Book 7 — CHAPTER 7

Geography of Jaisalmer.—The country still dependent on the Rawal extends between 70° 30´ and 72° 30´ E. long., and between the parallels of 26° 20´ and 27° 50´ N. lat., though a small strip protrudes, in the N.-E. angle, as high as 28° 30´. This irregular surface may be roughly estimated to contain fifteen thousand square miles.^[1] The number of towns, villages, and hamlets, 1245scattered over this wide space, does not exceed two hundred and fifty; some estimate it at three hundred, and others depress it to two hundred; the mean cannot be wide of the truth. To enable the reader to arrive at a conclusion as to the population of this region, we subjoin a calculation, from data furnished by the best-informed natives, which was made in the year 1815: but we must add, that from the tyranny of the minister, the population of the capital (which is nearly half of the country), has been greatly diminished.

Fiscal and Feudal. Number of Houses. Number of Inhabitants. Remarks.

Jaisalmer Capital 7,000 35,000

Bikampur Pattayat 500 2,000 The chief has the title of Rao, and twenty-four villages dependent, not included in this estimate.

Sirara Do. 300 1,200 Kelan Bhatti: the Kelan tribe extends to Pugal.

Nachna Do. 400 1,600 Rawalot chief.

Katori Fiscal. 300 1,200

Kaba Do. 300 1,200

Kuldaro Do. 200 800

Satta Pattayat 300 1,200 [279]

Jinjiniali Do. 300 1,200 Rawalot: first noble of Jaisalmer.

Kuldaro Do. 200 800

Balana Pattayat 150 600

Satiasa Do. 100 400

Baru Do. 200 800 Maldot: has eighteen villages attached, not included in this.

Chaun Do. 200 800

Loharki Do. 150 600

Noantala Do. 150 600 All of the Rawalot clan.

Lahti Do. 300 1,200

Dangari Do. 150 600

Bijorai Fiscal 200 800

Mandai Do. 200 800

Ramgarh Do. 200 800

Birsalpur Pattayat 200 800

Girajsar Do. 150 600

56,400

Two hundred and twenty-five villages and hamlets, from four to fifty houses each; say, each average twenty, at four inhabitants to each 18,000

Total 74,400

According to this census, we have a population not superior 1246to one of the secondary cities of Great Britain, scattered over fifteen thousand square miles; nearly one-half, too, belonging to the capital, which being omitted, the result would give from two to three souls only for each square mile.

Face of the Country.

—The greater part of Jaisalmer is

thal

, or

rui

, both terms meaning ‘a desert waste.’ From Lohwar, on the Jodhpur frontier, to Khara, the remote angle touching Sind, the country may be described as a continuous tract of arid sand, frequently rising into lofty

tibas

(sand-hills), in some parts covered with low jungle. This line, which nearly bisects Jaisalmer, is also the line of demarcation of positive sterility and comparative cultivation. To the north is one uniform and naked waste; to the south are ridges of rock termed

magra

,

rui

, and light soil [280].

The ridge of hills is a most important feature in the geology of this desert region.^[2] It is to be traced from Cutch Bhuj, strongly or faintly marked, according to the nature of the country. Sometimes it assumes, as at Chhotan, the character of a mountain; then dwindles into an insignificant ridge scarcely discernible, and often serves as a bulwark for the drifting sands, which cover and render it difficult to trace it at all. As it reaches the Jaisalmer country it is more developed; and at the capital, erected on a peak about two hundred and fifty feet high, its presence is more distinct, and its character defined. The capital of the Bhattis appears as the nucleus of a series of ridges, which diverge from it in all directions for the space of fifteen miles. One branch terminates at Ramgarh, thirty-five miles north-west of Jaisalmer; another branch extends easterly to Pokaran (in Jodhpur), and thence, in a north-east direction, to Phalodi; from whence, at intervals, it is traceable to Gariala, nearly fifty miles due north. It is a yellow-coloured sandstone, in which ochre is abundantly found, with which the people daub their houses.

These barren ridges, and the lofty undulating tibas of sand, are the only objects which diversify the almost uniform sterility of these regions. No trees interpose their verdant foliage to relieve the eye, or shelter the exhausted frame of the traveller. It is nearly a boundless waste, varied only by a few stunted shrubs of the acacia or mimosa family, some succulent plants, or prickly 1247grasses, as the bharut^[3] or burr, which clings to his garment and increases his miseries. Yet compared with the more northern portion, where “a sea of sand without a sign of vegetation”^[4] forms the prospect, the vicinity of the capital is a paradise.

There is not a running stream throughout Jaisalmer; but there are many temporary lakes or salt-marshes, termed sar, formed by the collection of waters from the sand-hills, which are easily dammed in to prevent escape. They are ephemeral, seldom lasting but a few months; though after a very severe monsoon they have been known to remain throughout the year. One of these, called the Kanod Sar, extends from Kanod^[5] to Mohangarh, covering a space of eighteen miles, and in which some water remains throughout the year. When it overflows, a small stream issues from the Sar, and pursues an easterly direction for thirty miles before it is absorbed; its existence [281] depends on the parent lake. The salt which it produces is the property of the crown, and adds something to the revenue.

Soil, Husbandry, and Products.

—Notwithstanding the apparent poverty of this desert soil, nature has not denied it the powers of production; it is even favourable to some grains, especially the bajra, which prefers a light sand. In a favourable season they grow sufficient for the consumption of two and even three years, and then they import only wheat from Sind. When those parts favourable for bajra have been saturated with two or three heavy showers, they commence sowing, and the crops spring up rapidly. The great danger is that of too much rain when the crops are advanced, for, having little tenacity, they are often washed away. The

bajra

of the sand-hills is deemed far superior to that of Hindustan, and prejudice gives it a preference even to wheat, which does not bear a higher price, in times of scarcity. Bajra, in plentiful seasons, sells at one and a half maunds for a rupee;

[6]

1248

but this does not often occur, as they calculate five bad seasons for a good one. Juar is also grown, but only in the low flats. Cotton is produced in the same soil as the bajra. It is not generally known that this plant requires but a moderate supply of water; it is deteriorated in the plains of India from over-irrigation; at least such is the idea of the desert-farmer, who perhaps does not make sufficient allowance for the cooler substratum of his sand-hills, compared with the black loam of Malwa. A variety of pulses grows on the sheltered sides of the

tibas

, as

mung

,

moth

, etc.; also the oil-plant (

til

) and abundance of the

gawar

, a diminutive melon, not larger than a hen’s egg, which is sent hundreds of miles, as a rarity. Around the capital, and between the ridges where soil is deposited or formed, and where they dam up the waters, are grown considerable quantities of wheat of very good quality, turmeric, and garden-stuffs. Barley and gram are, in good seasons, reared in small quantities, but rice is entirely an article of import from the valley of Sind.

Implements of Husbandry.

—Where the soil is light, it will be concluded that the implements are simple. They have two kinds of plough, for one or two oxen, or for the camel, which animal is most in requisition. They tread out the grain with oxen, as in all parts of India, and not unfrequently they yoke the cattle to their hakerries,

[7]

or carts, and pass the whole over the grain.

Manufactures.

—There is little scope for the ingenuity of the mechanic in this tract. They make coarse cotton cloths, but the raw material is almost all exported. Their grand article of manufacture is from the wool of the sheep pastured in the desert [282], which is fabricated into

lois

, or blankets, scarfs,

[8]

petticoats, turbans, of every quality. Cups and platters are made from a mineral called

abrak

, a calcareous substance, of a dark chocolate ground, with light brown vermiculated stripes;

[9]

female ornaments of elephants’ teeth, and arms of an inferior quality. These comprehend the artificial productions of this desert capital.

Commerce.

—Whatever celebrity Jaisalmer possesses, as a commercial mart, arises from its position as a place of transit

1249

between the eastern countries, the valley of the Indus, and those beyond that stream, the Kitars (the term for a caravan of camels) to and from Haidarabad, Rori-Bakhar, Shikarpur and Uchh, from the Gangetic provinces, and the Panjab, passing through it. The indigo of the Duab, the opium of Kotah and Malwa, the famed sugar-candy of Bikaner, iron implements from Jaipur, are exported to Shikarpur

[10]

and lower Sind; whence elephants’ teeth (from Africa), dates, coco-nuts, drugs, and chandan,

[11]

are imported, with pistachios and dried fruits from Bahawalpur.

Revenues and Taxes.

—The personal revenue of the princes of Jaisalmer

[12]

is, or rather was, estimated at upwards of four lakhs of rupees, of which more than one lakh was from the land.

[13]

The transit duties were formerly the most certain and most prolific branch of the fiscal income; but the bad faith of the minister, the predatory habits of the Bhatti chiefs proceeding mainly from thence, and the general decrease of commerce, have conspired nearly to annihilate this source of income, said at one time to reach three lakhs of rupees. These imposts are termed

dan

, and the collector

dani

, who was stationed at convenient points of all the principal routes which diverge from the capital.

Land-tax.

—From one-fifth to one-seventh of the gross produce of the land is set aside as the tax of the crown, never exceeding the first nor falling short of the last.

[14]

It is paid in kind, which is purchased on the spot by the Paliwal Brahmans, or Banias, and the value remitted to the treasury [283].

1250

Dhuan.

—The third and now the most certain branch of revenue is the

dhuan

, literally ‘smoke,’ and which we may render ‘chimney or hearth-tax,’ though they have neither the one nor the other in these regions. It is also termed

thali

, which is the brass or silver platter out of which they eat, and is tantamount to a table-allowance. It never realizes above twenty thousand rupees annually, which, however, would be abundant for the simple fare of Jaisalmer. No house is exempt from the payment of this tax.

Dand.

—There is an arbitrary tax levied throughout these regions, universally known and detested under the name of

dand

, the make-weight of all their budgets of ways and means. It was first imposed in Jaisalmer in S. 1830 (

A.D.

1774), under the less odious appellation of ‘additional

dhuan

or

thali

,’ and the amount was only two thousand seven hundred rupees, to be levied from the monied interest of the capital. The Mahesris

[15]

agreed to pay their share, but the Oswals (the two chief mercantile classes) holding out, were forcibly sent up to the castle, and suffered the ignominious punishment of the bastinado. They paid the demand, but immediately on their release entered into a compact on oath, never again to look on the Rawal’s (Mulraj’s) face, which was religiously kept during their mutual lives. When he passed through the streets of his capital, the Oswals abandoned their shops and banking-houses, retiring to the interior of their habitations in order to avoid the sight of him. This was strenuously persevered in for many years, and had such an effect upon the prince, that he visited the principal persons of this class, and ‘spreading his scarf’ (

pala pasarna

),

[16]

intreated forgiveness, giving a writing on oath never again to impose

dand

, if they would make the

dhuan

a permanent tax. The Oswals accepted the repentance of their prince, and agreed to his terms. In S. 1841 and 1852, his necessities compelling him to raise money, he obtained by loan, in the first period, twenty-seven thousand, and in the latter, forty thousand rupees, which he faithfully

1251

repaid. When the father of the present minister came into power, he endeavoured to get back the bond of his sovereign abrogating the obnoxious

dand

, and offered, as a bait, to renounce the

dhuan

. The Oswals placed more value on the virtue of this instrument than it merited, for in spite of the bond, he in S. 1857 levied sixty thousand, and in 1863, eighty thousand rupees. A visit of the Rawal to the Ganges was seized upon as a fit opportunity by his subjects to get this oppression redressed, and fresh oaths were made by the prince, and broken by the minister, who has bequeathed his rapacious spirit to his son [284].

Since the accession of Gaj Singh, only two years ago,^[17] Salim Singh has extorted fourteen lakhs (£140,000). Bardhman, a merchant of great wealth and respectability, and whose ancestors are known and respected throughout Rajwara as Sahukars, has been at various times stripped of all his riches by the minister and his father, who, to use the phraseology of the sufferers, “will never be satisfied while a rupee remains in Jaisalmer.”

Establishments, Expenditure.

—We subjoin a rough estimate of the household establishment, etc., of this desert king:

Rupees.

Bar^[18] 20,000

Rozgar Sardar^[19] 40,000

Sihbandis or Mercenaries^[20] 75,000

Household horse, 10 elephants, 200 camels, and chariots 36,000

—-——

Carry forward 171,000

1252Brought forward 171,000

500 Bargir^[21] horse 60,000

Rani’s or queen’s establishment 15,000

The wardrobe 5,000

Gifts 5,000

The kitchen 5,000

Guests, in hospitality 5,000

Feasts, entertainments 5,000

Annual purchase of horses, camels, oxen, etc. 20,000

Total Rs. 291,000

The ministers and officers of government receive assignments on the transit-duties, and some have lands. The whole of this State-expenditure was more than covered, in some years, by the transit-duties alone; which have, it is asserted, amounted to the almost incredible sum of three lakhs, or £30,000.

Tribes.

—We shall conclude our account of Jaisalmer with a few remarks on the [285] tribes peculiar to it; though we reserve the general enumeration for a sketch of the desert.

Of its Rajput population, the Bhattis, we have already given an outline in the general essay on the tribes.^[22] Those which occupy the present limits of Jaisalmer retain their Hindu notions, though with some degree of laxity from their intercourse with the Muhammadans on the northern and western frontiers; while those which long occupied the north-east tracts, towards Phulra and the Gara, on becoming proselytes to Islam ceased to have either interest in or connexion with the parent State. The Bhatti has not, at present, the same martial reputation as the Rathor, Chauhan, or Sesodia, but he is deemed at least to equal if not surpass the Kachhwaha, or any of its kindred branches, Naruka or Shaikhavat. There are occasional instances of Bhatti intrepidity as daring as may be found amongst any other tribe; witness the feud between the chiefs of Pugal and Mandor. But this changes not the national characteristic as conventionally established; though were we to go back to the days of chivalry 1253and Prithiraj, we should select Achalesa Bhatti, one of the bravest of his champions, for the portrait of his race. The Bhatti Rajput, as to physical power, is not perhaps so athletic as the Rathor, or so tall as the Kachhwaha, but generally fairer than either, and possessing those Jewish features which Mr. Elphinstone remarked as characteristic of the Bikaner Rajputs. The Bhatti intermarries with all the families of Rajwara, though seldom with the Ranas of Mewar. The late Jagat Singh of Jaipur had five wives of this stock, and his posthumous son, real or reputed, has a Bhattiani for his mother.^[23]

Dress.

—The dress of the Bhattis consists of a

jama

, or tunic of white cloth or chintz reaching to the knee; the

kamarband

, or ceinture, tied so high as to present no appearance of waist; trousers very loose, and in many folds, drawn tight at the ankle, and a turban, generally of a scarlet colour, rising conically full a foot from the head. A dagger is stuck in the waistband; a shield is suspended by a thong of deer-skin from the left shoulder, and the sword is girt by a belt of the same material. The dress of the common people is the

dhoti

, or loin-robe, generally of woollen stuff, with a piece of the same material as a turban. The dress of the Bhattianis, which discriminates the sex, consists of a

ghaghra

, or petticoat, extending to thirty feet in width, made generally of the finer woollen, dyed a brilliant red, with a scarf of the same material. The grand ornament of rich and poor, though varying in the materials, is the

churi

, or rings of ivory or bone, with which they cover their arms from the shoulder to [286] the wrist.

[24]

They are in value from sixteen to thirty-five

1254

rupees a set, and imported from Maskat-Mandavi, though they also manufacture them at Jaisalmer. Silver

karis

(massive rings or anklets) are worn by all classes, who deny themselves the necessaries of life until they attain this ornament. The poorer Rajputnis are very masculine, and assist in all the details of husbandry.

Use of Opium.

—The Bhatti is to the full as addicted as any of his brethren to the immoderate use of opium. To the

amalpani

, or ‘infusion,’ succeeds the pipe, and they continue inhaling mechanically the smoke long after they are insensible to all that is passing around them; nay, it is said, you may scratch or pinch them while in this condition without exciting sensation. The

hukka

is the dessert to the

amalpani

; the panacea for all the ills which can overtake a Rajput, and with which he can at any time enjoy a paradise of his own creation. To ask a Bhatti for a whiff of his pipe would be deemed a direct insult.

Pāliwāls.

—Next to the lordly Rajputs, equalling them in numbers and far surpassing them in wealth, are the Paliwals. They are Brahmans, and denominated Paliwal from having been temporal proprietors of Pali, and all its lands, long before the Rathors colonized Marwar. Tradition is silent as to the manner in which they became possessed of this domain; but it is connected with the history of the Pali, or pastoral tribes, who from the town of Pali to Palitana, in Saurashtra, have left traces of their existence;

[25]

and I am much mistaken if it will not one day be demonstrated, that all the ramifications of the races figuratively denominated Agnikula, were Pali in origin; more especially the Chauhans, whose princes and chiefs for ages retained the distinctive affix of

pal

.

These Brahmans, the Paliwals, as appears by the Annals of Marwar, held the domain of Pali when Siahji, at the end of the twelfth century, invaded that land from Kanauj, and by an act of treachery first established his power.^[26] It is evident, however, that he did not extirpate them, for the cause of their migration to 1255the desert of Jaisalmer [287] is attributed to a period of a Muhammadan invasion of Marwar, when a general war-contribution (dand) being imposed on the inhabitants, the Paliwals pleaded caste, and refused. This exasperated the Raja; for as their habits were almost exclusively mercantile, their stake was greater than that of the rest of the community, and he threw their principal men into prison. In order to avenge this, they had recourse to a grand chandni, or ‘act of suicide’; but instead of gaining their object, he issued a manifesto of banishment to every Paliwal in his dominions. The greater part took refuge in Jaisalmer, though many settled in Bikaner, Dhat, and the valley of Sind. At one time their number in Jaisalmer was calculated to equal that of the Rajputs. Almost all the internal trade of the country passes through their hands, and it is chiefly with their capital that its merchants trade in foreign parts. They are the Metayers of the desert, advancing money to the cultivators, taking the security of the crop; and they buy up all the wool and ghi (clarified butter), which they transport to foreign parts. They also rear and keep flocks. The minister, Salim Singh, has contrived to diminish their wealth, and consequently to lose the main support of the country’s prosperity. They are also subject to the visits of the Maldots, Tejmallots, and other plunderers; but they find it difficult to leave the country owing to the restrictive cordon of the Mehta. The Paliwals never marry out of their own tribe; and, directly contrary to the laws of Manu,^[27] the bridegroom gives a sum of money to the father of the bride. It will be deemed a curious incident in the history of superstition, that a tribe, Brahman by name, at least, should worship the bridle of a horse. When to this is added the fact that the most ancient coins discovered in these regions bear the Pali character and the effigies of the horse, it aids to prove the Scythic character of the early colonists of these regions, who, although nomadic (Pali), were equestrian. There is little doubt that the Paliwal Brahmans are the remains of the priests of the Pali race, who, in their pastoral and commercial pursuits, have lost their spiritual power.^[28]

Pokharna Brāhmans.

— Another singular tribe, also Brahmanical, is the Pokharna, of whom it is calculated there are fifteen

1256

hundred to two thousand families in Jaisalmer. They are also numerous in Marwar and Bikaner, and are scattered over the desert and valley of the Indus. They follow agricultural and pastoral pursuits chiefly, having little or no concern in trade. The tradition of their origin is singular; it is said that they were Beldars, and excavated the sacred lake of Pushkar or Pokhar, for which act they obtained the favour of the deity and the grade of Brahmans, with the title of Pokharna. Their chief object of emblematic worship, the

kudala

, a kind of pick-axe used in digging, seems to favour this tradition [288].

[29]

Jats or Jāts.

—The Jats here, as elsewhere, form a great part of the agricultural population; there are also various other tribes, which will be better described in a general account of the desert.

Castle of Jaisalmer.

—The castle of this desert king is erected on an almost insulated peak, from two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, a strong wall running round the crest of the hill. It has four gates, but very few cannon mounted. The city is to the north, and is surrounded by a

shahrpanah

, or circumvallation, encompassing a space of nearly three miles, having three gates and two wickets. In the city are some good houses belonging to rich merchants, but the greater part consists of huts. The Raja’s palace is said to possess some pretension to grandeur, perhaps comparative.

[30]

Were he on good terms with his vassalage, he could collect for its defence five thousand infantry and one thousand horse, besides his camel-corps; but it may be doubted whether, under the oppressive system of the monster who has so long continued to desolate that region, one half of this force could be brought together [289].

[31]

Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.

Transcriber’s Note

There are references to Genealogical Tables in Volume I, which were not reprinted in this Crooke edition.

The spelling of names and places is variable, as noted in the Editor’s introduction to Volume I, as the system of transliteration underwent many changes in the intervening century. The use of macrons was not yet introduced in James Tod’s day. This text, with very few exceptions, follows the text as printed.

Hyphenation of compound words follows the text, with the rare exception of when it occurs on a line break and the preponderance of other instances provides clear guidance.

On p. 703, Tod’s note 28 gives the Persian character ﺙ as ‘p’. The character pe (پ) has the three points below, not above.

Where punctuation is suspect, the correct solution was sought in the text of Tod’s original edition.

Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here.

This list contains issues in the main text. References are to the page and line in the original.

618.25 for the protection of the temple[.] Added.

656.38 may [i]nfluence the manners of a nation. Inserted.

664.15 the glorious [of memory/memory of] his ancestor Words transposed.

672.2 died a natural death[.] Added.

682.20 or split-ear ascetics[.] Added.

709.18 Leur sort est un[e] boussole sûr[e] pour le premier regard Added.

719.8 [“]separated from his mate Added.

719.26 asis (blessing[)] Added.

726.14 [“]The king sought the bard Added.

727.8 [“]In vain she sought the rings of his corslet Removed.

755.16 [‘/“]all’s well,” Replaced.

860.20 with the tika and gifts, [and gifts, ]and other symbols Removed.

866.23 was father-in[ /-]law to his rival Replaced.

895.34 which we do not fail to encourage[.] Added.

898.19 there occurs a ri[g/c]hly carved corbeille Replaced.

915.3 Such is the Jit’h[a] Added.

933.25 see [Table I. Vol. I.] Not reprinted.

959.22 every part o[f] Rajputana Added.

964.2 which would otherwise perish[.] Added.

1035.10 for the persecutor of Durgadas[.] Added.

1060.13 out of Maru[:/.] Replaced.

1113.29 or courts o[r/f] arbitration Replaced.

The following list contains issues corrected or noted in the footnote text. The reference is to the original page, the resequenced note number, and the line within the note.

602.4.5 that he m[i]raculously Restored.

725.1.1 History of the Late Revolution o[f] the Empire Restored.

750.1.24 Rāsmāla, 557[)]. Removed.

819.3.3 (Yule, Hobson-Jobson, 2nd ed. 15[)]. Added.

884.3.13 ‘city of the heavenly choristers.[’] Added.

839.2.2 (Erskine iii. A. 196[)]. Added.

934.1.1 (IGI, xv. 398[)]. Added.

935.4.1 classically Vijayapala, ‘Fosterer of Victory.[’] Added.

948.2.12 [“]Even in this, is there much vanity,” Added.

1037.4.2 rather Nāgapura[./,] capital of the Nāga sept Replaced.

1084.2.1 [Nineteen miles S.W. of Bikaner city.[]] Added.

1118.3.1 see Watt, op. cit. 112 ff.[).] Removed.

1134.1.7 see Sykes, Hist. of Persia, i. 257[)]. Removed.

1136.1.1 Ferishta’s History of the Dek[h/k]an Replaced.

1156.1.5 (Bilimoria, Letters of Aurangzeb, 75.[)] Added.

1186.3.9 See Map, Vol. I. Actually, Vol. III.

1194.1.70 and many others[)]. Added.

1197.37 Rae S[e/a]hra and his tribe of Langaha Replaced.

1221.1.3 [(]Rose, Glossary, ii. 353 f.; ASR, ii. 17). Added.