmel.Wasserfäden.Kugelfarren.

F. 4. Bark. Mucorini. Confervaceæ. Lycopodiaceæ.

5. Liber. Mucedines. Ulvaceæ. Ophioglosseæ.

6. Wood. Byssaceæ. Leptomiteæ. Danæaceæ.

O. III. .Axis.Balgpilze.Fuci.Ringfarren.

F. 7. Root. Trichodermaceæ. Cerameæ. Parkereæ.

8. Stalk. Trichiaceæ. Floridæ. Cyatheæ.

9. Leaves. Lycopodineæ. Fucoideæ. Polypodiaceæ.

O. IV.Blossom.Kernpilze.Lichens.Fluvialen.

F. 10. Seed. Cytisporeæ. Coniothalameæ. Naiadeæ.

11. Ovarium. Phacidiaceæ. Gasterothalameæ. Podostemeæ.

12. Corolla. Sphæriaceæ. Hymenothalameæ. Ceratophylleæ.

O. V.Fruit.Fleischpilze.Mosses.Nadelholz.

F. 13. Nut. Tremellini. Marchantiaceæ. Abieteæ.

14. Plum. Cupulati. Ricciaceæ. Taxaceæ.

15. Berry. Clavati. Jungermanniaceæ. Cupresseæ.

16. Apple. Pileati. Bryaceæ. Cycadeæ.

SECOND PROVINCE. THECOPHYTA—MONOCOTYLEDONES.

CLASS IV.CLASS V.CLASS VI.

ORGANS.CorticalesLiber-plants.Wood-plants.

Gramineæ.Liliaceæ.Palmaceæ.

Ord. I. Parenchyma.Spiked Grasses.Staub-Orchiden.Rohrkolben.

F. 1. Cells. Secale. Neottiæ. Cynomoria.

2. Ducts. Phleum. Arethuseæ. Typhaceæ.

3. Tracheæ. Festuca. Ophrydeæ. Aroideæ.

O. II.Sheaths.Panicled Grasses.Granular Orchideæ.Piperaceæ.

F. 4. Bark. Bulrushes. Malaxides. Saurureæ.

5. Liber. Milium. Epidendra. Piperaceæ.

6. Wood. Arundinaceæ. Vanillæ. Pandanac.

O. III.Axis.Reed-Grasses.Aromatic plants.Sassaparillæ.

F. 7. Root. Sedges. Amomeæ. Dioscoreæ.

8. Stalk. Junceæ. Canneæ. Smilaceæ.

9. Leaves. Ruscus. Musaceæ. Parideæ.

O. IV.Blossom.Juncineæ.Schwerdel.Asparagoidæ.

F. 10. Seed. Restiaceæ. Hæmodoraceæ. Asparagoidæ.

11. Ovarium. Serpeæ. Irideæ. Convallariæ.

12. Corolla. Commelyneæ. Narcissi. Bromeliæ.

O. V.Fruit.Seeroseæ.Liliaceæ.Palms.

F. 13. Nut. Alismaceæ. Colchicaceæ. Calamariæ.

14. Plum. Hydrocharideæ. Asphodeleæ. Cocoeæ.

15. Berry. Hydropeltideæ. Alliaceæ. Phœniceæ.

16. Apple. Nymphæacæ. Tulipaceæ. Borasseæ.

THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA—DICOTYLEDONES.

Circle I. Stem-plants—Monopetalæ.

CLASS VII.CLASS VIII.CLASS IX.

Root-plants.Stalk-plants.Leaf-plants.

Epigynæ.Perigynæ.Hypogynæ.

Root-leaved. Stellatæ. Personatæ.

Cichoraceæ. Galiaceæ. Primulaceæ.

Carduraceæ. Spermacocidæ. Scrophulariæ.

Mutisiæ. Coffeaceæ. Solanaceæ.

Opposite-leaved.Cinchonaceæ.Bignoniaceæ.

Eupatorium? Hedyotidæ. Orobancheæ.

Helianthus. Rondeletiæ. Rhinantheæ.

Silphieæ. Cinchoneæ. Bignoniæ.

Alternifoliar.Hameliaceæ.Contortæ.

Senecionidæ.Guettardidæ.Gentianeæ.

Astereæ.Hameliæ.Asclepiadeæ.

Vernoniæ.Gardeniæ.Jasmineæ.

Aggregatæ.Ericaceæ.Tetraspermeæ.

Scabiosæ. Epacrideæ. Labiatæ.

Lobeliæ. Myrtilli. Polemoniaceæ.

Campanulæ. Heaths. Convolvulaceæ.

Sicuonoidæ.Diospyraceæ.Pyrenaceæ.

Asaridæ. Myrobalaneæ. Asperifoliæ.

Loaseæ. Olacineæ. Verbenaceæ.

Passifloreæ. Diospyros. Sambuceæ.

Cucurbitaceæ. Sapotæ. Myrsineæ.

THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA—DICOTYLEDONES.

Circle II. Flower-plants—Hypogynous Polypetalæ.

CLASS X.CLASS XI.CLASS XII.

Seed-plants.Ovarium-plants.Corolla-plants.

Polycarpæ.Capsuliferæ.Siliquosæ.

Ranunculaceæ.Rutaceæ.Caryophyllaceæ.

Ranunculi. Ruteæ. Portulaceæ.

Helleboreæ. Diosmeæ. Spergula.

Geraniaceæ. Zygophylleæ. Carnations.

Tiliaceæ.Ochnaceæ.Violaceæ.

Theaceæ. Xanthoxyleæ. Droseraceæ.

Lime-trees. Ochneæ. Violets.

Elæocarpeæ. Quassieæ. Cistaceæ.

Sterculiaceæ.Polygalaceæ.Cruciferæ.

Hermanneæ. Polygaleæ. Radishes.

Dombeyaceæ. Vochysieæ. Cresses.

Sterculeæ. Pittosporeæ. Cabbages.

Malvaceæ.Meliaceæ.Papaveraceæ.

Malveæ. Cedreleæ. Capers.

Hibisceæ. Melieæ. Berberideæ.

Bombaceæ. Aurantiaceæ. Poppies.

Magnoliaceæ.Malpighiaceæ.Guttiferæ.

Magnolieæ. Platanaceæ. Dipterocarpeæ.

Menispermeæ. Malpighieæ. Calophylleæ.

Dilleneæ. Hippocrateæ. Marcgraviaceæ.

Anoneæ. Sapindeæ. Garcinieæ.

THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA—DICOTYLEDONES.

Circle III. Fruit-plants—Apetalæ and perigynous Polypetalæ

CLASS XIIICLASS XIVCLASS XVCLASS XVI

Nut-plantsPlum-plantsBerry-plantsApple-plants

Nucariæ.Drupaceæ.Baccariæ.Pomaceæ.

Oleraceæ.Astragalaceæ.Umbellatæ.Sempervivæ.

Sclerantheæ. Hedysareæ. Saniculidæ. Galacineæ.

Atriplices. Astragaleæ. Carrots. Crassulaceæ.

Amaranths. Glycineæ. Caraways. Mesembryanthemeæ.

Polygonaceæ.Trifoliaceæ.Caprifoliaceæ.Tamariscineæ.

Plantains. Trifolieæ. Mistletoes. Tamarisks.

Phytolacceæ. Genisteæ. Sambuceæ. Buniaceæ.

Illecebreæ. Galegeæ. Vines. Hamamelideæ.

Thymelaceæ.Phaseolaceæ.Lythraceæ.Saxifrageæ.

Nyctagineæ. Vetches. Trapeæ. Saxifrages.

Daphnoideæ. Dalbergieæ. Epilobeæ. Cunoniaceæ.

Santalaceæ. Sophoreæ. Salicariæ. Lilacs.

Lauraceæ.Mimosaceæ.Melastomaceæ.Rosaceæ.

Proteaceæ. Detarieæ. Rhexieæ. Potentillæ.

Aquilarineæ. Mimoseæ. Melastomeæ. Neuradeæ.

Laurels. Cassieæ. Grossularieæ. Sanguisorbeæ.

Diclinisten.Terebinthaceæ.Myrtaceæ.Fruit-trees.

Amentaceæ. Empetreæ. Lecythideæ. Pomegranates.

Nettles. Celastrineæ. Barringtonieæ. Plums.

Artocarpeæ. Rhamneæ. Leptospermeæ. Medlars.

Euphorbicæ. Terebiatheæ. Myrteæ. Apples.

Third order, P. axonales. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, with similar blossoms, but many seeds.—Saxifrageæ, Cunoniaceæ, Hortensiæ and Lilacs.

Fourth order, P. florales. Herbs and shrubs, with many stamina and follicles.—Rosaceæ.

Fifth order, P. fructuariæ. Trees with multistaminal-corollæ and fleshy fruits.—Monimieæ, Pomegranates, Plums, Medlars, Apples. (For their sixteen families vid. Tab. B.)

1754. In order to prove that each class of vegetables commences from below, and that all ascend in a parallel series beside each other, it is requisite only to place them in a tabular form. Further details upon this subject are to be found in my earlier works upon Natural History. The adjoining Table may here suffice. I place the families according to my "Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte," although I am very well aware that all do not stand in the right place. That indeed no one will expect.

THIRD KINGDOM. ANIMAL KINGDOM.

1755. The animal kingdom is the individual development of all four elements.

ZOOSOPHY,

1756. Is the development of the animal kingdom in consciousness. The repetition of the animal creation is spiritually divisible into Anatomy (Zoogeny), Physiology (Zoonomy), and Zoology.

I.—ZOOGENY.

1757. Zoogeny represents the idea of the animal or the developmental history of the individual animal.

IRRITABILITY OF THE BLOSSOM.

1758. The Highest to which the vegetable kingdom could attain was the blossom; and of this the sexual parts are the completion. At the instant when the sex originated, the vegetable functions became of a nobler character; for the sexual organs are only the inferior organs refined or purified by light. The electrical and chemical process of the vegetable body are again represented, but in a spiritual manner, in the blossom. The functions of the fruit were none other than those of the elevated chemism; they were only the nobler processes of digestion and nutrition. As their purest expression of life, and that which has been produced simply by their co-operation, is the motion which resides in cellular tissue, so also was it this only, which obtained a preponderance in the fruit, and that indeed at the cost of the material processes. The germen obtained a kind of motion; yet this appears to be still imparted by material processes. In the corolla, however, this expression of life attained to completion. It is no longer simple nutrition or accumulation of sap that moves the stamina upon the female stigma, but a purely polar act; the Immaterial, the Spiritual produces the phenomena of life. These movements of copulation are by no means a coalescence, are not a nutritive act, nor the result of mechanical decissation, as is the case in many capsules; but true elevated vital actions. The parts reassume after the motion their first or original position, a feat which is performed by no capsule upon its dehiscence. Of these movements, those of the leaves in the sensitive plants, e. g. Hedysarum gyrans, are the antetypes or prefigurations. There consequently originates with the highest development of the light-organs in the plant, a motion independent of the material processes, and of the terrestrial elements.

1759. A motion, that is liberated from the terrestrial elements, is free from their mechanism; it simply obeys the nature of the æther, which is of a spiritual, or voluntary, kind.

1760. The essence of volition or free-will does not reside, in a physical sense, in the consciousness of the action, but in the autocrasy; or in the ability to perform an action, without external or terrestrial influence. The æther-actions have originated from special polarity. Independent movements must therefore be such as have been produced simply by polarity, apart from material intrusion.

1761. The ability or power upon the part of organic bodies to apprehend polar excitation, to move themselves simply by its means, and again to restore themselves to their former state, without regard being paid to a material process, I call Irritability. That organ is irritable which can move itself without any other object than that of automacy or self-motion.

1762. Irritability belongs to the plant, but is only of that kind where the perception cannot express itself otherwise than by direct motion. In the sexual parts and probably in the highest leaf-formation, the plant is elevated to irritability; unto motion through simple perception, unto motion without design, to motion from mere lust or desire. The highest spiritual operation, of which the plant is capable, is irritability. But as everything which has attained its Highest, stands at the end of its development, so also has the plant terminated, when it has once exercised its power of irritability through copulation.

SEXUAL MOTION.

1763. All the irritable motion of the vegetable may be confined or reduced to the movements of the stamen-filaments, the other movements being merely precursors of these. What, therefore, the stamina would achieve by their motion, that the irritability does in a general point of view. The motion of the stamina is directed merely upon the stigma, in order to impart the male pollen to the female body; and thus, simply to evoke the spiritual tension, which resides originally in the male semen, as in light-æther from the dead mass, but that originally dwells in the female seed as in the dark mass of earth.

1764. Now, since the stigma bears simply relation to the contents of the ovary, and conveys everything to this, and thus, to a female utricle, which is the middle of the plant, or its body proper; so in the motion of the male organs, the conatus or effort upon their part to introduce an elemental matter, or rather its spirit into this utricle, or this body, is rendered manifest or revealed. The highest Spiritual of the plant is accordingly not a mere motion in the general sense; but one that is definite and wholly special—a motion of Ingestion. The direction or design of the first independent motion is therefore Ingestion; this again not being of a general, but a wholly definite import, namely, an ingestion of the male organ into the female.

1765. The Male is, however, characterized by its self-substantial polarity, and by its self-intrinsic life; the Female by the want of polarity, by a heterodependent life. The act of ingestion thus depends upon polarization, upon evocation and maintenance of an independent life. The fruit is vivified by impregnation, ay, for the first time then obtains life; the female becomes self-active through the vital spirit received from the male; the body is kept alive by, and only by, ingestion. The act of ingestion is the act that tends unto the self-substantial, independent life.

1766. The blossom dies, so soon as, by ingestion, it has attained this independent life. If we assume that it could not die, but retain the life that was momentarily won for several instants; then this would happen only by repetition of the first act, whereby it had obtained in an instant a self-substantial life; and thus by repetition of the ingestion. By ceaseless ingestion only can the blossom gain a lasting, self-substantial life of motion.

1767. But such a blossom, when self-dependently subsisting, could not continue in further union with the vegetable stock or trunk, for this is no longer requisite for its life's support; through the first act of vivification, through the once sprinkled pollen, it virtually becomes detached and falls as fruit to the ground; as a fruit certainly, or as a female body, unto which is wanting the continued excitation produced by the male coition. A fruit thus detached or fallen off, and retaining the male filaments, which ceaselessly exercise the function of ingestion, will be of necessity engaged in constant motion; will be a blossom, that incessantly practises copulation.

1768. As in this blossom the motion of ingestion is that alone which sustains it, and nothing more can flow to it from a stem; so also will this blossom be occupied in constant motion; and it consequently comes to pass that the action, which broke forth at the last and instantaneously in the plant, being thus the highest or most individualized, is here the first, inferior, and most general action, or one that lies at the foundation of all other processes. The free blossom is naught but movement of ingestion.

1769. The blossom, however, concentrates in itself all the lower vegetable processes, is itself naught but the aggregate of such processes repeated in the body of the light; thus the blossom, having been set free, is a vesicle of ingestion endowed with all terrestrial functions.

ANIMAL FORMATION.

1770. The vegetable blossom loses its definition as plant, so soon as it has acquired self-substantial life; it loses its definition, because as blossom, it simply lives in light, while the plant must half dwell in darkness; it loses it, because the copulating motion can be frequently self-repeated.

1771. The self-moveable or automatic blossom has consequently passed over into a new kingdom, or into one whose very definition is the self-substantial motion.

1772. A blossom, which, when separated from the stem, maintains by its own motion the galvanic process or the life within itself, and gets its process of polarization, not from a body lying external to or coherent with it (as is the vegetable stem); but only from itself—such blossom is an Animal. An animal is blossom without stem or a flower, which of itself produces its stem, this being the reverse of what takes place in the plant. The essence of the animal consists in the maintenance through its own motion of the galvanic vital process. It has been already shown above, in speaking "quoad" the distinction of the organic essences, that the exclusive or only valid difference between plant and animal, was motion arising in the latter apart from any external stimulus. We have now been brought by quite another route to the same result.

1773. If the animal is the floral vesicle living from or by itself, it can no longer lie fettered like the plant between two elements; it must be nominally free from the chains of darkness, and thus from the earth. No animal is so joined by growth with the earth, that like as in a plant this should be a co-operating pole in its processes. No animal must co-exist in two elements like the plant, but it has all elements in itself, like the blossom includes all vegetable parts. It may be said that the plant has been immersed in the earth, water, and air; these three elements having, on the contrary, been immersed in the animal. The animal is in respect to them the continent, the planet; they, however, are the continent in respect to the plant. Thus the relations to the world are completely reversed in both.

1774. An animal is a floral vesicle freely separated from the earth, and living alone through its own motion in the water and air. And here it is not locomotion that is treated of, since this by no means belongs to the animal's essence. Yet on this account the poor oyster was formerly adduced as an argument against this animal character, but unjustly; for would a man frozen up in an ice-block lose his character as an animal? The oyster opens its shell and shuts it too, as well as the crocodile opens and shuts its jaws.

ANIMAL SIGNIFICATION.

We will now proceed to knit or associate with this genetic or physiological, the physio-philosophical mode of development.

1775. Every Organic originates from a mucus-point. If this mucus-point occur in the darkness, it thus becomes a terrestrial organism, a plant; if it enter into the light, which is only possible in the water and in air, it thus becomes a solar organism, independent of the planet, self-moving around itself like the sun, an animal.

1776. An animal is a light-mucus-vesicle, a plant, so far as the root is concerned, a darkness-mucus-vesicle; but it works its way unto air and light, and becomes a light-mucus-vesicle in the blossom.

1777. A free blossom is consequently to be philosophically regarded as equivalent to the primary mucus-vesicle, which has at once developed itself in the water. Now, such an aqueo-mucus-vesicle is directly that which the blossom can first become through a series of developments, and by divestures of the Dark.

1778. The plant is an animal retarded by the darkness; the animal is a plant blooming directly through the light, and devoid of root.

1779. The animal has been posited as a light-or æther-Total upon the planet; the vegetable as a planetary Total in light.

1780. The animal is a whole solar system, the plant only a planet. The animal is therefore a whole universe, the plant only its half; the former is microcosm, the latter microplanet.

ANIMAL PLACE.

1781. No animal can become developed beneath the earth, or where it is absolutely dark and dry. None simply or solely in air. Water is the origin or source of all animals.

1782. They have originated upon the sea-shore, but not in the midst of the sea, nor in that of the land. The deluge cast up the first men. They were littoral inhabitants, and without doubt carnivorous, as savages still are. For whence could they have obtained also fruits, cabbage, and turnips?

SENSATION.

1783. In so far as the animal vesicle is a whole solar system, to it, the characters that transcend the plant, such as motion, belong.

1784. But motion is not that alone which is displayed in the floral cyst when it has become solar; but with it there is yet something higher bestowed.

1785. Like light or sun the vesicle has the principle of its polarization or determination in itself; and it is certainly itself which moves its organs in conformity with this self-determination; but it is withal in antagonism towards the elements, like the sun is towards the planets. Through this antagonism the sun is destined unto the development of light. Although the light is its own product, still it perceives the object toward which the æther-polarity is directed. This perception of the direction, whither motion should act by means of the central polarity, is in the animal called Sensation.

1786. Sensation is the relation of the Central to the Peripheric, of the sun to the planet; motion is the relation of the periphery to the centre, of the planet to the sun. The Animal emerges into being from the alternating play of the supremest antagonism in the heavenly bodies, the Vegetable from that of the terrestrial antagonisms.

1787. Emission of light is discharging or unloading of the sun achieved by the influence of the planets; sensation is unloading of the animal by objects, by the world, and by its own organs.

1788. Sensation is therefore a positing of want in the animal. Through sensation nothing comes into, but rather something passes out of us.

1789. The animal vesicle is a sentient or feeling blossom.

SEXUAL ANIMAL.

1790. As the essence of the blossom consists in the sex, so indeed is the blossom none other than the sexual system; thus it may be said that the animal vesicle is none other than a sentient Sexual cyst. This discovery is of the highest importance for the whole of zoosophy.

1791. Two fundamental properties are originally combined in the animal, at the very instant when an animal can exist. There is never one without the other, never simply sensation, but also motion; but the latter is not simply this, but is at once also a movement of copulation. The animal is a sentient genital.

1792. Both fundamental properties are however subordinated to each other. The basis of the animal organism is the sexual system; with this the animal commences; what is further developed in addition thereunto, is only higher completion. But what it, as sexual system, does, it does only through sensation.

1793. It is natural that the animal has not been concluded with the sentient sexual system; but that the terrestrial processes also are developed like as in the plant, and perfected indeed more individually than in the latter. The main distinction is, however, this; that these processes have preceded in the plant, and the sexual system grown out of them; in the animal, on the other hand, the sexual system is the foundation, the root, out of which these processes grow forth. The first and simplest animal vesicle is a sexual cyst, a matrix or womb.

SENSITIVE ANIMAL.

1794. The animal is a twofold representation of the organization, being at one time the planetary, and at one time the solar. There is a planetary animal and a solar animal in the higher organism. The planetary animal is the plant in the animal, the galvanic animal; the solar animal is the sentient, the light-or æther-animal.

1795. The highest completion of the vegetable animal is in the blossom. There is thus a sexual or Sex's animal and a sensitive or Sensation's animal.

1796. The completed animal consists of two animals, because it is at once planet and sun, plant and animal.

1797. The vegetable and the sensitive animal have been formed parallel to each other, yet in such a manner that the former being the lowest, contains only the dispositions unto the highest. There are consequently vegetative and animal organs, which take a parallel range. The animal grows upon a vegetable body. It may be aptly said, that the root of the plant becomes the mouth or head of the animal, the stem the trunk or visceral body, the blossom the sexual parts. The three parts therefore of the animal body, and the antagonism therefore of the head with the sexual parts, unite through the medium of the vegetable stem, or the visceral body.

ANIMAL ANATOMY.

1798. The parts of the animal body divide, as in the plant, into tissues, anatomical systems, and into organs proper or members. The tissues are the constituent parts of the systems, these of the organs, and all collectively, or associated, of the body.

I. Animal Tissues.

1799. These are the mathematical primary forms, whereof the animal body consists, and divide into the animal and vegetative fundamental forms.

A. ANIMAL FUNDAMENTAL FORMS.

1800. As animality is the representation of the three conditions of æther, and thus of the gravity, with light and heat or motion, so are three tissues to be met with, which correspond to these three forms. The light emerges from the centre; the gravity occupies the whole mass; the motion oscillates between the two. The organic light-mass will therefore, as sun, occupy the centre, the gravity-mass, like the planets, the periphery, the motion-mass, like the heat, the radii between the two. The primary form is, however, the primary vesicle. If, therefore, new tissues appear in the animal, they can thus be only metamorphoses of the vesicle. The vesicle, can only resolve itself into three forms; either its contents become self-substantial—Point; or in like manner the envelope—Line; or, finally, both become an uniform mass—Globe.

1. Point-tissue.

1801. We take up or commence the study of the animal substance, with the condition under which it has originated, that of a vesicle or sensitive blossom. The vegetable texture attained a form which was prescribed by the light. Now, as the animal vesicle is, in the first place, nothing else but a Sentient, so must the texture of the original animal vesicle be commensurate with this property.

1802. The highest perfection of the blossom was, however, resolution of the texture into the original form of vesicles or granules, a retroconduction of the organic mass to the primary condition, yet under the signification of light. The Highest of the blossom was an organized and designedly-prepared granular texture—pollen.

1803. Now a substance which absolves itself from the terrestrial forms, and would assume the form of the æther, and thus of that which is most discrete, can represent no other form than that of the point. The whole æther is an infinity of non-coherent atoms. This atomic formation, when metatyped or copied in a terrestrial mass, can be none other than a granular substance.

1804. The fundamental substance of the animal is point-substance; but, since the essence of the animal consists in its being a sensitive substance, so must it belong to the latter's essence, that it be atomic or punctiform. The point-texture is equivalent to the sensitive mass.

1805. It might be believed, that as the animal is a floral vesicle, the cystic or cell-form must also lie at its foundation; only, there is another relation beyond that which occurs in the plant. This animal cyst is an already organized cyst, an organ, no longer a component part of an anatomical system; this cystic form cannot, therefore, enter into the texture of the animal mass; yet meanwhile, as is natural, the sensitive mass admits of being reduced, but only as organic in a general sense, to the vesicular form. The lowest animals, such as the Infusoria, Polyps, Acalephæ, or sea-nettles, in short, all Protozoa or mucous animals consist of this point-substance, and are wholly sensitive mass.

Nervous Mass.

1806. The sensitive mass is called in higher animals, Nervous mass. The nervous texture is a conjoined series of mucus-granules, which have become albuminous in character. The nervous mass is the least organized; it has selected the primary forms, which have been preconstructed in æther, or the densely fluid solar matter. The Dominant of the terrestrial organs can have also no other form, than such as agrees with the Dominant or governing primary mass of the planetary system; or it can have none other, because at the instant when it exists, it is sentient. At the first instant of the origin of organic matter, it can, however, originate only as infinitely numerous points; at the termination of the plant, this mass would be displayed as a light-organ; being thus engendered as such, it must forsake the vegetable forms, and assume the universal form-susceptive primary form, which is the form of the point. The floral mass, the delicate petals of the corolla, the stamina and the pollen are to be deemed the first onset or advance that is made to nervous mass. The cellular tissue becomes delicate and gradually resolves itself into granules.

1807. Granular or point-mass is, however, an accumulation of centres. The nervous mass is therefore, in accordance with the conception of the Organic, a repeated, multiplied centre. The nervous mass has therefore a light-function, i. e. the gentlest polarization in the organism. Nervous mass is light-mass.

1808. The animal substance has commenced with the nervous mass; thus with that which is the highest, and which physiologists have deemed to be the ultimate mass. The origin of the animal is from the nerves, and all anatomical systems are only free evolutions or separations from the nervous mass. The animal is naught but nerve. What it is further or in addition, is obtained elsewhere, or is a metamorphosis of nerves. The mucus of the Infusoria, Polyps, and Acalephæ is nervous substance upon the lowest stage or degree, where the other substances that are therein involved and merged, have not as yet been perfected in an isolated manner.

1809. The nervous mass indicates the absolute Indifferent in an animal, and consequently that which is polarizable by the gentlest aura or breath.

Division of the Nervous Mass.

1810. The nervous mass behaves itself also in its production like the solar mass. As from this the planets have through antagonism on the periphery, emancipated themselves, so from the nervous mass have the anatomical systems, which are subservient unto lower purposes.

1811. The development of the animal organs is a constant division of the nervous mass, whereby it becomes more and more divested of their coarse coverings, and traverses the same like radiating æther, illuminant, heating, and moving æther. It is a positing of the centre in the periphery.

1812. When also the other systems have been formed out of the identical nervous mass, still the whole animal body is naught but nervous mass, only, in a crude or inert condition. There is, consequently, no point upon the body, on which the nervous phenomena are absolutely wanting, or where they may not appear under certain relations.

1813. What remains behind of the nervous mass, has now the form of filaments or rays, which are projected from one centre, the brain, to all parts of the periphery.

1814. The nerves being individualized, and withdrawn from the coarser mass, stand in need of no actio in distans, or no nervous atmosphere (although for other reasons such a one may exist), in order that every part of the body should have sensibility or feel; for every substance is verily but an aberrant nervous substance, in which the original spirit is still inherent or abides.

1815. Each part of the body has consequently irritability, and each one has the capacity for sensation; and that, indeed, through and in itself, or not borrowed from, what have been called, nerves; as it is indeed only the coarse nervous envelope of the more delicate nerves.

1816. Yet, meanwhile it is certain, that nothing feels but the nervous mass, because every thing, which feels, does, and hath the power to do so, only in so far as it has been nervous mass. Precisely as all metals are only magnetic in so far as they are metamorphosed iron, which is the primary metal.

1817. Certain formations or textures must, on that account, have different sensations, because they have deviated more or less remotely from the primary texture; without in this any regard being paid to the number of nerves running to such systems.

1818. The transformation of the nervous mass upon the periphery is chiefly imparted by oxydation, because here the oxygen of the water exerts a direct influence. The transformation does not, however, simply occur upon the periphery, but also internally, and that indeed in a beamy or radial direction. The external parts will be harder, the internal or radial continue soft, but be more solid than the nervous mass itself.

2. Globe-tissue.

1819. The nervous tissue alone cannot constitute the animal substance concerned in all functions, but it must with further development pass over into another. As the æther-mass cannot concentrate itself into the sun without, from the antagonism with the refraction of light, condensing into planets, so also a central mass cannot subsist in an animal, without converting itself on the periphery into one that is planetary or terrestrial.

1820. The antagonistic mass, originating in a peripheral relation in the nervous mass, will surround the residue of the latter like a bladder or cyst, just like the planetary masses, or the colours, have primordially surrounded the sun as great hollow globes. The aggregate and purer nervous mass becomes thus directly the central mass of the animal—the brain.

1821. The limitary mass originates through oxygenation. Thus the colours originate; they are an oxygenated light. Thus has every terrestrial mass originated through combustion. The planets are suns that have undergone combustion; the limitary mass is nervous mass similarly treated and deoxydized.

1822. As having been already subjected to combustion, it therefore becomes polarizable, and consequently susceptible of sensation in the least degree. The limitary mass must be rigid or fixed; for it has indeed originated through fixation of the poles, or through the strongest oxydation. The limitary mass is the most rigid in the whole animal; for it is the primary antagonism with the nervous mass, the ultimate planetary matter, which is characterized by immoveability of the atoms.

1823. The limitary mass must be typical of the earth-element, this being the most rigid, and the end of the oxydation. The limitary mass is the animal earth-mass, just as the median mass is the animal æther- or fire-mass.

1824. The texture of the animal earth-mass must be that of a crystal, but of a round globular crystal; for it is organic mass, and can consequently have been only deposited as vesicle; it is, however, earthy mass, so that the whole vesicle must be, with all its contents, rigidified. Now, the rigidified substance of a vesicle is a globe—the texture of the mass which is opposed to that of the nerves is consequently the globular form.

Osseous Mass.

1825. The rigidified limitary mass, which exhibits histologically dense globes, consists of earthy substance, and surrounds the nervous mass, is osseous mass. The osseous or bony texture is a solid globe or rigidified vesicle, being thus ambitus or boundary, as well as complexus or contents.

1826. Bone can only originate through oxydation of the animal mucous or nervous mass, whereby it is converted into a vesicular form. These vesicles are, however, by virtue of the highest oxydation, which must necessarily enter into antagonism with the highest central organ, converted wholly and thoroughly into rigid substance or earth, which is the maximum of the oxydation or fixation of æther.

1827. The osseous mass, as the organic earth-mass, corresponds to the gravity. It is the materiality in a general point of view in the Organic, and consequently the Inert.

1828. Osseous or limitary organs will become more rigid in the air than in water. The air-breathing animals must have more perfect bones or harder limitary organs.

1829. Bones are therefore either wanting completely in the aquatic animals, or they are mucus scarcely oxydized, in other words, cartilage; or finally, almost entirely rough carbonated earth, in the corals and shells.

1830. This theory is most beautifully proved in the corals. Internally they consist of granular substance, like the polyps, or of sentient nervous mass; externally they are simply earth or globular form, which is the rudest antagonism presented to the likewise rude central mass.

1831. Bone essentially surrounds the nervous mass. The skull environs and incloses the brain, the vertebræ the spinal cord, the ribs, the visceral nerves the snail's shell all the soft parts of that animal, the coral stem its polyp-tube, the horny coat the insect.

1832. The purest and highest antagonisms in an animal are nerve and bone, and as such they are demonstrated on every occasion. The nerve is that which is soft, powerless, changeable, sentient, governing, and motion-imparting; the bone, what is hard, strong, unchangeable, non-sentient, governed, and becoming moved; the one properly speaking the spiritually vitalizing, the other the spiritually dead, or self-subsistent simply in a mineral point of view. The bone is the obedient planet of the nerve.