T. (continued 2)

Tilsit. A town of East Prussia, on the left bank of the Niemen, or Memel, 60 miles northeast from Königsberg. Tilsit will be ever memorable in history for the treaties which were there signed between France and Russia on July 7, and France and Prussia on July 9, 1807. By the former of these Napoleon agreed to restore to the king of Prussia a great portion of his dominions, his Polish acquisitions being joined to Saxony, and his possessions west of the Elbe formed into the nucleus of the new kingdom of Westphalia; Danzig was declared an independent city; the Prussian province of Bialystock was ceded to Russia; the dukes of Oldenberg and Mecklenburg, the czar’s relatives, were reinstated by Napoleon, and in return the Bonapartist kings of Naples and Holland were recognized by the czar, etc. By the latter, the king of Prussia recognized the kings of Holland, Naples, and Westphalia, and the Confederation of the Rhine; agreed to the cessions laid down in the Russian treaty, and to other minor alienations and concessions to Saxony, amounting in all to nearly one-half of his dominions; to the exclusion from his harbors of the commerce of Great Britain, and to the occupation of the Prussian fortresses by the French, till the payment of an enormous ransom. The weighty importance of the alterations effected by this treaty is, however, dwarfed before the startling magnitude of the secret provisions signed between France and Russia. By these were arranged the resignation of the empire of the East to Russia, Roumelia and Constantinople being specially excepted by Napoleon, and the acquisition of the Spanish peninsula by France; the two powers were to make common cause against Great Britain, and were to force the three courts of Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Lisbon to join them; and Napoleon agreed to increase no further the power of the duchy of Warsaw, and to do nothing which might lead to the re-establishment of the Polish monarchy. By a further agreement, not put formally into writing, the mouths of the Cattaro, the Ionian Isles, Sicily, Malta, Egypt, and the papal dominions were to be taken by France; and Greece, Macedonia, Dalmatia, and the Adriatic coasts, as the portion of Turkey; while on the other hand, Russia was to obtain the rest of Turkey, and was allowed to seize Finland. These secret articles are given on most excellent authority, and their correctness is further vouched for by the conduct of France and Russia for the next few years.

Tilt. A thrust, or fight with rapiers; also, an old military game.

Tilted Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for, Steel.

Tilter. One who fights or contests in a tournament.

Tilting-helmet. A helmet of large size often worn over another at tilts.

Tilt-yard. Formerly a place or yard for tilting.

Timariot. A Turkish cavalry soldier who has a certain allowance made him, for which he is not only obliged to arm, clothe, and accoutre himself, but he must likewise provide a certain number of militia-men. The allowance is called timar.

Timars. Certain revenues, in Turkey, growing out of lands which originally belonged to Christian clergy and nobility, and which the sultans seized when they conquered the countries they inhabited. By this means the sultan is enabled to support the timariots.

Timber. In heraldry, a rank or row, as of ermine, in a nobleman’s coat; also a crest. This word is also written timbre.

Timber Rafts. See Rafts, Timber.

Timbuctoo. A celebrated city in the interior of Africa, on the slope of a hill about 8 miles south of the Niger. It is said to have been built by Mansa Suleiman, a Mohammedan, about 1214, and was frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of Morocco. Since 1727 it has been partially independent.

Time. The measure of duration by which soldiers regulate the cadence of the march. Common time, the ordinary time of marching, in which 90 steps, each 28 inches in length, are taken in one minute. See Double-quick, and Quick Time.

Time. That necessary interval between each motion in the manual exercise, as well as in every movement the army or any body of men may make. In fencing there are three kinds of time: that of the sword, that of the foot, and that of the whole body.

Time. A particular period or part of duration, whether past, present, or future.

Apparent time, the time of day reckoned by the sun, or so that 12 o’clock at the place is the instant of the transit of the sun’s centre over the meridian.

Mean solar time, or mean time, time regulated by the average, or mean, instead of the unequal or apparent, motion of the sun; time as indicated by a uniformly-going clock, once rightly adjusted, and differing from apparent time at any instant by a small quantity called the equation of time.

Sidereal time, time regulated by the transit, over the meridian of a place, of the first point of Aries, or vernal equinox, and chiefly used in astronomical observations.

Solar time. See Mean Solar Time.

Time of Flight. See Flight.

Time Thrust. In fencing, a thrust given upon any opening which may occur by an inaccurate or wide motion of your adversary, when changing his guard, etc.

Time-fuze. See Fuze, Time-.

Timing. In fencing, is the accurate and critical throwing in of a cut or thrust upon any opening that may occur as your adversary changes his position.

Tin-case Shot. See Canister-shot.

Tinchebrai. A town of France, department of the Arne, 34 miles northwest from Alençon. Here Robert of Normandy was finally defeated by his brother, Henry I. of England, on September 28, 1106, and Normandy was annexed to the crown of England.

Tincture. In heraldry, one of the metals, colors, or furs used in armory.

Tindal. An attendant on the army in India.

Tinker. A small mortar formerly used on the end of a staff, now superseded by the Coehorn.

Tippecanoe. A river of Indiana, United States, which rises in a lake of the same name in the northern part of the State. It is famous for the battle fought on its banks, November 5, 1811, in which the Indians, under Tecumseh’s brother, the Prophet, were defeated by Gen. Harrison.

Tipperary. An inland county in the province of Munster, Ireland. Subsequently to the year 1172, Henry II. obtained possession of it after several sanguinary contests. The county suffered greatly during the civil wars of 1641, in the course of which the town of Clonmel, after a gallant resistance, obtained honorable terms from Cromwell, who conducted the siege in person.

Tipperary. A town of the county of the same name, on the river Arra, 111 miles southwest from Dublin. The town is of very ancient foundation, and soon after the invasion was occupied as a strong place by the English, who built a castle in it during the Irish expedition of King John. This castle, however, fell soon afterward into the hands of the Irish under the Prince of Thomond.

Tippermuir, or Tibbermore. A town of Scotland, near Perth. Here the Marquis of Montrose defeated the Covenanters under Lord Elcho, September 1, 1644.

Tirailleur. A skirmisher, often put in front of the line to annoy the enemy, and draw off his attention; or they are left behind to amuse and stop his progress in the pursuit; a rifleman.

Tire. Are great guns, shot, shells, etc., placed in a regular form.

Tirlemont. A town of Belgium, province of Brabant, 25 miles east of Brussels. It was taken by the French in 1635; was ravaged by Marlborough in 1705; taken by the French in 1792; here the French, under Dumouriez, defeated the Austrians in 1793; taken by the French in 1794. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1804.

Tiryns. An ancient town of Argolis, southeast of Argos, and one of the most ancient in all Greece. Homer represents Tiryns as subject to Argos; the town was at a later time destroyed by the Argives, and most of the inhabitants were removed to Argos.

Titles, Military. See military titles under appropriate headings throughout this volume.

Tivoli. A town of Central Italy, on the left bank of the Teverone, 18 miles east-northeast from Rome. In the Middle Ages, Tivoli was an imperial city, independent of Rome, and was the occasion of many contentions between the emperors and the popes; in the course of which it was frequently taken and retaken as either party gained the ascendant.

Tlemsen, or Tlemecen. A town of Algeria, in the province of Oran, 67 miles southwest from Oran. It was once an important place; but in consequence of a revolt of the inhabitants against his authority, Hassan, the dey of Algiers, laid it in ruins. It was occupied by the French in 1836 and 1842.

Tobago. One of the British islands in the West Indies, belonging to the Windward group. This island was first colonized by the Dutch, who were expelled by the Spaniards. It was then settled by the English, to whom it was ceded by the peace of 1763. In 1781 it was taken by the French, and in 1793 was retaken by the British, by whom it was retained at the peace of Amiens.

Tobitschau (Moravia). In a sharp action, on July 15, 1866, the Austrians were defeated by the army of the crown-prince of Prussia, with the loss of 500 killed and wounded, and 500 prisoners and 17 guns.

Tocsin. An alarm-drum; a bell. It was formerly used in an army as a signal for charging, on the approach of an enemy.

Toga Picta. Was an outer garment, worn by Roman generals in triumphs, by consuls under the empire, and by prætors when they celebrated games; and was embellished with Phrygian embroidery. In war the toga was laid aside for the sagum or paludatogatus, or some less cumbrous style of attire.

Toggle and Chain. See Ordnance.

Toise. A measure derived from the French, containing 6 feet, and a term of frequent use in fortification and military surveying.

Toison d’Or (Fr.). See Golden Fleece.

Toledo (anc. Toletum). A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, on the north bank of the Tagus, 55 miles south-southwest from Madrid. It was conquered by the Romans under M. Fulvius, 192 B.C. (193 B.C.); was captured by the Goths, 467; possessed by the Moors from 714 to 1085. Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon recovered it from the Moors.

Toledo. An esteemed Spanish sword, so called from the place of manufacture.

Tolenon (Fr.). An ancient machine of war, having a long lever moving on a pivot, suspended from an upright higher than the rampart, having at one end a box to contain 20 men, who, by drawing down the other end, might be raised high enough to fire into the loop-holes, or even to get upon the wall.

Tolentino. A town of Italy, province of Macerata, 12 miles from Macerata. It was here, in February, 1797, that the pope ceded the Romagna to the French republic by treaty, and in May, 1815, Murat retired to this place with his troops before the Austrians, and was defeated.

Tolosa. A town of Spain, province of Guipuzcoa, on the Oria, 35 miles southwest from Bayonne. Near here, Alfonso, king of Castile, aided by the kings of Aragon and Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, July 16, 1212. This conflict is sometimes termed the battle of Muradal. It was occupied by the French from 1808 till 1813.

Tomahawk. A light war-hatchet of the North American Indians. The early ones were rudely made of stone, ingeniously fastened to their handles by animal sinews, or cords of skin. Traders supplied hatchets of steel, the heads of which were made hollow, for a tobacco-pipe; the handle of ash, with the pith removed, being the stem. These hatchets are used in the chase and in battle, not only in close combat, but by being thrown with a wonderful skill, so as always to strike the object aimed at with the edge of the instrument. The handles are curiously ornamented. In the figurative language of the Indians, to make peace, is to bury the tomahawk; to make war, is to dig it up.

Toman. In the East Indies, signifies 10,000 men.

Tom-tom. A large, flat drum, used by the Hindoos; a tam-tam.

Tongue. The pole of an ox-cart (local).

Tongue of a Sword. That part of the blade on which the gripe, shell, and pummel are fixed. The bayonet is figuratively called a triangular tongue, from its shape.

Tonnelon (Fr.). An ancient drawbridge, used nearly in the same manner and for similar purposes as the harpe and exostre.

Tonquin, or Tonkin. The northernmost province of Anam, Southeast Asia. Tonquin was conquered by the Chinese in 1406, and by the Anamese in 1790.

Tooksowars (Ind.). The vizier’s body of cavalry.

Topekhana (Ind.). The place where guns are kept; the arsenal.

Topeys, or Topgis. Turkish artillerymen or gunners.

Topgi-Bachi. Master-general of the Turkish artillery.

Topikhannah (Ind.). A house for keeping guns; an arsenal; an armory.

Töplitz. A town of Bohemia. Here were signed, in 1813, two treaties,—one between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, September 9; and one between Great Britain and Austria, October 3.

Topographical Engineers. The duties of this corps consist in surveys for the defense of the frontiers and of positions for fortifications; in reconnoissances of the country through which an army has to pass, or in which it has to operate; in the examination of all routes of communication by land or by water, both for supplies and military movements; in the construction of military roads and permanent bridges connected with them; and the charge of the construction of all civil works authorized by acts of Congress, not specially assigned by law to some other branch of the service. The U. S. Corps of Topographical Engineers was merged into the Corps of Engineers in 1863.

Topography. Is the art of representing and describing in all its details the physical constitution, natural or artificial, of any determined portion of a country; in making maps and giving a descriptive memoir. Military topography differs from geography in seeking to imitate sinuosities of ground: it represents graphically and describes technically commanding heights, water-courses, preferable sites for camps, different kinds of roads, the position of fords, and extent of woods. It enumerates the resources that a country offers to troops and the difficulties which are interposed. By means of colored maps and other conventional signs, military topography presents before the eyes of a general much that is necessary to guide his operations.

Torce, or Wreath. In heraldry, a garland of twisted silk, by which the crest is joined to the helmet. A crest is always understood to be placed on a torce, unless where it is expressly stated to issue out of a coronet or chapeau.

Torches. See Pyrotechny.

Tordesillas. A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Here was signed, in 1494, a treaty modifying the boundary-line which Pope Alexander VI. had assigned, in 1493, in his division of the New World between Spain and Portugal.

Torgau. A fortified town of Prussian Saxony, on the left hank of the Elbe, 70 miles south-southwest from Berlin. Here a battle was fought between Frederick II. of Prussia and the Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal victory, the Austrian general, Count Daun, a renowned warrior, being wounded, November 3, 1760. It was besieged and taken by the allied Prussians and Saxons in January, 1814; the besieged lost about 30,000 men.

Tormentum. A pistol; a gun; a piece of ordnance.

Tormes. A river of Spain, falls into the Douro, on the borders of Portugal. Its banks were the scene of many conflicts between the French and Spaniards during the Peninsular war, from 1808 to 1814.

Toro. A city of Spain, province of Leon, on the Douro, 20 miles east from Zamora. Ferdinand the Catholic defeated Alonzo V. of Portugal near this place in 1476, and gained the kingdom of Castile for himself and his wife Isabella.

Toronto. The capital of the province of Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 165 miles from Kingston, and 323 miles from Montreal. Its harbor or bay is capable of accommodating the largest vessels that navigate the lakes, and is defended at the entrance by a fort, which was thoroughly repaired in 1864 by the imperial government, and mounted with the most efficient modern ordnance. The town was founded in 1794, by Gov. Simcoe. It was burned by the Americans in 1813, and suffered severely in the insurrection of 1837, on which occasion it was the headquarters of the rebellion.

Torpedo. During the war between Great Britain and the United States in 1812-14, this name was applied to certain mysterious boats invented by Fulton and other Americans for the purpose of navigating beneath the surface of the water, and injuring the bottom of hostile vessels. In those days of hand-to-hand naval war, these designs (which, by the way, were failures) were looked upon as little less than diabolical. The progress of destructive weapons during half a century has removed this aversion, and nations do not scruple now to employ similar unseen agents for offense and defense. The modern torpedo is really a stationary bomb-shell, intended to explode under the bottom of an enemy’s ship. The weapon was first used by the Russians in the Baltic in 1854; and in the American war of Secession, 1861-65, it was employed extensively, and often successfully. The damage effected by a torpedo exploding beneath a ship is very great; and although the failures are frequent by the explosion happening at a wrong moment, the danger from torpedoes is considerable in fact, and far more in apprehension, for sailors naturally dread navigating waters where destruction lurks at unknown points concealed from view. There are several varieties of torpedoes, but they may be divided into two classes,—those which are self-explosive on a ship touching them, and those which are dependent on an electric current supplied from the shore. The second are the safest for friendly vessels; but they are rather uncertain in action, and can only be employed at a moderate distance from the shore. The first are more certain in action, as they can only explode on a ship, being somewhere in contact, but they attack indiscriminately friend and foe.

Torque (Fr.). A metal collar formerly bestowed upon a Roman soldier who had killed his adversary in a single combat.

Torqued. In heraldry, twisted; bent;—said of a dolphin haurient, which forms a figure like the letter S.

Torre di Mare. A village of Naples, at the mouth of the Bassento, in the Gulf of Taranto. Its prosperity received a fearful blow when, after the battle of the Metaurus (207 B.C.), Hannibal was compelled to give up this part of Italy, and carried with him all the citizens of Megapontum, in order to defend them from the vengeance of the Romans. In the time of Cicero the city still existed, but in a state of rapid decay.

Torres-Vedras. A town of Estremadura, kingdom of Portugal, on the left bank of the Sizandro, about 30 miles north of Lisbon. It derives its reputation solely from having given name to those famous lines of defense within which Wellington took refuge in 1810, when he found it impossible to defend the frontier of Portugal against the French armies; and from which, in the year following, he issued on that career of slow and hard-won victory which ended in the expulsion of the French from the Peninsula. The first, or outermost of these lines, extending from Alhandra, on the Tagus, to the mouth of the Sizandro, on the sea-coast, and following the windings of the hills, was 29 miles long; the second (and by far the most formidable) lay from 6 to 10 miles behind the first, stretching from Quintella, on the Tagus, to the mouth of the St. Lorenza, a distance of 24 miles; the third, situated to the southwest of Lisbon, at the very mouth of the Tagus, was very short, being intended to cover a forced embarkation, if that had become necessary. The entire ground thus fortified was equal to 500 square miles.

Torrington. A town of England, county of Devon, 10 miles south-southwest of Barnstaple. The name of Torrington emerges frequently during the great civil war; and the capture of the town by Fairfax in 1646, on which occasion the church, with 200 prisoners, and those who guarded them, were blown into the air by gunpowder, proved fatal to the king’s cause in the west.

Torse, or Torce. In heraldry, a wreath.

Tortona. A town of Italy, province of Alessandria, on a hill nearly 900 feet above the sea. Tortona was once a strongly fortified city, but its last defenses were destroyed by order of Napoleon, after the battle of Marengo.

Tortosa. A town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the Ebro, 42 miles southwest from Tarragona. It was taken by the French under Suchet in 1811.

Tortu d’Hommes (Fr.). A particular formation which was formerly adopted by the besieged when they made a sortie.

Tory. The word tory first occurs in English history in 1679, during the struggle in Parliament occasioned by the introduction of the bill for the exclusion of the Duke of York from the line of succession, and was applied by the advocates of the bill to its opponents as a title of obloquy or contempt. The name has, however, ceased to designate any existing party; the political successors of the tories are now commonly known as conservatives. In the Revolutionary war of the United States, the loyalists were called tories.

Touch-box. A box containing lighted tinder, formerly carried by soldiers who used matchlocks, to kindle the match.

Touch-hole. The vent of a cannon or other species of fire-arms, by which fire is communicated to the powder of the charge.

Toula, or Tula. An important town of Great Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the Upa, 110 miles south of Moscow. It is an ancient town, and has suffered severely from Tartar invasion, and during the wars of the commencement of the 17th century. The Russian army is largely supplied with muskets and small-arms from the works of this town.

Toulon. A great seaport and naval arsenal of France, department of Var. It stands at the head of a deeply-penetrating inlet of the Mediterranean. It is a fortress of immense strength, and is surrounded by a double rampart, and by a wide and deep fosse. Toulon was destroyed by the Saracens in 889, and again by them about the close of the 12th century. It was only at the end of the 16th century that Toulon came to be important as a naval and military stronghold. In 1707, it was assailed without success by the Duke of Savoy by land, and the English and Dutch by sea. It was taken by the English and Spaniards in 1793; but the allies were obliged to evacuate the town in December of the same year, after being fiercely attacked by the republicans, whose guns were commanded by Napoleon,—then a simple officer of artillery,—who here evinced for the first time his genius and self-reliance.

Toulouse (anc. Tolosa). An important city of France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, on the right bank of the river Garonne, 160 miles southeast of Bordeaux. The ancient Tolosa and its temple were plundered by the consul Q. Servilius Cæpio in 106 B.C. It was ravaged by the Visigoths and Franks, who successively overran and possessed the country. A battle was fought here in 1814, between Wellington and Soult, in which the latter was defeated, and obliged to evacuate the town.

Tour, or Turn. That which is done by succession. Tour of duty, turn to go on duty.

Tourbillon. See Pyrotechny.

Tournament, or Tournay. A military sport of the Middle Ages, in which combatants engaged one another with the object of exhibiting their courage, prowess, and skill in the use of arms, or for the honor of the ladies attending. According to Ducange, the difference between a tournament and a joust is, that the latter is a single combat, while in the former a troop of combatants encounter each other on either side. But this distinction has not been always observed.

Tournay (anc. Tornacum, or Turris Nerviorum, “Fort of the Nervii”). A fortified town of Belgium, province of Hainault, on both sides of the Scheldt, near the French frontier. It was in the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries the seat of the Merovingian kings, subsequently belonged to France, but at the peace of Madrid was included in the Spanish Netherlands. Subsequently it was oftener than once taken by France, but again restored by treaty. During the month of May, 1794, it was the scene of several hotly contested fights between the French and Austro-English armies, the most important of which was that of May 19, in which Pichegru heat the Duke of York.

Tours. A city of France, capital of the department of Indre-et-Loire, 146 miles southwest from Paris. Near it Charles Martel gained a great victory over the Saracens, and saved Europe, October 10, 732. This conflict was also called the battle of Poitiers. The church was pillaged by the Huguenots and utterly destroyed, with the exception of two towers, at the revolution.

Tower. A citadel; a fortress; hence, a defender.

Tower Bastion. In fortification, is one which is constructed of masonry, at the angles of the interior polygon of some works; and has usually vaults or casemates under its terre-plein, to contain artillery, stores, etc.

Tower of London. In feudal days, a powerful fortress; then, and long after, a state prison of gloomy memories; now a government store-house and armory, and still in some sense a stronghold; is an irregular quadrilateral collection of buildings on rising ground adjoining the Thames, and immediately to the east of the city of London. The kings frequently resided there, holding their courts, and not unfrequently sustaining sieges and blockades from their rebellious subjects. At present, the Tower of London is a great military store-house in charge of the war department, containing arms and accoutrements for the complete equipment of a large army. It is needless to say that, viewed as a fortress, the Tower would be useless against modern arms. The government is vested in a constable, who has great privileges, and is usually a military officer of long service and distinguished mark; the deputy-constable, also a general officer of repute, is the actual governor. He has a small staff under him, and the corps of Yeomen of the Guard, more commonly known as Beef-eaters.

Towered. Adorned or defended by towers.

Towers, Movable. The purgi of the Greeks, and the turres mobiles of the Romans, consisted of several stories, furnished with engines, ladders, casting-bridges, etc., and moving on wheels, for the purpose of being brought near the walls. They were usually of a round form, though sometimes square or polygonal. Before the invention of guns, they used to fortify places with towers, and to attack them with movable towers of wood, mounted on wheels, to set the besiegers on a level with the walls, and drive the besieged from under the same. These towers were sometimes 20 stories, and 30 fathoms high. They were covered with raw skins, and 100 men were employed to move them.

Tow-hooks. See Implements.

Town-Adjutant, Town-Major. In Great Britain, officers on the staff of a garrison. They are often veteran officers, too much worn for field service. The pay depends on the magnitude of the trust. The town-major ranks as a captain; the adjutant as a lieutenant. The duties of these officers consist in maintaining discipline, and looking after the finding of the batteries, etc.

Towton. A township of England, county of York, West Riding. Here a sanguinary battle was fought, March 29, 1461, between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner, and confined in the Tower; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders.

Traband. A trusty brave soldier in the Swiss infantry, whose particular duty was to guard the colors and the captain who led them. He was armed with a sword and a halbert, the blade of which was sharpened like a pertuisan. He generally wore the colonel’s livery, and was excused from all the duties of a sentinel.

Tracing, or Outline. Is the succession of lines that show the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense.

Tracing-pickets. These are short pickets, 18 inches long, and about 1 inch in diameter, which are useful in marking out the details of field-works. They are made rather more expeditiously than fascine-pickets, and should be tied up in bundles of 25 each. Every bundle weighs about 8 pounds when the wood is dry.

Track. In gunnery, by track is understood the distance between the furrows formed by the wheels of artillery carriages in the ground. It is important that the track should be the same for all carriages likely to travel the same road, in order that the wheels of one carriage may follow in the furrows formed by those of its predecessor, and thereby prevent a loss of tractile force. The track of artillery carriages is 5 feet, and the extreme length of the axle-tree is 6¹⁄₂ feet for field-, and 6³⁄₄ feet for siege-carriages.

Trail. In tactics, to carry, as a fire-arm, with the butt near the ground, and the muzzle inclined forward, the piece being held by the right hand near the middle.

Trail. In gunnery, the end of a traveling-carriage, opposite to the wheels, and upon which the carriage slides when unlimbered. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Trail Hand-spike. See Hand-spike.

Trail-handles. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Trail-plate. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Trail-bridge. See Pontons.

Train. To teach and form by practice; to exercise; to discipline; as, to train the militia to the manual exercise; to train soldiers to the use of arms.

Train. A line of gunpowder, laid to lead fire to a charge, or to a quantity intended for execution.

Train, Artillery-. See Artillery-train.

Train, Ponton-. See Pontons, Bridge Equipage.

Train-Bands (or more properly, Trained Bands). A force of militia, and not differing essentially from that force substituted by James I. for the old English Fyrd, or national militia. The train-bands of London were chiefly composed of apprentices; and their unruly doings formed the subject for many facetious plays and tales. In the civil wars, the train-bands sided with the Parliament; and Charles II. restored the militia on its old local footing.

Trainer. In the United States, a militia-man when called out for exercise or discipline.

Training-day. In the United States, a day on which a military company assembles for drill, especially in public.

Traitor. One who violates his allegiance and betrays his country; one guilty of treason; one who, in breach of trust, delivers his country to its enemy, or any fort or place intrusted to its defense, or who surrenders an army or body of troops to the enemy, unless when vanquished; or one who takes arms and levies war against his country; or one who aids an enemy in conquering his country.

Traitorous. Guilty of treason; treacherous; perfidious; faithless; as, a traitorous officer or subject. Also, consisting of treason; partaking of treason; implying breach of allegiance; as, a traitorous scheme or conspiracy.

Trajan’s Wall. A line of fortifications stretching across the Dobrudscha from Czernavoda, where the Danube bends northwards, to a point of the Black Sea coast near Kustendji. It consists of a double, and in some places a triple, line of ramparts of earth, from 8³⁄₄ to 11 feet in height on the average (though occasionally it attains an altitude of 19¹⁄₂ feet), bounded along its north side by a valley, which being generally marshy, and abounding in small lakes and pools, serves admirably the purpose of a fosse. During the war of 1854, Trajan’s wall became an important line of defense on the invasion of the Dobrudscha by the Russians, and the invaders were twice defeated in their attempts to pass it,—at Kostelli, (April 10), and Czernavoda (April 20-22).

Trajectory. The increasing curve described by a projectile in its flight through the air. See Projectile, Projectiles, Theory of.

Tralee. A town of Ireland, chief town of the county of Kerry, on the river Lea, 59 miles northwest from Cork. Tralee was destroyed in the rebellion of 1641.

Trani. A maritime city of Southern Italy, in the province of Terra di Bari, 25 miles northwest of the town of Bari. Trani submitted to the Normans in 1053. It was then the chief town of a vast country, and was an important harbor in the time of the crusades.

Transfers. Soldiers taken out of one troop, or company, and placed in another are so called. Non-commissioned officers or soldiers will not be transferred from one regiment to another without the authority of the commanding general. The colonel of a regiment may, upon the application of the captains, transfer a non-commissioned officer or soldier from one company to another of his regiment,—with consent of the department commander in case of a change of post. The transfer of officers from one regiment or corps to another will be made only by the war department, on the mutual application of the parties desiring the exchange.

Transfixed. An ancient term used to express the state of being desperately wounded by some pointed instrument, as being run through by a spear, javelin, or bayonet; pierced through so that the weapon is fixed in another body.

Transfluent. In heraldry, passing or flowing through a bridge,—said of water.

Transfuge. A turncoat, a deserter, a runaway; one who abandons his party in time of war, and goes over to the enemy.

Transit-compass. A species of theodolite, consisting of a telescope revolving in a vertical plane on a horizontal axis, as in a transit-instrument, combined with a compass, a graduated horizontal limb, etc., used for running lines, observing bearings, horizontal angles, and the like; called also surveyor’s transit.

Transoms. In gunnery, are pieces of wood or iron which join the cheeks of gun-carriages and hold them together; they are known as the front and rear transoms.

Transportation. The act of transporting, carrying, or conveying from one place to another; as, the transportation of troops, munitions of war, etc.

Transportation of Artillery. In transporting artillery by sea, divide the total quantity to be transported among the vessels, and place in each vessel everything necessary for the service required at the moment of disembarkation, so that there will be no inconvenience should other vessels be delayed. If a siege is to be undertaken, place in each vessel with each piece of artillery its implements, ammunition, and the carriages necessary to transport the whole or a part; the platforms, tools, instruments, and materials for constructing batteries; skids, rollers, scantling, and plank. If a particular caliber of gun is necessary for any operation, do not place all of one kind in one vessel, to avoid being entirely deprived of them by accident. Dismount the carriages, wagons, and limbers, by taking off the wheels and boxes, and, if absolutely necessary, the axle-trees. Place in the boxes the linch-pins, washers, etc., with the tools required for putting the carriages together again. Number each carriage, and mark each detached article with the number of the carriage to which it belongs. The contents of each box, barrel, or bundle, should be marked distinctly upon it. The boxes should be made small for the convenience of handling, and have rope handles to lift them by. Place the heaviest articles below, beginning with the shot and shells (empty), then the guns, platforms, carriages, wagons, limbers, ammunition, boxes, etc.; boxes of small-arms and ammunition in the dryest and least exposed part of the vessel. Articles required to be disembarked first should be put in last, or so placed that they can be readily got at. If the disembarkation is to be performed in front of the enemy, some of the field-pieces should be so placed that they can be disembarked immediately, with their carriages, implements, and ammunition; also the tools and materials for throwing up temporary intrenchments on landing. Some vessels should be laden solely with such powder and ammunition as may not be required for the immediate service of the pieces. On a smooth sandy beach, heavy pieces, etc., may be landed by rolling them overboard as soon as the boats ground, and hauling them up with sling-carts.

Transylvania. Is the most easterly crownland of Austria, and is bounded on the north by Hungary and Galicia, east by Bukovina and Moldavia, south by Wallachia, and west by the Military Frontier, the Banat, and Hungary. Transylvania is little noticed in history till the Christian era, when part of it was occupied by the warlike Dacians, soon after whom the Sarmatian tribes of the Jazyges and Carpi settled in it. The conquest of the Dacians by Trajan, however, did not include that of the other two peoples, who proved very troublesome to the Roman settlers along the Danube, till they were conquered by Diocletian, and the Carpi carried away to Pannonia and other districts. In the middle of the 4th century, the Goths overran the country, defeating the Sarmatians in a great battle on the Maros, in which the monarch and the chief of his nobility perished; and they in their turn were forced in 375 to retire before the Huns and their confederates. The Gepidæ next took possession of Transylvania, till their almost complete extirpation, in 566, by the Lombards and Avars. It was conquered by the Hungarians about 1000, and was governed by woivodes till 1526, when the death of the Hungarian monarch at Mohacs prepared the way for the union of the two countries under the woivode John Zapolya; but the war which thence arose with the Austrians caused their complete severance, and Zapolya’s sway was, in 1535, confined to Transylvania, of which he became sovereign lord, under the protection of the Turks. The Saxons were summoned by the Hungarian monarchs to act as a counterpoise to the increasing power of the nobles; the firm protection and generous treatment accorded to the Saxons by the Hungarian monarchs were rewarded by steadfast loyalty and succor in men and money whenever required. During the rest of the 16th century the country was distracted by the bitter strife between the Catholic party, who were supported by Austria, and the Protestant party, who were allied with the Turks; the latter party, headed successively by princes of the houses of Zapolya and Bathory, generally maintaining the superiority. The next chief of the Protestant party was the celebrated Botskay, whose successes against Austria extorted from the emperor an acknowledgment of the independence of Transylvania in 1606. To him succeeded Bethlem Gabor, the determined foe of Catholicism and Austria, who did important service during the Thirty Years’ War. Between his son and successor, Stephen, and Ragotski arose a contest for the crown, in which the latter prevailed; but on Ragotski’s death, the civil war was resumed, till the complete rout of the Austrians by the Turks, under Kiupruli, placed the sceptre in the hands of Michael Abaffi, who reigned till his death, in 1690, as a vassal of the Porte. The Austrians now again possessed themselves of Transylvania, despite the heroic resistance of Ragotski; and though Tekeli succeeded for a brief period in rolling back the invaders, the peace of Carlowitz, in 1699, again put them in possession; and in 1713 Transylvania was completely incorporated with Hungary. During the insurrection in 1848 the Hungarians and Szeklers (one of the races inhabiting Transylvania) joined the insurgents and forced Transylvania to reunite with Hungary, despite the opposition of the Saxons; and the Wallachs, still little better than a horde of savages, were let loose over the land, to burn, plunder, and murder indiscriminately; the prostration of the country being completed in the following year during the bloody conflict which took place here between Bem and the Russian troops. In the same year Transylvania was again separated from its turbulent neighbor and made a crownland, the portions of it which had, in 1835, been annexed to Hungary being restored, as well as the Transylvanian Military Frontier, in 1851.

Trapani. See Drepanum.

Trapezus (now Tarabosan, Trabezun, or Trebizond). A colony of Sinope, at almost the extreme east of the northern shore of Asia Minor. It was strongly fortified. It was taken by the Goths in the reign of Valerian.

Trappings. See Housing.

Trasimenus Lacus. The ancient name of an Italian lake (Lago Trasimeno, or Lago di Perugia), lying between the towns of Cortona and Perugia. Trasimenus Lacus is memorable chiefly for the great victory obtained by Hannibal in 217 B.C., during the second Punic war, over the Romans, under their consul, C. Flaminius. Hannibal leaving Tæsulæ passed close by the camp of Flaminius at Arretium, laying waste the country as he proceeded in the direction of Rome. This, as the Carthaginian general intended, induced the consul to break up his encampment and follow in pursuit, Hannibal in the mean time taking up a strong position on the hills on the north side of the lake, along which he was passing. The consul, coming up early next morning, when the whole place was enveloped in mist, saw only the troops in front on the hill of Tuoro, with whom he was preparing to engage, when he found himself surrounded and attacked on all sides. The Carthaginians thus had the Romans completely in their power, and took such advantage of the opportunity, that 16,000 Roman troops are said to have been either massacred or drowned in the lake; Flaminius himself being among the first who fell; 6000 troops who had forced their way through the enemy, surrendered next day to Maharbal. It is said both by Livy and Pliny that the fury on both sides was so great as to render the combatants unconscious of the shock of an earthquake which occurred during the battle.

Trautenau. A town of Bohemia, 25 miles north-northeast from Königgratz. On June 27, 1866, the 1st Corps of the army of the crown-prince of Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and repulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz; on the 28th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with great loss.

Traveling Allowance. Is an allowance made to officers when traveling under proper orders. An officer who travels not less than 10 miles from his station, without troops, escort of military stores, and under special orders in the case from a superior, or summons to attend a military court, shall receive 8 cents per mile. Whenever a soldier shall be discharged from the service, except by way of punishment for any offense, or on his own application, or for disability prior to three months’ service, he shall be allowed his pay and rations, or an equivalent in money, for such term of time as shall be sufficient for him to travel from the place of his discharge to the place of his residence, computing at the rate of twenty miles to a day.

Traveling Forge. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Traveling Kitchen. Marshal Saxe, it is believed, first suggested the idea of cooking while marching, so as to economize the strength of soldiers, have their food well cooked in all weather, and avoid the numerous diseases caused by bad cooking and want of rest. Col. Cavalli, of the Sardinian artillery, has with the same laudable motive embraced a kitchen-cart in the improvements suggested by him to replace the wagons now in use, and an attempt is here made to elaborate the same idea of a traveling-kitchen, designed for baking, making soup, and other cooking, while on a march. The cart is 12¹⁄₂ feet long, mounted on two 6-feet wheels covered with a very light canvas roof with leather-cloth curtains. A large range or stove forms the body of the vehicle; its grate is below the floor, its doors opening on a level with it. A Papin’s digester is inclosed above the grate, in a flue whence the heat may pass around the double oven in the rear, or straight up the chimney, as regulated by dampers. At the side of the digester, over the grate, is a range, suited to various cooking vessels. The top of the oven forms a table nearly 5 feet square, at which three cooks may work, standing upon the rear platform. A foot-board passes from this platform to the front platform, where the driver and cook may stand. Stores may be placed in the lockers at the side of the range, and under the rear foot-board. The chimney may be turned down above the roof, to pass under trees, etc., and may be of any height to secure a good draught. By bending the axle like that of an omnibus, the vehicle may be hung without danger of top-heaviness. Cooking vessels more bulky than heavy may be suspended from the roof, over the range, when not in use. The digester may have a capacity of 100 gallons, and an oven of 60 to 75 cubic feet would be quite adequate to the cooking for 250 men; or the dimensions of the cart may be smaller, and each company of 100 men might have its own traveling-kitchen, which would also furnish oven and cooking utensils for a camp.

Traveling Trunnion-beds. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Siege-carriages.

Traverse. The turning a gun so as to make it point in any desired direction.

Traverse Circles. In gunnery, are circular plates of iron, fastened to a bed of solid masonry, on which the traverse wheels, which support the chassis, roll.

Traverses. In fortifications, are mounds of earth, above the height of a man, and 18 feet thick, placed at frequent intervals on a rampart, to stop shot which may enfilade the face of such rampart. A fire of this nature, in the absence of traverses, would dismount the guns, and prove altogether ruinous. The traverses also give means of disputing the progress of an assailant who has gained a footing on the wall, for each traverse becomes a defensible parapet, only to be taken by storm.

Traversing-plates. In gun-carriages, are two thin iron plates, nailed on the hind part of a truck-carriage of guns, where the hand-spike is used to traverse the gun.

Traversing-platform. An elevation on which the guns are mounted for the defense of the coast, and generally for all sea-batteries, as affording greater facility of traversing the gun, so as to follow, without loss of time, any quick-moving object on the water.

Travois. A rude but efficient mode of transportation for conveying the wounded over a level or rolling country, when ambulances are not at hand. It consists of two poles about 16 feet long and 4 inches in diameter; two stretcher bars or poles, 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter and 3 feet long; and a canvas or rawhide bottom, 5¹⁄₂ feet long and 2¹⁄₂ feet broad; and if of canvas, with eyelet-holes at the sides and ends, which are to be lashed to the poles with rope. The rear ends of the travois-poles rest on the ground, while the front ends are attached to each side of a mule, which draws the travois. The litter is better adapted to a rough country. (See Litter.) The ordinary teepe-poles with which the Indians pitch their tents when in villages are also used in constructing the travois. The Dakota and Montana Sioux, who use mountain-pine or ash-poles, select straight, well-proportioned saplings of those woods, trim them down to the proper size and taper, and lay them aside to season. The dressed poles are about 30 feet long, 2 to 2¹⁄₂ inches at the butt, and 1¹⁄₂ inches at the other extremity. The couch is oval, and the rim is made exclusively of ash, bent into the desired shape when the wood is green. A net-work of rawhide is afterwards lashed to the rim and completes the bed. The bed is 3¹⁄₂ to 4 feet in its transverse, and 2¹⁄₂ to 3 feet in its conjugate diameter. Two or three of the teepe-poles are lashed together, butts to butts, with rawhide, and then lashed to the pack-saddle on the mule, the small ends of the poles trailing the ground. The bed with the longer diameter is then laid transversely on the poles and lashed about 1 foot in rear of the animal. A blanket, piece of canvas, or buffalo-robe lashed to the lower half of the oval rim of the bed completes the outfit. This latter travois is claimed by some officers of the army to be well adapted for transporting wounded even over a rough country.

Tread. In fortification, the tread of a banquette is the upper and flat surface on which the soldier stands whilst firing over the parapet.

Treason. A general appellation to denote not only offenses against the king and government, but also that accumulation of guilt which arises whenever a superior reposes confidence in a subject or inferior, between whom and himself there subsists a natural, a civil, or even a spiritual relation; and the inferior so abuses that confidence, so forgets the obligations of duty, subjection, and allegiance, as to destroy the life of any such superior or lord. It is, according to English law, a general name, in short, for treachery against the sovereign or liege lord. High treason (the crimen læsæ majestatis of the Romans) is an offense committed against the security of the king or kingdom, whether by imagination, word, or deed. In the United States, treason is confined to the actual levying of war against the United States; or an adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.

Treaty. An agreement, league, or contract, between two or more nations or sovereigns, formally signed by commissioners properly authorized, and solemnly ratified by the several sovereigns or the supreme power of each state; an agreement between two or more independent states.

A treaty of guaranty is an engagement by which one state promises to aid another when it is disturbed, or threatened to be disturbed, in the peaceable enjoyments of its rights by a third power. Treaties of alliance may be offensive or defensive; in the former the ally engages generally to co-operate in hostilities against a specified power, or against any power with which the other may be at war; in the latter, the engagements of the ally extend only to a war of aggression commenced against the other contracting party. The execution of a treaty is occasionally secured by hostages; as at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, when several peers were sent to Paris as hostages for the restoration of Cape Breton by Great Britain to France. For celebrated treaties, see appropriate headings in this work.

Trebbia. A small but famous stream of Northern Italy, which joins the Po 2 miles west of Piacenza. On its banks Hannibal decisively defeated the Roman consul Sempronius, 218 B.C.; the French were also defeated here by Suwarrow in 1799.

Trebuchet, or Trebucket. A machine used in the Middle Ages for throwing stones, etc., acting by means of a great weight fastened to the short arm of a lever, which, being let fall, raised the end of the long arm with great velocity, and hurled stones with much force.

Trefle (Trefoil). A term used in mining, from the similarity of the figure to trefoil. The simple trefle has only two lodgments; the double trefle, four; and the triple one, six.

Trefoil. In heraldry, is a frequent charge, representing the clover-leaf, and is always depicted as slipped,—i.e., furnished with a stalk.

Trench-cavalier. In fortification, an elevation constructed, by a besieger, of gabions, fascines, earth, and the like, about half-way up the glacis, in order to discover and enfilade the covert way.

Trenches. The communications, boyaux, or zigzags, as well as the parallels or places of arms opened by besiegers against a fortification are trenches. They are from 6 to 10 feet wide and about 3 feet deep. (See Parallels, and Siege.) To mount the trenches, is to mount guard in the trenches, which is generally done in the night. To relieve the trenches, is to relieve the guard of the trenches. To scour the trenches, is to make a vigorous sally upon the guard of the trenches, force them to give way, and quit their ground, drive away the workmen, break down the parapet, till up the trenches, and spike their cannon.

Trenches, Opening of. See Opening of Trenches.

Trench-shelter. A trench hastily thrown up to give cover to troops on a field of battle. It is always 1 foot 3 inches deep, and the parapet is from 1¹⁄₄ to 1¹⁄₂ feet high. A trench 2 feet broad can be made in from 10 to 20 minutes; one 4 feet wide in from 20 to 40 minutes; and one 7 feet broad in from 30 to 60 minutes. There are also small trenches in rear for the supernumeraries.

Trenton. The capital city of the State of New Jersey, on the left bank of the Delaware River, at the confluence of Assunpink Creek. In the war of the Revolution, Trenton was the scene of a night attack by Washington upon the British troops—chiefly Hessians—whom he surprised by crossing the Delaware, when the floating ice was supposed to have rendered it impassable, on the night of December 25 and morning of the 26th, 1776.

Trepied. In ancient times, a ballista was so called when supported on three legs.

Tressure. In heraldry, a subordinary, generally said to be half the breadth of the orle, and usually borne double, and flowered and counterflowered with fleurs-de-lis. It forms part of the royal insignia of Scotland. The tressure is held in great honor in Scottish heraldry.

Trestles. A trestle is composed of a cap about 15 feet by 9 inches by 9 inches, of four legs, of two upper and two lower traverses, and of four braces. The cap is notched 18 inches from the end, to receive the legs; the notch is 5 inches wide and 1 deep. The legs should be from 5 to 6 inches square; a shoulder is made to tit the notch in the cap; the spread is quarter the height. The inclination in the other direction about one-sixteenth. The leg is spiked, pinned, or bolted to the cap. The lower traverse is 5 inches by 1¹⁄₂ inches, and is dovetailed into the legs at about one-quarter their height from the ground. The upper traverse, which is nailed on the outside of the legs and against the cap, is 6 inches wide and 1¹⁄₂ inches thick. The braces are 4 inches wide by 1¹⁄₂ inches thick, and are spiked to the cap and legs. When trestles are to be placed on a soft bottom, a flat sill may be spiked under the legs of each side.

Trestle Bridge.—When the water is less than 4 feet deep, the trestles may be carried to their places by men wading in the stream; an abutment is formed as for an ordinary bridge; the trestles are placed with their caps parallel to the abutment sill and about 13 feet apart. When the water is too deep or too cold to allow this method to be pursued, the bridge may be constructed as follows:

The abutment sill being placed, the first trestle can usually be placed by hand; the balks are laid and covered with chesses to within 1 foot of the trestle, a roller is laid on the bridge; on this are laid two beams, from 30 to 40 feet long and 6 or 7 inches square. The trestle is placed upright, with its cap resting on these beams, to which it is firmly lashed. The pontoniers bear down on the other ends of the beams, at the same time pushing until the trestle is rolled out to the proper distance; then they suddenly release the beams, dropping the trestle into its place. The flooring balks are slid out on the two beams, adjusted, and covered with chesses.

When a boat or raft can be procured, the trestles are placed with much less labor. The boat is brought alongside the last trestle placed; two balks are laid from the bridge, resting on a saddle, or the outer gunwale of the boat; the side of the trestle-cap is laid on the balks, the legs extending over the outer gunwale of the boat. The boat is pushed off by means of the balks until it arrives at the proper position for placing the trestle, which is then righted. If it has not good bearing on the bottom, it is hauled into the boat and the legs are cut to the proper length.

The bridge may be entirely built of round timber. The caps should be from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, the legs at least 6 inches, the balks 7 or 8 inches, and faced on the lower side where they rest on the trestles, so as to bring their upper surfaces on the same plane. The covering may be of strong hurdles.

Treves, or Trier (anc. Augusta Trevirorum). A town of Rhenish Prussia, on the right bank of the Moselle, 65 miles southwest from Coblentz. Treves derives its name from the Treviri, or Treveri (which see). Their capital, Augusta Trevirorum, became a Roman colony in the time of Augustus, and ultimately became the headquarters of the Roman commanders on the Rhine, and a frequent residence of the emperors. Under the Franks, into whose hands it fell in 463, it continued to flourish. In 843 it passed to Lorraine; in 870 to Germany; in 895 back to Lorraine, and finally was united to Germany by the emperor Henry I. Since 1814, Treves has belonged to Prussia.

Treviri, or Treveri. A powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who were faithful allies of the Romans, and whose cavalry was the best in all Gaul.

Treviso. A fortified town of Italy, in Venice, 17 miles northwest from Venice. Treviso, the ancient Trevisium, was a free town under the Romans; and after the fall of the empire was conquered in turn by the Huns, Ostrogoths, and Lombards. Thereafter it was for a time independent, and at length, in 1344, voluntarily submitted itself to the republic of Venice.

Tria Juncta in Uno (three joined in one). The motto of the knights of the military order of the Bath, signifying “faith, hope, and charity.”

Trial. The formal examination of the matter in issue in a cause before a competent tribunal; the mode of determining a question of fact in a court of law; the examination, in legal form, of the facts in issue in a cause pending before a competent tribunal, for the purpose of determining such issue. Military trials shall be carried on only between the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon, except in cases which, in the opinion of the officer ordering the court, require immediate example (Art. 94). No officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier shall be tried a second time for the same offense (Art. 102); and no person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any offense which shall appear to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period (Art. 103). All trials before courts-martial, like those in civil courts, are conducted publicly; and in order that this publicity may in no case be attended with tumult or indecorum of any kind, the court is authorized, by the Rules and Articles of War, to punish, at its discretion, all riotous and disorderly proceedings or menacing words, signs, or gestures, used in its presence (Art. 86). The day and place of meeting of a general court-martial having been published in orders, the officers appointed as members, and parties and witnesses, must attend accordingly. The judge-advocate, at the opening, calls over the names of the members, who arrange themselves on the right or left of the president, according to rank. The members of the court having taken their seats and disposed of any preliminary matter, the prisoner, prosecutor, and witnesses are called into court. The prisoner is attended by a guard, or by an officer, as his rank or the nature of the charge may dictate; but during the trial should be unfettered and free from any bonds or shackles, unless there be danger of escape or rescue. Accommodation is usually afforded at detached tables for the prosecutor and prisoner; also for any friend or legal adviser of the prisoner or prosecutor, whose assistance has been desired during the trial; but the prisoner only can address the court, it being an admitted maxim, that counsel are not to interfere in the proceedings, or to offer the slightest remark, much less to plead or argue. The judge-advocate, by direction of the president, first reads, in an audible voice, the order for holding the court. He then calls over the names of the members, commencing with the president, who is always the highest in rank. He then demands of the prisoner whether he has any exception or cause of challenge against any of the members present, and if he have, he is required to state his cause of challenge, confining his challenge to one member at a time (Art. 88). After hearing the prisoner’s objections, the president must order the court to be cleared, when the members will deliberate on and determine the relevancy or validity of the objection; the member challenged retiring during the discussion. When the prisoner and prosecutor decline to challenge any of the members, or where the causes of challenge have been disallowed, the judge-advocate proceeds to administer to the members of the court the oath prescribed by the 84th Article of War. The oath is taken by each member holding up his right hand and repeating the words after the judge-advocate. After the oath has been administered to all the members, the president administers to the judge-advocate the particular oath of secrecy to be observed by him, as prescribed by the 85th Article of War. No sentence of a general court-martial is complete or final until it has been duly approved. Until that period it is, strictly speaking, no more than an opinion, which is subject to alteration or revisal. In this interval, the communication of that opinion could answer no ends of justice, but might, in many cases, tend to frustrate them. The obligation to perpetual secrecy, with regard to the votes or opinions of the particular members of the court, is likewise founded on the wisest policy. The officers who compose a military tribunal are, in a great degree, dependent for their preferment on the President. They are even, in some measure, under the influence of their commander-in-chief,—considerations which might impair justice. This danger is, therefore, best obviated by the confidence and security which every member possesses, that his particular opinion is never to be divulged. Another reason is, that the individual members of the court may not be exposed to the resentment of parties and their connections, which can hardly fail to be excited by these sentences which courts-martial are obliged to award. It may be necessary for officers, in the course of their duty, daily, to associate and frequently to be sent on the same command or service, with a person against whom they have given an unfavorable vote or opinion on a court-martial. The publicity of these votes or opinions would create the most dangerous animosities, equally fatal to the peace and security of individuals, and prejudicial to the public service. The court being regularly constituted, and every preliminary form gone through, the judge-advocate, as prosecutor for the United States, desires the prisoner to listen to the charge or charges brought against him, which he reads with an audible voice, and then the prisoner is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty of the matter of accusation. The charge being sufficient, or not objected to, the prisoner must plead either: (1st) Guilty; or (2d) Specially to the jurisdiction, or in bar; or (3d) The general plea of not guilty, which is the usual course where the prisoner makes a defense. If from obstinacy and design the prisoner stands mute, or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment, as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty (Art. 89); but if the prisoner plead guilty, the court will proceed to determine what punishment shall be awarded, and to pronounce sentence thereon. Preparatory to this, in all cases where the punishment of the offense charged is discretionary, and especially where the discretion includes a wide range and great variety of punishment, and the specifications do not show all the circumstances attending the offense, the court should receive and report, in its proceedings, any evidence the judge-advocate may offer, for the purpose of illustrating the actual character of the offense, notwithstanding the party accused may have pleaded guilty; such evidence being necessary to an enlightened exercise of the discretion of the court, in measuring the punishment, as well as for the approving authority. If there be any exception to this rule, it is where the specification is so full and precise as to disclose all the circumstances of mitigation or aggravation which accompany the offense. When that is the case, or when the punishment is fixed, and no discretion is allowed, explanatory testimony cannot be needed. Special pleas are either to the jurisdiction of the court or in bar of the charge. If an officer or soldier be arraigned by a court not legally constituted, either as to the authority by which it is assembled, or as to the number and rank of its members, or other similar causes, a prisoner may except to the jurisdiction of the court-martial. Special pleas in bar go to the merits of the case, and set forth a reason why, even admitting the charge to be true, it should be dismissed, and the prisoner discharged. A former acquittal or conviction of the same offense would obviously be a valid bar, except in case of appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial. Though the facts in issue should be charged to have happened more than two years prior to the date of the order for the assembling of the court-martial, yet it is not the province of the court, unless objection be made, to inquire into the cause of the impediment in the outset. It would be to presume the illegality of the court, whereas the court should assume that manifest impediment to earlier trial did exist, and leave the facts to be developed by witnesses in the ordinary course. A pardon may be pleaded in bar. If full, it at once destroys the end and purpose of the charge, by remitting that punishment which the prosecution seeks to inflict; if conditional, the performance of the condition must be known; thus a soldier arraigned for desertion, must plead a general pardon, and prove that he surrendered himself within the stipulated period. No officer or soldier, being acquitted or convicted of an offense, is liable to be tried a second time for the same. But this provision applies solely to trials for the same incidental act and crime, and to such persons as have, in the first instance, been legally tried. If any irregularity take place on the trial rendering it illegal and void, the prisoner must be discharged, and be regarded as standing in the same situation as before the commencement of these illegal proceedings. The same charge may, therefore, be again preferred against the prisoner who cannot plead the previous illegal trial in bar. A prisoner cannot plead in bar that he has not been furnished with a copy of the charges, or that the copy furnished him differed from that on which he had been arraigned. It is customary and proper to furnish him with a correct copy, but the omission shall not make void, though it may postpone the trial. If the special plea in bar be such that, if true, the charge should be dismissed and the prisoner discharged, the judge-advocate should be called on to answer it. If he does not admit it to be true, the prisoner must produce evidence to the points alleged therein; and if, on deliberation, the plea be found true, the facts being recorded, the court will adjourn and the president submit the proceedings to the officer by whose order the court was convened, with a view to the immediate discharge of the prisoner. The ordinary plea is not guilty, in which case the trial proceeds. The judge-advocate cautions all witnesses on the trial to withdraw, and to return to court only on being called. He then proceeds to the examination of witnesses, and to the reading and proof of any written evidence he may have to bring forward. After a prisoner has been arraigned on specific charges, it is irregular for a court-martial to admit any additional charge against him, even though he may not have entered on his defense. The trial on the charges first preferred must be regularly concluded, when, if necessary, the prisoner may be tried on any further accusation brought against him. On the trial of cases not capital, before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses not in the line or staff of the army may be taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence, provided the prosecutor and person accused are present at the same, or are duly notified thereof. The examination of witnesses is invariably in the presence of the court; because the countenance, looks, and gestures of a witness add to, or take away from, the weight of his testimony. It is usually by interrogation, sometimes by narration; in either case, the judge-advocate records the evidence, as nearly as possible, in the express words of the witness. All evidence, whatever, should be recorded on the proceedings, in the order in which it is received by the court. A question to a witness is registered before enunciation; when once entered, it cannot be expunged, except by the consent of the parties before the court; if not permitted to be put to the witness, it still appears on the proceedings accompanied by the decision of the court. The examination-in-chief of each particular witness being ended, the cross-examination usually follows, though it is optional with the prisoner to defer it to the final close of the examination-in-chief. The re-examination by the prosecutor, on such new points as the prisoner may have made, succeeds the cross-examination, and finally, the court puts such questions as in its judgment may tend to elicit the truth. It is customary, when deemed necessary by the court, or desired by a witness, to read over to him, immediately before he leaves the court, the record of his evidence, which he is desired to correct if erroneous, and, with this view, any remark or explanation is entered upon the proceedings. No erasure or obliteration is, however, admitted, as it is essentially necessary that the authority which has to review the sentence should have the most ample means of judging, not only of any discrepancy in the statements of a witness, but of any incident which may be made the subject of remark, by either party in addressing the court. Although a list of witnesses, summoned by the judge-advocate, is furnished to the court on assembling, it is not held imperative on the prosecutor to examine such witnesses; if he should not do so, however, the prisoner has a right to call any of them. Should the prisoner, having closed his cross-examination, think proper subsequently to recall a prosecutor’s witness in his defense, the examination is held to be in chief, and the witness is subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor. Although either party may have concluded his case, or the regular examination of a witness, yet should a material question have been omitted, it is usually submitted by the party to the president, for the consideration of the court, which generally permits it to be put. The prisoner being placed on his defense, may proceed at once to the examination of witnesses: firstly, to meet the charge; and, secondly, to speak as to character, reserving his address to the court until the conclusion of such examination. The prisoner having finished the examination-in-chief of each witness, the prosecution cross-examines; the prisoner re-examines to the extent allowed to the prosecutor, that is, on such new points as the cross-examination may have touched on, and the court puts any questions deemed necessary. The prisoner having finally closed his examination of witnesses, and selecting this period to address the court, offers such statement or argument as he may deem conducive to weaken the force of the prosecution, by placing his conduct in the most favorable light, accounting for or palliating facts, confuting or removing any imputation as to motives; answering the arguments of the prosecutor, contrasting, comparing, and commenting on any contradictory evidence; summing up the evidence on both sides where the result promises to favor the defense, and finally, presenting his deductions therefrom. The utmost liberty consistent with the interest of parties not before the court and with the respect due to the court itself should, at all times, be allowed a prisoner. As he has an undoubted right to impeach, by evidence, the character of the witnesses brought against him, so he is justified in contrasting and remarking on their testimony, and on the motives by which they, or the prosecutor, may have been influenced. All coarse and insulting language is, however, to be avoided, nor ought invective to be indulged in, as the most pointed evidence may be couched in the most decorous language. The court will prevent the prisoner from adverting to parties not before the court, or only alluded to in evidence, further than may be actually necessary to his own exculpation. It may sometimes happen that the party accused may find it absolutely necessary, in defense of himself, to throw blame and even criminality on others, who are no parties to the trial; nor can a prisoner be refused that liberty, which is essential to his own justification. It is sufficient for the party aggrieved that the law can furnish ample redress against all calumnious or unjust accusations. The court is bound to hear whatever address, in his defense, the accused may think fit to offer, not being in itself contemptuous or disrespectful. It is competent to a court, if it think proper, to caution the prisoner as he proceeds, that, in its opinion, such a line of defense as he may be pursuing would probably not weigh with the court, nor operate in his favor; but, to decide against hearing him state arguments, which, notwithstanding such caution, he might persist in putting forward, as grounds of justification, or extenuation (such arguments not being illegal in themselves), is going beyond what any court would be warranted in doing. It occasionally happens that, on presenting to the court a written address, the prisoner is unequal to the task of reading it, from indisposition or nervous excitement; on such occasions, the judge-advocate is sometimes requested by the president to read it; but, as the impression which might be anticipated to be made by it may, in the judgment of the prisoner, be effected more or less by the manner of its delivery, courts-martial generally feel disposed to concede to the accused the indulgence of permitting it to be read by any friend named by him, particularly if that friend be a military man, or if the judge-advocate be the actual prosecutor. Courts-martial are particularly guarded in adhering to the custom of resisting every attempt on the part of counsel to address them. A lawyer is not recognized by a court-martial, though his presence is tolerated, as a friend of the prisoner, to assist him by advice in preparing questions for witnesses, in taking notes and shaping his defense. The prisoner having closed his defense, the prosecutor is entitled to reply, when witnesses have been examined on the defense, or where new facts are opened in the address. Thus, though no evidence may be brought forward by the prisoner, yet should he advert to any case, and, by drawing a parallel, attempt to draw his justification from it, the prosecutor will be permitted to observe on the case so cited. When the court allows the prosecutor to reply, it generally grants him a reasonable time to prepare it; and, upon his reading it, the trial ceases. Should the prisoner have examined witnesses to points not touched on in the prosecution, or should he have entered on an examination impeaching the credibility of the prosecutor’s evidence, the prosecutor is allowed to examine witnesses to the new matter; the court being careful to confine him within the limits of this rule, which extends to the re-establishing the character of his witnesses, to impeaching those of the defense, and to rebutting the new matter brought forward by the prisoner, supported by evidence. He cannot be allowed to examine on any points which, in their nature, he might have foreseen previously to the defense of the prisoner. The prosecutor will not be permitted to bring forward evidence to rebut or counteract the effect of matter elicited by his own cross-examination; but is strictly confined to new matter introduced by the prisoner, and supported by his examination-in-chief. A defense resting on motives, or qualifying the imputation attaching to facts, generally lets in evidence in reply; as, in such cases, the prisoner usually adverts, by evidence, to matter which it would have been impossible for the prosecutor to anticipate. The admissibility of evidence, in reply, may generally be determined by the answer to the questions: Could the prosecutor have foreseen this? Is it evidently new matter? Is the object of the further inquiry to re-establish the character of the witnesses impeached by evidence (not by declamation) in the course of the defense, or is it to impeach the character of the prisoner’s witnesses? Cross-examination of such new witnesses, to an extent limited by the examination-in-chief, that is, confined to such points or matter as the prosecutor shall have examined on, is allowed on the part of the prisoner.

Triangles. A wooden instrument consisting of three poles so fastened at the top that they may spread at bottom in a triangular form, and by means of spikes affixed to each pole, remain firm in the earth. An iron bar, breast-high, goes across one side of the triangle. The triangles were used in some regiments for the purpose of inflicting military punishment when corporeal chastisement was much in vogue.

Triarii. In the Roman legions, consisted of veteran soldiers, who formed the third line in the order of battle.

Triballi. A powerful people in Thrace, a branch of the Getæ dwelling along the Danube, who were defeated by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C., and obliged to sue for peace.

Tribune. In Roman antiquity, an officer or magistrate chosen by the people, to protect them from the oppression of the patricians or nobles, and to defend their liberties against any attempts that might be made upon them by the senate and consuls. The tribunes were at first two, but their number was increased ultimately to ten. There were also military tribunes, officers of the army, of whom there were from four to six in each legion.

Tribute. An annual or stated sum of money or other valuable thing, paid by one prince or nation to another, either as an acknowledgment of submission, or as the price of peace and protection, or by virtue of some treaty; as the Romans made their conquered countries pay tribute.

Trichinopoly. Capital of the district of the same name, of British India; in the presidency of Madras. It is pretty strongly fortified by walls about 2 miles in circuit, lofty, thick, and in some places double. There is also a fort built on a sienite rock about 600 feet high. Two or 3 miles southwest of the town is a large cantonment, containing barracks for a large number of troops. Trichinopoly was subject to a Hindoo rajah until 1732, when the nabob of Arcot gained possession of it; and in 1741 he was in turn dispossessed by the Mahrattas. During the wars between the French and English, the place was much contested; and in 1757, when besieged by the former, it was relieved by the rapid march of an English force under Capt. Calliaud.

Trick. A term used in heraldry to denote a mode of representing arms by sketching them in outline, and appending letters to express the tinctures, and sometimes numerals to indicate the repetition of changes.

Trident. In Roman antiquity, a three-pronged spear used in the contests of gladiators by the retiarius.

Triest, or Trieste (anc. Tergeste, or Tergestum). The principal seaport city of the Austrian empire, in Illyria, on the Gulf of Triest at the northeast extremity of the Adriatic Sea, 73 miles east-northeast of Venice. The ancient Tergeste first received historical mention in 51 B.C., when it was overrun and plundered by neighboring tribes. It owes its prosperity chiefly to the emperor Charles VI., who constituted it a free port, and to Maria Theresa. In 1797 and in 1805, it was taken by the French.

Trigger. A steel catch, which being pulled disengages the cock of a gunlock, and causes the hammer to strike the nipple in percussion-muskets, and the firing-pin in breech-loaders. The difference between a hair and common trigger is this: the hair-trigger, when set, lets off the cock at the slightest touch, whereas the common trigger requires a greater degree of force, and consequently its operation is retarded.

Trim. The chief town of the county of Meath, Ireland, on the Boyne, 27 miles northwest from Dublin. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649.

Trincomalee. A seaport town and magnificent harbor on the northeast coast of Ceylon. It is a place of great antiquity; it was here that the Malabar invaders of Ceylon built one of their most sacred shrines,—the “Temple of a Thousand Columns,” which was demolished by the Portuguese, who fortified the heights with the materials derived from its destruction, 1622. It was next held by the Dutch; but in 1672, during the rupture between Louis XIV. and the United Provinces, the French took Trincomalee, which was abandoned by the Dutch in a panic. In 1782, the French admiral Suffrein, in the absence of the British commander, took possession of the fort, and the English garrison retired to Madras. It was restored to the Dutch in the following year, and they retained it till the capture of Ceylon by the British in 1795. It was finally ceded to Great Britain, by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802.

Trinidad. An island belonging to Great Britain, and the most southerly of the West India Islands. It is separated from the mainland (Venezuela) by the Gulf of Paria. Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1498; and first colonized by the Spaniards, in 1588. In 1676, the French possessed it for a short time, but it was speedily restored to Spain; and in 1797, it was captured by the British, who have retained it ever since.

Trinobantes. A British tribe, which occupied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing the invasion of Julius Cæsar, 54 B.C.; but they soon came to terms with the Romans.

Trinomalee. A town and fortress of India, in the Carnatic, where Col. Smith greatly distinguished himself against the united forces of Hyder Ali and Nizam Ali, subahdars of the Deccan, with an army of 43,000 horse and 28,000 foot; while the British commander had only 10,000 foot and 1000 horse. The result of this victory was that the Nizam detached himself from Hyder, and in February, 1768, concluded a treaty with the British.

Triparted. In heraldry, parted in three pieces; having three parts or pieces; as, a cross triparted.

Tripartite. Being of three parts, or three parties being concerned; hence, tripartite alliance, or treaty.

Triple Alliance. The name by which two different treaties are known in history, viz.: (1) A treaty concluded in 1668 at the Hague, between England, Holland, and Sweden, having for its object the protection of the Spanish Netherlands, and the checking of the conquests of Louis XIV. (2) An alliance concluded in 1717 between Britain, France, and Holland, against Spain, which included among its stipulations that the Pretender should quit France, and that the treaty of Utrecht should be carried into effect as regards the demolition of Dunkirk. The Protestant succession was guaranteed by this treaty in England, and that of the Duke of Orleans in France.

Tripoli, or Tripolis (in its modern Arabic form, Tarabulus). A seaport and one of the chief commercial towns of Syria, near the coast of the Mediterranean, on both sides of the river Kadisha. On the left side stands the castle built by Count Raymond of Toulouse, in the 12th century, when the city was taken by the Crusaders. It was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832; restored to the Porte, 1835, and it surrendered to the British in 1841.

Tripoli. A regency of the Ottoman empire, and the most easterly of the Barbary States, North Africa. The governor-general has the title, rank, and authority of a pasha of the Ottoman empire. The military force of the country consists of a body of Turkish soldiers, some 10,000 in number, whose business is to keep down insurrections, but who were formerly wont to vary it by creating them. In ancient times, Tripoli seems to have been tributary to the Cyrenæans, from whom, however, it was wrested by the Carthaginians. It next passed to the Romans. Like the rest of Northern Africa, it was conquered by the Arabs, and the feeble Christianity of the natives was supplanted by a vigorous and fanatical Mohammedanism. In 1552 (1551), the Turks got possession of it, and have ever since been the rulers of the country, though the authority of the sultan, up till 1835, had been virtually at zero for more than a century. In that year, however, an expedition was dispatched from Constantinople; the ruling dey, Karamanli, was overthrown and imprisoned; a new Turkish pasha, with viceregal powers, was appointed, and the state made an eyalet of the Ottoman empire. Several rebellions have since taken place (notably in 1842 and 1844), but they have always been suppressed.

Tripolitza (“three cities”). A town of Greece under the Turkish rule, 39 miles southwest from Corinth. In 1821 it was stormed by the Greek insurgents; and in 1828 razed to the ground by the troops of Ibrahim Pasha; it has since, however, been rebuilt.

Tripping. In heraldry, having the right fore foot lifted, the others remaining on the ground, as if he were trotting;—said of an animal, as a hart, buck, and the like, represented in an escutcheon.

Triumph (Lat. triumphus). Was the name given in ancient Rome to the public honor bestowed on a general who had been successful in war. It consisted in a solemn procession along the Via Sacra up to the Capitol, where sacrifice was offered Jupiter. The victor sat in a chariot, drawn by four horses,—his captives marching before, his troops following behind. Certain conditions had to be fulfilled before a triumph could be enjoyed, and it was the business of the senate to see that these were enforced. Under the empire, generals serving abroad were considered to be the emperor’s lieutenants, and therefore, however successful in their wars, they had no claim to a triumph. They received instead triumphal decorations, and other rewards. The oration, or lesser triumph, differs from the greater chiefly in these respects; that the imperator entered the city on foot, clad in the simple toga prætexta of a magistrate, that he bore no sceptre, was not preceded by the senate and a flourish of trumpets, nor followed by victorious troops, but only by the equites and the populace, and that the ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice of a sheep instead of a bull. The ovation, it is scarcely necessary to add, was granted when the success, though considerable, did not fulfill the conditions specified for a triumph.

Triumph. To obtain victory; to meet with success.

Triumphal. Of or pertaining to triumph; used in triumph; indicating, or in honor of, a triumph or victory; as, a triumphal crown; a triumphal arch.

Triumphal Column. See Column, Triumphal.

Triumphal Crown. See Crown, Triumphal.

Triumphant. Celebrating victory; expressive of joy for success; as, a triumphant song.

Triumpher. One who was honored with a triumph in ancient Rome. One who triumphs or rejoices for victory; one who vanquishes.

Trojæ Ludus. Among the Romans was a species of mock fight, similar to the tournaments of the Middle Ages, performed by young noblemen on horseback, who were furnished with arms suitable to their age.

Trojan War. In classical history, a celebrated epoch, which occurred nearly thirteen centuries before the Christian era, and which has formed the subject of the two finest poems in the world,—Homer’s “Iliad” and Virgil’s “Æneid.” This war was undertaken by the states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, had carried away from the house of Menelaus. (See Troy.)

Tromblon. A fire-arm which was formerly fired from a rest, and from which several balls and slugs were discharged. An ancient wall-piece.

Trombone. Formerly a species of blunderbuss for boat-service, taking its name from its unseemly trumpet mouth.

Troop. A company of cavalry. It is the same, with respect to formation, as a company in the infantry.

Troop Corporal-Major. The chief non-commissioned officer of a troop in the British Household Cavalry.

Troop Sergeant-Major. In the British service, is the chief sergeant of a troop.

Trooper. A private or soldier in a body of cavalry; a horse-soldier.

Trooping the Colors. Is a ceremony performed in the British service, at the public mounting of garrison guards.

Troop-ship. A merchant ship “taken up,” as it is called, for the conveyance of soldiers by sea.

Trophy. Was a memorial of victory erected on the spot where the enemy had turned to flight. Among the Greeks (with the exception of the Macedonians, who erected no trophies) one or two shields and helmets of the routed enemy placed upon the trunk of a tree served as the sign and memorial of victory. After a sea-fight the trophy consisted of the beaks and stern-ornaments of the captured vessels, set up on the nearest coast. It was considered wrong to destroy such a trophy, and equally wrong to repair it when it had fallen down through time, for animosity ought not to be perpetual. In early times the Romans never erected trophies on the field, but decorated the buildings at Rome with the spoils of the vanquished. In later times pillars and triumphal arches were employed to commemorate victories. Besides these, in modern times, the humiliation of an enemy is rendered lasting by such devices as the bridge of Jena, of Waterloo, and by the distribution of captured cannon. Morally considered, this practice is no improvement upon the simple and perishable trophies of the ancient Greeks.

Trophy-money. Was certain money formerly raised in the several counties of the kingdom of Great Britain, towards providing harness and maintaining the militia.

Trossulum (now Trusso). A town in Etruria, 9 miles from Volsinii, which is said to have been taken by some Roman equites without the aid of foot-soldiers; whence the Roman equites obtained the name of Trossuli. Some writers identify this town with Troilium, which was taken by the Romans 293 B.C.; but they appear to have been different places.

Trou de Loup (Wolf-hole). In field fortification, is a round hole, about 6 feet deep, and pointed at the bottom, like an inverted cone, with a stake placed in the middle. Trous de loup are frequently dug round a redoubt to obstruct the enemy’s approach. They are circular at the top, of about 4¹⁄₂ feet in diameter.

Trou de Rat (Fr.). Literally, a rat-hole, or rat-catch; figuratively, any disadvantageous position into which troops are rashly driven.

Trowel Bayonet. So called from its shape. A bayonet intended to serve also as an intrenching tool; invented by Lieut. Rice, 5th U. S. Infantry. It is used by part of the U. S. troops at the present time (1880).

Troy. The earliest traditions of the Greek people represent the country on both sides of the Ægean as peopled by various races, either of genuine Hellenic, or of closely affiliated tribes. Among those who peopled the eastern Asiatic coast were the Trojans. The story of the Trojan war is extremely simple. The Trojans, in the person of Paris, or Alexander, the son of the reigning monarch, Priam, are represented as having had certain dealings with the Achæans, or Greeks of the Peloponnesus, in the course of which the gay young prince carries off from the palace of Menelaus, king of Sparta, his spouse Helen, the greatest beauty of her age. To revenge this insult, the Greeks banded themselves together and sailed against Troy with a large fleet. The most notable of the tribes who took part in this expedition were the Argives, or Achæans, the Spartans, the Bœotians, and the Thessalians. Of the Thessalians, the most prominent captain was Achilles; and the general command of the whole expedition was committed to Agamemnon, king of Mycenæ. This well-appointed European army is represented as having spent nine years in besieging the god-built walls of the city of Priam without making any impression on its strength. A violent quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, breaking out in the tenth year, so weakened the invading force that the Trojans, under Hector, pushed the Greeks back to the very verge of the sea, and almost set their ships on fire. At the critical moment, however, the Thessalian captain was reconciled to the head of the expedition; and with his return to the field the fortune of war changed; Hector, the champion of Troy, fell, and the impending doom of the city was darkly foreshadowed; it was finally captured and sacked, 1184 B.C. (the date generally accepted).

Troyes. A town of France, capital of the department of Aube, on the left bank of the Seine. It occupies the site of the ancient Augustobono, the chief town of the Tricasses. It suffered severely in the civil wars of the 15th century, and was taken by Joan of Arc in 1429. A treaty was concluded here between England, France, and Burgundy, May 21, 1420, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown. Troyes was taken by the allied armies February 7; retaken by Napoleon February 23; and again taken by the allies March 4, 1814.

Truce. An agreement between belligerent parties, by which they mutually engage to forbear all acts of hostility against each other for some time, the war still continuing. Truces are of several kinds: general, extending to all the territories and dominions of both parties; and particularly, restrained to particular places; as, for example, by sea, and not by land. They are also absolute, indeterminate, and general; or limited and determined to certain things, for example, to bury the dead. During a truce, it is dishonorable to occupy more advanced ground, or to resort to any act which would confer advantage. A truce requires ordinarily to be confirmed by the commander-in-chief to become binding. It is lawful to break it before the prescribed period, on notice previously agreed on being given to the opposite party. This is called denouncing a truce.