S. (continued 3)

Sinople. In heraldry, the same as Vert (which see).

Sinuessa. An ancient town of Italy, on the shore of the Mediterranean, near the confines of Latium and Campania. It was colonized by the Romans in 296 B.C. It suffered much during the invasion of Hannibal, who, in 217, carried his devastations up to the very gates.

Sioux Indians. See Dakota Indians.

Sir. The title of a knight or baronet, which, for distinction’s sake, is always prefixed to the knight’s or baronet’s Christian name, either in speaking or in writing to him.

Siraceni, Siraci, or Siraces. A powerful people of Sarmatia Asiatica, dwelt in the district of Siracene, east of Palus Mæotis, as far as the river Rha (now Volga). The Romans were engaged in a war with them in 50.

Sirmium (now Mitroviz). An important city in Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, and under the Romans became the capital of Pannonia, and the headquarters of all their operations in their wars against the Dacians and the neighboring barbarians. It contained a large manufactory of arms, a spacious forum, an imperial palace, etc. It was the residence of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the Danube, and the birthplace of the emperor Probus.

Siscia. An important town in Pannonia Superior, situated upon an island formed by the rivers Savus Colapis and Odra. It was a strongly-fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus, from which time it became the most important town in all Pannonia.

Sissopoli, or Sizeboli. A town of Turkey in Europe, 80 miles northeast from Adrianople. It was taken by the Russians in 1829.

Sistova, or Schistab, called also Shtab. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 24 miles east-southeast from Nicopolis. A treaty of peace (“peace of Sistova”) was signed here between Austria and Turkey in 1791.

Sit. In a military sense, to take a stationary position; as, to sit before a fortification, to lie encamped for the purpose of besieging it.

Sitka. Called by the Russians New Archangel, is the most important settlement in Alaska. It is situated on the west side of Baranoff Island, in lat. 57° 3′. The population is mainly composed of Indians and Russian half-breeds. A census taken in 1875 made the total number, excluding Indians, 502. For many years Sitka was the headquarters of the Russian American Company. Upon the transfer of the Territory, in 1867, to the United States, Sitka became the headquarters of the military department of Alaska. It remained an army post till 1877, when the garrison was withdrawn. The inhabitants are at present protected from the Indians by a naval vessel.

Sixain. In the Middle Ages, was an order of battle, wherein six battalions being ranged in one line, the second and fifth were made to advance, to form the vanguard; the first and sixth to retire, to form the rear-guard; the third and fourth remaining on the spot, to form the corps or body of the battle.

Six-shooter. A pistol with six barrels, or capable of firing six shots in quick succession; especially a six-barreled or six-chambered revolver.

Size, To. In a military sense, to take the height of men for the purpose of placing them in military array, and of rendering their relative statures more effective.

Skalitz. A small town of Austria, in the northwest of Hungary, near the borders of Moravia, on the left bank of the March. It was stormed by the Prussian general Steinmetz, June 28, 1866; whereby the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was greatly facilitated.

Skean, Skeen, or Skeine. A Celtic word which signifies a knife. It was a weapon in the shape of a small sword or knife, which was worn by the Irish in ancient times.

Skedaddle. To betake one’s self to flight; to run away with precipitation, as if in a panic; to withdraw, as an army, or part of an army, from the presence of an enemy, especially in a hasty or secret manner.

Skeleton. A word applied to regiments that have become reduced in their number of men.

Sketch, Military. The delineation of a small portion of ground for military purposes. The scale is generally larger than that of a map.

Skid. In military language, is any timber which is used as a base to keep one object from resting on another. Thus, a row of cannon in store will be kept from the ground by skids. The term is also applied to the drag which is put on the wheels of carriages in going up hills, to prevent rolling backwards.

Skierniwice. A town of Russia, situated on the Bzura, 38 miles southwest from Warsaw. The French were defeated here, in 1809, by the Russians.

Skinners. A name assumed by a predatory band in the Revolutionary war, who, professing allegiance to the American cause, but influenced by a desire to plunder, roamed over the “neutral ground” lying between the hostile armies, robbing those who refused to take the oath of fidelity.

Skipton. A town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 38 miles west of York. The old castle of Skipton was founded in the time of William the Conqueror; it was a place of great strength in the 17th century, and held out for three years against the Parliamentary forces. In 1649 it was dismantled, but subsequently rebuilt by the Countess of Pembroke.

Skirmish. A slight fight in war; a light combat between detachments from armies which are yet at a considerable distance from each other, or between detached and small parties.

Skirmish. To fight slightly or in small parties; to engage in a skirmish; to act as skirmishers.

Skirmisher. One who skirmishes; one of such troops as are sent forward in advance, or move deployed in loose order on the flanks of a marching column, to discover and intercept hostile forces.

Skiver. A dirk to stab with.

Skottefer. Formerly a name applied to an archer.

Sky-rocket. See Pyrotechny.

Slash. A cut; a wound; also, a cut in cloth. It was formerly used to express the pieces of tape or worsted lace which were placed upon the arms of non-commissioned officers, in order to distinguish them from privates.

Slash. To strike violently and at random with an edged instrument; to lay about one indiscriminately with blows.

Slashed. Cut in stripes or lines. Hence, slashed sleeves and pockets, which are peculiar to the British cavalry, when the officers or men wear long coats.

Slaughter. The extensive and unnecessary destruction of human life; carnage. Also, to visit with great destruction of life; to kill; to slay in battle.

Slavonia, or Sclavonia (called by the native Slavonska). A territory or province of the Austrian empire, formerly incorporated with Hungary, but now forming part of the kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia. The country anciently formed part of the province of Pannonia. During the barbarian migrations, the land was overrun, now by one and now by another tribe, and at length remained in the possession of the Avars. These, however, were conquered about the end of the 8th century by Charlemagne, who settled in their place a tribe of Slavonians from Dalmatia. When, in the 10th century, the Hungarians conquered Pannonia, they also made themselves masters of the whole of Slavonia, except Syrmia, which still remained subject to the Eastern emperors. It was, however, the object of contention, and the scene of bloody conflicts between the Greeks and the Hungarians, until, after various vicissitudes, it was finally ceded to the latter in 1165. From 1526, when it was conquered by the Turks, Slavonia remained in their possession till it was restored to Hungary by the peace of Carlowitz in 1699. In 1734 its size was diminished by the formation of the Military Frontier, and in 1848 it was separated from Hungary.

Slavonians, or Slaves (native name Slowene, or Slowane). The general name of a group of nations belonging to the Aryan family, whose settlements extend from the Elbe to Kamtschatka, and from the Frozen Sea to Ragusa on the Adriatic, the whole of Eastern Europe being almost exclusively occupied by them. The original names of the Slavic tribes seem to have been Winds, or Wends (Venedi), and Serbs. The latter of these names is spoken of by Procopius as the ancient name common to the whole Slavic stock. The Slavonians proper are a handsome, tall, and slender race.

Sleepers. Small joists of timber, which form the foundation for the platform of a battery, and upon which the boards for the flooring are laid. Also, the undermost timbers of a gun or mortar.

Sleets. The parts of a mortar extending from the chamber to the trunnions, to strengthen that part.

Sleeves, Gunner’s. See Implements.

Sliding-rings. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.

Sligo. A maritime county in the northwest of Ireland, and the province of Connaught. It formed part of the kingdom of Connaught previously to the arrival of the English, in the reign of Henry II. Subsequently it came into the possession of one of the family of the O’Connors, kings of Connaught, who was called O’Connor Sligo. After a protracted struggle between the natives and the English, it fell into the hands of the De Burgos, who either by force or treaties had made themselves masters of the greater part of the ancient kingdom of Connaught. It became the theatre of several conflicts in the war against O’Neil, chieftain of Tyrone, in the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign. The most remarkable of these was that with Sir Conyers Clifford, who in attempting to pass into the country from Roscommon with a body of from 1500 to 2000 men, in order to relieve Belleek, was attacked in a defile of the Curlew Mountains by O’Roark, chieftain of Breffney, was himself killed and his troops were driven back with considerable loss. During the civil wars of 1641, the Irish kept possession of the open country until nearly its close, when they were reduced to submission by the Parliamentary forces under Ireton. In the subsequent war of 1688 this country was held by the forces of King James for some time, but ultimately yielded to the victorious arms of William III. The French force which landed at Killalla under Gen. Humbert in 1798, had a severe skirmish at Coloony with the Limerick militia, commanded by Col. Vereker, afterwards Viscount Gort, which ended in the retreat of the latter.

Sligo. The chief town of the above county, and a seaport, situated on the mouth of the river Garrogue. In 1641, it was taken without opposition, by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Charles Coote, who was afterwards attacked by a force collected by the Roman Catholic archbishop of Tuam, which retreated in consequence of an alarm being spread that a large force was approaching to relieve the town. When retiring they were attacked by the Parliamentarian forces, the archbishop killed, and on his person was found the important document exposing the secret communications which took place between Charles I. and the Irish Catholics. Coote subsequently evacuated the town, which thence continued in possession of the royalists till the termination of the war. In 1688 it was taken for King William by the Enniskilleners, who, in turn, were driven out by Gen. Sarsfield; but the place ultimately surrendered to the Earl of Granard.

Sling. A weapon much in use before the introduction of fire-arms, consisted of a piece of leather, with a round hole in the middle, and two cords of about a yard in length. A round pebble being hung in the leather by cords, the latter were held firmly in the right hand, and swung rapidly round. When the stone had attained great speed, one string was disengaged, on which the stone flew off at a tangent, its initial velocity being the same as it had at the last moment of revolution. This velocity gives far greater range and force than could be imparted in mere throwing. The men who used this weapon were called slingers.

Sling. A leather strap attached to a musket, serving to support it across the soldier’s back, as occasion may require.

Sling-cart. See Hand Sling-cart.

Slingers. See Sling.

Slope Arms. A word of command in the British service, for placing the musket upon the shoulder with the butt advanced. In marches, soldiers are almost invariably permitted to slope arms.

Slope, Interior. See Interior Slope.

Slopes. The approaches to the crest of heights are by slopes, which may be either gentle or steep. When these slopes are gentle, the fire from the crest can be made an effective one by reason of its “grazing action.” Especially will it be so with artillery fire when properly directed. When slopes are quite steep, the fire will be a plunging one, and will be apt to pass over the heads of the attacking troops. Especially will this be the case with the fire of artillery.

Sloping Swords. In the British service, is a position of the sword among cavalry, when the back of the blade rests on the hollow of the right shoulder, the hilt advanced.

Slow Time. The same as common time, by which troops on foot march at the rate of ninety steps per minute.

Slow-match. See Laboratory Stores.

Slugs. Cylindrical or cubical pieces of metal, discharged from a gun.

Slur-bow. A species of cross-bow formerly used for discharging fire and arrows.

Smalcald. See Schmalkald, League of.

Small-arms. Are portable fire-arms known as muskets, rifles, carbines, pistols, etc., and were first invented about the middle of the 14th century. At first they consisted simply of a tube of iron or copper, fired from a stand or support. They were loaded with leaden balls, and were touched off by a lighted match held in the hand. They weighed from 25 to 75 pounds, and consequently two men were required to serve them. The difficulty of loading these weapons, and the uncertainty of their effects, as regards range and accuracy, prevented them from coming rapidly into use, and the cross-bow was for a long time retained as the principal projectile weapon for infantry. The difficulty of aiming hand-cannon, arising from their great weight, was in a measure overcome by making them shorter, and supporting them on a tripod, by means of trunnions which rested on forks. This arm was called an arquebuse (which see). The next improvement in the arquebuse was to make it lighter, and inclose it in a piece of wood called the stock, the butt of which was pressed against the left shoulder, while the right hand applied the match to the vent. It was still very heavy, and in aiming, the muzzle rested in the crotch of a fork placed in the ground. To give steadiness to the aim while applying the match to the priming, a species of lock was next devised, which consisted of a lever holding at its extremity a lighted match. In firing, the lever was pressed down with the finger until the lighted end of the match touched the priming. This apparatus, known as the serpentine, continued in use until it was replaced by the wheel-lock, which was invented in Nuremburg, in 1517. (See Wheel-lock.) The petronel was a wheel-lock arquebuse of larger caliber and lighter weight than its predecessors. See Petronel.

Musket.—The musket was first introduced by the Spaniards, under Charles V. The original caliber of the musket was such that 8 round bullets weighed a pound; the piece was, consequently, so heavy that it was necessary to fire it from a forked rest inserted in the ground. The size of the bore was finally reduced to 18 bullets to the pound; and from this arm was derived the late smooth-bored rifle.

Rifle.—It is generally stated that the rifle was invented by Gaspard Zoller, of Vienna, and that it first made its appearance at a target-practice at Leipsic, in 1498. The first rifle-grooves were made parallel to the axis of the bore, for the purpose of diminishing the friction of loading forced or tightly-fitting bullets. It was accidentally discovered, however, that spiral grooves gave greater accuracy to the flight of the projectile, but the science of the day was unable to assign a reason for this superiority, and the form, number, and twist of the grooves depended on the caprice of individual gunmakers. About 1600, the rifle began to be used as a military weapon for firing spherical bullets. In 1729, it was found that good results could be attained by using oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The improvements which have been made of late years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and rifles have now superseded the smooth-bored arms.

Muzzle-loading Guns.—The following are among the most prominent muzzle-loading guns in use prior to 1860:

The Lancaster Elliptic Rifle.—So called, although the elliptical rifle is very old. The bore in this rifle is slightly oblate; the twist found, by experience, to be most advantageous is one turn in 52 inches, the approved diameter of the bore .498 inch, the length of the barrel being 32 inches. An eccentricity of .01 inch in half an inch is found sufficient to make the bullet spin on its axis to the extreme verge of its flight. The length of the bullet found to answer best with these rifles is 2¹⁄₄ diameters in length, with a windage of four- or five-thousandths of an inch.

Nuthall’s Rifle.—In the ordinary mode of grooving rifles, sharp angles are left between the groove and “land” (those parts of the smooth-bore left in their original state after the process of grooving has been completed). These create great friction with the projectile, both in loading and discharging. Maj. Nuthall removes these objections by rounding off the “lands” into the grooves, that is, making them a series of convex and concave curves, the bore assuming a beautiful appearance to the eye, for the smoothness and evenness with which the lands and grooves blend into each other.

Enfield Rifle.—This rifle has three grooves, taking one complete turn in 78 inches, firing a bullet resembling the Minié, except that a wooden cup was substituted for one of iron. Its diameter is .577 of an inch, its bullet weighs 530 grains, and ranges with great accuracy for 800 yards, and fairly up to 1100. There are also Gen. Boileau’s rifle, and some others which our space will not admit of our noticing. The extraordinary efficacy of the breech-loading principles, especially in combination, have, however, only been very prominent during the wars of the last few years, and notably in the Prussian campaign of 1864 against Denmark, and of 1866 against Austria. The successes of the Prussian arms were attributed in no small degree to the rapidity with which their troops could fire as compared with the enemy. They had in greater or less numbers borne these same rifles since 1835, but these were the first opportunities of using them in warfare. To all other powers, whose men still carried muzzle-loading rifles, and who had debated, without practical result, for years past the question of armament with breech-loaders, soldiers thus armed appeared irresistible. From July, 1866, to the present moment, the hammer and the anvil have been busy throughout the civilized world in making the weapons of death yet more deadly. Scarcely two countries seem to have adopted the same plan: each nation has elaborated a system from among its own inventors. Those possessing no great reserve of rifles have prepared new arms, but the majority of governments have been content, in the first instance, to convert their existing stock into needle-firing breech-loaders of as good a construction as circumstances would permit. The advantage of breech-loading is obvious: to be able to insert the charge at the head of the barrel instead of at its mouth, is to save time and avoid exposure to hostile fire during the operation of loading and ramming home, which of necessity involves considerable outstretching of the limbs. The great condition of success is, that the bullet shall be propelled with equal force and with equal safety to the rifleman, as from the muzzle-loader. When a charge is ignited the constituents of the gunpowder, assuming a gaseous condition under the heat engendered, expand into a volume of light gas many times greater in bulk than the powder before occupied. On the amount of this expansion, and its sudden action on the projectile, the force of the shot depends. Any joint in the breech-piece through which a portion of this gas can escape, without having imparted its thrust to the ball, tends, therefore, to lessen the range and penetration; while the shock of the explosion falling more severely on this than on any other part of the barrel, tends yet more to dislocate the breech-piece and diminish the closeness of the joint’s fit. In weapons which do not call for a long range, as revolvers and pistols, a perceptible interval is left between the chamber and barrel, through which much gas escapes; but in rifles, which have range and penetration as principal objects, there is prima facie ground for preferring a muzzle-loader. The gas, however, is far from pure as generated in the barrel, for much water is produced and held in suspension, while there is also a solid residuum consisting of unburned materials of the powder. In the muzzle-loader, these clog (or, technically, foul) the barrel, filling the grooves and rendering the ramming home of succeeding charges more and more difficult. The effect is, that a solid mass of unburned matter is gradually forced by ramming into the head of the barrel, destroying the accuracy and usefulness of the weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid deposit must be provided against both ways. The backward throw on firing (for, of course, the charge explodes with equal power in every direction) tends to force it into the mechanism of the joints, preventing their proper fit, and continually augmenting the escape of gas. On the other hand, the deposit is prevented from accumulating in the barrel by the fact that succeeding charges are inserted behind it, and, by their explosion, force the solid matters out at the muzzle. Thus, in the matter of fouling, if the gases can be prevented from blocking up the breech-apparatus, the breech-loader has a great advantage over the muzzle-loader. This protection of the breech-apparatus is the problem which inventors have had to solve. The following are the most notable among breech-loading arms:

The American Springfield, model of 1873. The barrel is of “low steel,” caliber .45 inch, rifled with three concentric grooves of equal widths with the lands, and of the uniform depth of .005 of an inch, and uniform twist of one complete turn in 22 inches. The lock-plate is 0.175 inch thick, and let in flush. The exterior metal-work is browned. An open swivel is attached to the upper band, for stacking arms, instead of locking bayonets, us heretofore; also a “trowel bayonet” and “intrenching tool.” Length of rifle-barrel including receiver, 36 inches; carbine, 25.4 inches. Length of rifle-bayonet, 18 inches; crook of stock, 2¹⁄₂ inches, and distance from butt to trigger, 13¹⁄₂ inches. Total length of rifle, without bayonet, 51.9; of carbine, 41.3 inches; weight of rifle without bayonet, 8.38 pounds; of carbine, 6.87 pounds. Trigger adjusted to pull at 6 to 8 pounds.

Remington.—This is a magazine-gun, and belongs to that system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt, by direct action, and in which the lock is concealed. The magazine is in the tip-stock, and carries 8 cartridges, which are brought into the chamber by the action of the trigger; the mechanism is so arranged that no more than one cartridge can enter the chamber at the same time. The magazine is loaded from below, and in any position of the bolt.

Sharps.—See Sharps Rifle.

Spencer.—A magazine-gun, holding 7 cartridges which are brought one by one into the chamber by a movement of the trigger-guard as a lever, which at the same time throws out the shell of the exploded cartridge. A new magazine can be inserted whenever the cartridges have been exhausted, or the magazine may be shut off and the rifle used as a single breech-loader.

Winchester.—Same pattern as the Spencer.

Snider Rifle.—So called from its inventor, the essential features of which are that the breech-block revolves around an axis on the right of and parallel to the axis of the bore, and the firing-pin passes obliquely from the nose of the hammer, through the breech-block, to the centre of the base of the cartridge. This was the first form of breech-loaders adopted by the British government, which in 1866 directed that the old Enfield muzzle-loaders should be altered to breech-loaders upon this system.

Martini-Henry.—Adopted by the British government, has a breech-loading apparatus on the Martini system united to a barrel rifled on the system of Henry, a gunmaker of Scotland. Martini, a Swiss, derived his system of breech-loading from the Peabody system of the United States by dispensing with the independent outside lock and substituting therefor a spiral-spring firing-bolt or striker, inclosed in the breech-block; the number of grooves is seven; in shape they are flat at the bottom; the lands are narrow, having the appearance of sharp ribs, which are designed to take a firm hold of the bullet. It is understood that these grooves are made somewhat deeper at the breech than at the muzzle. The twist is one turn in 22 inches. There is a brass collar around the head of the ramrod to prevent injury to the bore in wiping out. The weight of the rifle is 8¹⁄₂ pounds; of bayonet 14¹⁄₂ ounces. The weight of rifle with bayonet attached 9 pounds 11 ounces.

Mauser Rifle.—This rifle is used in Prussia, and is a modification of the Chassépot system, by which it is adapted to the use of the metallic gas-check cartridge. It was invented in 1871. The mechanism of this gun is much simpler than the needle-gun, and has a longer range.

Chassépot Rifle.—The Chassépot rifle is used in France, and was introduced shortly after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. In its principal features it resembled the Prussian needle-gun, inasmuch as the breech was closed with a sliding-bolt, and it fired a self-primed paper-case cartridge, which was ignited by a needle impelled by a spiral spring. Unlike the needle-gun, however, it was provided with a gas-check, which was of the form of a thick india-rubber disk or packing, attached to the end of the breech-bolt, and it possessed the modern improvements of reduced caliber and rapid twist of the rifle-grooves for obtaining great range and accuracy of fire. The Chassépot was the principal arm used by the French army during the German war. Since that time efforts have been made to adapt it to fire the modern metallic-case cartridge. The plan of alteration to this end adopted by the French authorities is that submitted by Capt. Gras of the French artillery committee. The length of the bore, including the chamber, is 32.28 inches; the length of the complete arm, without sabre-bayonet, is 50.8 inches; and with the bayonet it is about 72.0 inches. The weight with the bayonet is 10.3 pounds; without the bayonet, 8.9 pounds. The grooves are four in number, and of a width equal to that of the lands; the depth of the grooves is 0.0118 inch; the twist is one turn in 21.6 inches, and is from right to left instead of from left to right, according to the usual practice. The pull on the trigger is thought to disturb the aim by carrying the muzzle of the arm slightly to the right; the object of grooving the barrel to the left is to correct this disturbance by the drift which follows the direction of the twist. The initial velocity is stated to be 420 metres (about 1377 feet), and the effective range extends to 1700 yards, about one mile. The rapidity of fire is 15 times per minute. The Russian army is armed with two patterns of Berdan breech-loaders. One lot of 30,000, in which the breech-block swings upward and forward, was manufactured by the Colt’s Patent Fire-Arms Company, Hartford, Conn., and a second lot of 30,000 on a sliding breech-bolt system made in Birmingham, England. The latter-named arm was adopted for the entire Russian army. The following are the principal dimensions: Diameter of bore (caliber), 0.42 inch; length of barrel, 30.43 inches; total length of arm without bayonet, 50.38 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.38 inches; number of grooves, 6; twist, one turn in 20 inches; weight of arm with bayonet, 9.75 pounds.

Vetterlin Rifle.—Is a repeating rifle used in the Swiss service, and is a Swiss invention, the peculiarity of which is the union of a cartridge magazine with a sliding-bolt-breech system. The following are the principal dimensions: Caliber, 0.41 inch; number of grooves, 4; depth of grooves, 0.0086 inch; width of grooves, 0.0177 inch; twist of grooves, 26 inches; length of barrel, 33.14 inches; length of arm without bayonet, 51.18 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.08 inches; weight of arm without bayonet, 10.14 pounds; with bayonet, 11.02; weight of rifle with magazine filled, 12.12 pounds; initial velocity, 1341 feet.

Werndl Rifle.—Adopted in the Austrian service in place of the alteration of Wanzl, is the invention of Joseph Werndl, a gun manufacturer of Styria, and is applied to muskets, carbines, and pistols. The breech-block in this system vibrates around an axis parallel to and below the axis of the bore prolonged to the rear of the chamber. The barrel of the musket is made of cast steel. Its length is 33.14 inches, including the chamber, which is 2.07 inches. Its weight is 3.83 pounds. The rifle-grooves are six in number, and their depth is 0.007 inch. The lands are 0.07 inch wide, and the grooves 0.15 inch. The twist is one turn in 28.5 inches. The total length of arm, including sabre-bayonet, 73.0 inches, while its weight, including the bayonet, is about 11.5 pounds; without the bayonet the length is 50.5 inches, and the weight 9.85 pounds. The barrel, bands, and sights are browned.

Werder Rifle.—Adopted in 1869 for the Bavarian army, is the invention of J. L. Werder of Nuremberg, and is known as the Werder system. It belongs to the class of falling breech-blocks, of which the Peabody may be considered the exponent in this country. It differs, however, from this and most other guns of this class, as the breech-block is opened and closed by the hammer instead of the lever-guard, giving, as claimed, greater safety and ease of manipulation, especially when the soldier loads lying on the ground. The rifle-grooves are four in number, their depth is 0.0075, and twist is one turn in 22 inches. The diameter of the bore is 0.435; the length of the barrel, including chamber, but exclusive of breech-frame, is 35.0; the weight of the arm without bayonet, 9.75 pounds. The breech-loaders with and without the needle-arrangement are too numerous to mention, but the most notable are given above. See Magazine Guns, and Lyman’s Multi-charge Gun.

Revolver.—In fire-arms, is a weapon which, by means of a revolving breech, or revolving barrels, can be made to fire more than once without reloading. The invention is very far from new, specimens, with even the present system of rotation, being still in existence, which were manufactured at the beginning of the 17th century. Probably the first revolver to suggest itself was one in which several barrels were mounted on an axis, and made to revolve by the action of the trigger, so that their powder-pans came successively under the action of the lock. This principle was never entirely abandoned, and in the reign of George IV. was produced a pistol called the “Mariette,” which had from 4 to 24 small barrels bored in a solid mass of metal, made to revolve as the trigger was drawn back. At close quarters, such a pistol would doubtless have been useful; but its great weight and cumbrous mechanism rendered aim extremely unsteady. Contemporaneously from the first with the revolving barrels, went the formation of a revolving chamber or breech, pierced with several cylindrical apertures to receive the charges. Being made to revolve, each motion brought a chamber into line with the one barrel, common to all, whereupon the weapon was ready for use. Numerous patents for this principle have been taken out, including one by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester in 1661. Various improvements were made, especially in the mode of causing revolution; an American patented such a weapon in the United States and England about 1818. In 1835, Col. Samuel Colt brought to a conclusion experiments of some years’ standing, and patented his world-renowned Colt’s revolver, which was a great advance on all previous attempts, and is substantially still in use. The fame attached to Colt’s revolvers renders them so well known as to require but little introduction necessary. This make is now extensively used in the United States, and indeed in almost every country of the world, and seems not to lose favor anywhere. The barrel is rifle-bored. The lever-ramrod renders wadding or patch unnecessary, and secures the charge against moisture, or becoming loose by rough handling or hard riding. The hammer, when at full cock, forms the sight by which to take aim, and is readily raised at full cock by the thumb, with one hand. The movements of the revolving chamber and hammer are ingeniously arranged and combined. The breech, containing six cylindrical cells for holding the powder and ball, moves one-sixth of a revolution at a time; it can only be fired when the chamber and the barrel are in a direct line. The base of the cylinder being cut externally into a circular ratchet of six teeth (the lever which moves the ratchet being attached to the hammer); as the hammer is raised in the act of cocking, the cylinder is made to revolve, and to revolve in one direction only; while the hammer is falling the chamber is firmly held in position by a lever fitted for the purpose; when the hammer is raised the lever is removed, and the chamber is released. So long as the hammer remains at half-cock, the chamber is free and can be loaded at pleasure. Col. Colt has improved on this patent. Revolvers made by Remington, Smith & Wesson, Daw, Adams & Dean, and others, are mostly on the same principle as the Colt.

Smart-money. In England, the money which was paid by the person who had taken the enlisting money, in order to get released from an engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment. Also, money allowed to soldiers or sailors in the British service for wounds or injuries received.

Smite. To destroy the life of by beating, or by weapons of any kind; to slay by a blow; to kill; as, to smite one with the sword, or with an arrow or other weapon. Also, to beat or put to rout in battle; to destroy or overthrow by war.

Smoke-ball. Is a hollow sphere similar to a light-ball, and filled with a composition which emits a dense, nauseous smoke; it is employed to suffocate the enemy’s miners when at work, or to conceal one’s own operations; it burns from 25 to 30 minutes.

Smolensk. A fortified town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 250 miles west-southwest from Moscow. The French in a most sanguinary engagement here were three times repulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensk, and found the city which had been bombarded burning and partly in ruins, August 16-17, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command.

Smooth-bore Projectile. See Projectile, Spherical Projectiles.

Smyrna. One of the most ancient and important cities of Asia Minor, and the only one of the Greek cities on the western coast which has retained its name and importance to the present day. At an early period it fell into the hands of the Ionians of Colophon; it became a member of the Panionic Confederacy. Its early history is obscure; but thus much is clear, however, that at some period the old city of Smyrna, which stood on the northeast side of the Hermaean Gulf (now the Gulf of Smyrna), was abandoned, and that it was succeeded by a new city, on the southeast side of the same gulf (the present site), which is said to have been built by Antigonus. It had a magnificent harbor, the largest ships could lie alongside the quays. In the civil wars it was taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it soon recovered. In the successive wars under the Eastern empire it was frequently much injured, but always recovered. After various vicissitudes during the Middle Ages, the city fell finally into the hands of the Turks, in whose possession it has since remained.

Snaffle-bit. A kind of slender bit, having a joint in the part to be placed in the mouth.

Snaphance. An old musket of the 17th and first half of the 18th centuries, called also asnaphan. See Gun.

Snare-drum. The smaller, common military drum, as distinguished from the bass-drum;—so called because (in order to render it more resonant) there is stretched across its lower head a catgut string, or collection of strings.

Snick and Snee. A combat with knives such as the Dutch carry.

Snider Rifle. See Small-arms.

Soanes. A powerful people of the Caucasus, governed by a king who could bring 200,000 soldiers into the field. They are also called Suani and Suanocolchi.

Sobraon. A town of Northwest India, on the left bank of the Sutlej, 25 miles east-northeast of Ferozpur (or Ferozepoore), near which, on February 10, 1846, a most obstinate battle was fought between the British army under Sir Hugh Gough and a Sikh force numbering about 35,000. The Sikhs were strongly intrenched, and vigorously resisted the attacks of their opponents, but the courage and perseverance of the latter ultimately gave them the mastery; the various earthworks were captured in succession, and the Sikhs driven across the Sutlej, with a loss in killed, wounded, and drowned of 13,000. Gough immediately followed up his victory by crossing into the Punjab in pursuit of the fleeing enemy.

Social War. A celebrated contest between the Socii of Italy and the city of Rome, which lasted from 91 B.C. till 89, and was the most formidable war ever carried on in Italy during the dominion of the Romans. It arose from the desire of the Italians to be placed on a footing of equality with the Romans. Nearly 300,000 lives were sacrificed in the contest, and numerous towns destroyed. The senate of Rome were at length compelled to grant the franchise and all other privileges, which they at first absolutely refused to the Italians.

Socket. Generally means any hollow pipe that receives something inserted.

Socket of a Bayonet. The round hollow near the bent or heel of a bayonet, into which the muzzle of a fire-arm is received when the bayonet is fixed.

Sogdiana. The northeastern province of the ancient Persian empire, separated on the south from Bactriana and Margiana by the upper course of the Oxus; on the east and north from Scythia by the Sogdii Comedarum and Oxii Mountains, and by the upper course of the Iaxartes, and bounded on the northwest by the great deserts east of the Sea of Aral. It was conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by Alexander. After the Macedonian conquest it was subject to the kings, first of Syria and then of Bactria, till it was overrun by the barbarians. The natives of the country were a wild, warlike people of the great Arian race, resembling the Bactrians in their character and customs.

Soissons (anc. Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suessonum). A town of France, in the department of Aisne, on the banks of the river Aisne, about 65 miles northeast of Paris. It was subdued by Julius Cæsar, 57 B.C.; held by Syagrius, after his father Ægidius, till his defeat by Clovis, 486.

Solaks. Were bowmen or archers belonging to the personal guard of the grand seignor. They were always selected from the most expert bowmen that were among the Janissaries. Their only arms were the sabre, bow, and arrows.

Soldan. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of King Noureddin of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.

Soldier. Is one who enters into an obligation to some chieftain or government to devote for a specified period his whole energies, and even if necessary his life itself, to the furtherance of the policy of that chief or government. The consideration may be immediate pay, or prospective reward; or the contract may be merely an act of loyal devotion. The acknowledgment of the service by the employer constitutes the man a recognized soldier, and empowers him to take life in open warfare, without being liable to the penalties of an assassin and a robber. The fact of being mercenary—that is, of receiving wages for killing and being killed—does not render a soldier’s trade less honorable. He bears arms that others may be able to do without them; he is precluded by the exigencies of military training from maintaining himself by peaceful occupation; and it is therefore but fair that those whom he protects should support him, and give him, over and above actual maintenance, reasonable wages for the continual risk of his life. If a man willingly enlist himself as a soldier in what he believes to be an unrighteous cause, it is an act of moral turpitude; but when once enlisted, the soldier ceases to be morally responsible for the justice or iniquity of the war he wages; that rests with his employer. Obedience, implicit and entire, is his sole virtue. The maxim is, “The military force never deliberates, but always obeys.” Brother soldier is a term of affection which is commonly used by one who serves under the same banners, and fights for the same cause, with another. In a more extensive signification, it means any military man with respect to another.

Soldier of Fortune. During the frequent wars which occurred in Italy, before the military profession became so generally prevalent in Europe, it was usual for men of enterprise and reputation to offer their services to the different states that were engaged. They were originally called condottieri, or leaders of reputation. They afterwards extended their sphere of action, and under the title of soldiers of fortune, sought for employment in every country or state that would pay them.

Soldiering. The estate of being a soldier; the occupation of a soldier.

Soldierly. Like, or becoming, a real soldier; brave; martial; heroic; honorable.

Soldiers’ Friend. A term in the military service which is generally applied to such officers as pay the strictest attention to their men; granting them reasonable indulgences without injuring the service; seeing their wants relieved; and, above all things, enforcing just dealings and the most prompt settlements. There is much confidence in the multitude when they are justly dealt by, and every soldier fights well under the guidance of a soldiers’ friend.

Soldiers’ Homes. In the United States, are homes of a permanent character established by the general government for the benefit of old soldiers, or men who were disabled in the military service of their country. The “Soldiers’ Home,” which is situated about 3¹⁄₂ miles from the Capitol of Washington, was founded in compliance with provisions of act of Congress dated March 3, 1851. It contains about 470 acres, some of which is cultivated for garden produce, flowers, etc., and the remainder forms a magnificent park. In 1848, Gen. Scott forwarded to the Secretary of War the sum of $118,791.19, levied on Mexico during the war with that country, for the benefit of the soldiers of the U. S. army, and he requested that this amount might be set aside for the construction of an army asylum. The following funds are also set apart for the maintenance of the “Soldiers’ Home”: All stoppages or fines adjudged against soldiers by sentence of courts-martial, over and above any amount that may be due for the reimbursement of government or individuals; all forfeitures on account of desertion; and all moneys belonging to the estate of deceased soldiers, which are now or may hereafter be unclaimed for the period of three years subsequent to the death of said soldier or soldiers, to be repaid by the commissioners of the institution, upon the demand of the heirs or legal representatives of the deceased; also the sum of 12¹⁄₂ cents per month is stopped from every non-commissioned officer, musician, artificer, and private of the U. S. army. The following persons, members of the “Soldiers’ Home,” are entitled to the rights and benefits of the institution, viz.: Every soldier of the army of the United States who has served, or may serve, honestly and faithfully, twenty years in the same, and every discharged soldier, who has suffered by reason of disease or wounds incurred in the service and in the line of his duty, rendering him incapable of further military service, if such disability has not been occasioned by his own misconduct. No deserter, mutineer, or habitual drunkard is received into the institution without such evidence of subsequent service, good conduct, and reformation of character as the commissioners may deem sufficient to authorize his admission. There are three commissioners designated to administer the affairs of the asylum, namely, the commissary-general of subsistence, the surgeon-general, and the adjutant-general, whose duty it is to examine and audit the accounts of the treasurer quarter-yearly, and to visit and inspect the “Home” at least once in every month. The officers of the institution consist of a governor, a deputy governor, and a secretary and treasurer, who, with a medical officer, are detailed from the active or retired list of the army. Inmates of this institution receive a small allowance of pocket-money per month, and they are also paid for any labor they can perform. About $8 per month is allowed to old soldiers, who, having families, are permitted to live elsewhere than at the “Home.” There was also incorporated by the act of Congress dated March 3, 1865, “the National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers,” which consists of the central asylum, at Dayton, Ohio, the eastern branch at Augusta, Me., and the northwestern branch at Milwaukee, Wis. This asylum is kept up by annual appropriations of Congress. There are similar institutions for old and disabled soldiers in Europe. See Asylum, Royal Military, and Hôtel des Invalides.

Soldiers’ Thigh. When tight breeches were worn in the British army, the term had its peculiar military application, from the notorious poverty of army men. Soldiers’ thigh figuratively meant an empty purse; or speaking familiarly, a pair of breeches that sit close and look smooth, because the pockets have nothing in them.

Soldiership. A term which is rarely used; it means military qualities; military character or state; martial skill; behavior becoming a soldier.

Soldiery. A body of soldiers collectively considered; the military. “A camp of faithful soldiery.”

Solduriers (Fr.). A term anciently used among the French, to signify those persons who attached themselves to some particular general or military knight, whose fortunes they followed, in consequence of being paid and supported by him.

Sole. The bottom or lower surface of an embrasure.

Solferino. A village of Northern Italy, province of Brescia, 20 miles northeast from Mantua. Here, in 1796, the French conquered the Austrians, and on June 24, 1859, it was again the scene of an overwhelming victory obtained by the French and Italians over the Austrians.

Soli. An ancient town of Asia Minor, on the coast of Cilicia. In the war between Mithridates and the Romans, Soli was destroyed by Tigranes, but subsequently rebuilt by Pompey, who settled there many of the pirates whom he had captured, and called the town after himself, Pompeiapolis.

Solicinium. A town in Roman Germany, on the mountain Pirus, where Valentinian gained a victory over the Alemanni in 369, probably in the neighborhood of the modern Heidelberg.

Solid Shot. See Projectile.

Solid Square. A square body of troops; a body in which the ranks and files are equal.

Sollerets (Fr.). Armor for the feet.

Somma. A town of Italy, Lombardy, not far from the Tecino, near the foot of Lake Maggiore, 27 miles northwest of Milan. It was near Somma that Hannibal gained his first victory on Italian ground, completely defeating the Romans under Scipio, 218 B.C.

Somnauth, or Somnath-Putten. A town of Guzerat, in Hindostan, is situated on the southwest coast of the peninsula of Kattywar. In 1024, Mahmud of Ghizni, the zealous idol-destroyer, appeared before Somnauth, drove its defenders to take refuge in the temple, where they defended themselves with such valor that Mahmud’s army was forced to retreat; but the subsequent rout of two Hindu armies which had advanced to the aid of the sacred city so dispirited the defenders, that Somnauth was immediately surrendered, the idol destroyed, and the enormous wealth of the temple carried off, along with the gates of the temple.

Songhay. A former kingdom of Africa. In 1468-1469 the ruler of Songhay marched upon Timbuctoo, and conquered the town and surrounding state. Under Háj Mohammed Askia, who came into power at the end of the 15th century, and who was perhaps the greatest sovereign that ever ruled over Negroland, the Songhay empire extended from Hausa almost to the shores of the Atlantic, and from lat. 12° N. to the confines of Morocco. After many years of revolution and civil war, this great empire became a province of Morocco in 1607.

Sonthals. A tribe of Northern India, brought to Bengal about 1830, where they prospered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly-conquered province of Pegu.

Sooloo, or Suluk Islands. A group of the East Indian Archipelago. The sultan of Sooloo and his subordinate chiefs were formerly notorious for their piracy, and kept up a large fleet for that purpose; but their power was entirely broken by the Spaniards in 1851.

Sora. A town of Naples, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, 15 miles east-northeast from Frosinone. Sora was originally a Volscian city; was seized by the Romans in 345 B.C., and subsequently made a colony; but in 315 the inhabitants rose against the Romans, and joined their enemies, the Samnites. It was not finally secured as a Roman colony till the end of the second Samnite war in 303.

Sorn. Formerly a servile tenure in Scotland, by which a chieftain might, with his followers, live upon his tenants at free quarters.

Sorties (Fr. sortir). In a siege, parties who sally out of a town secretly to annoy the besiegers, and retard their operations.

Sottiates, or Sotiates. A powerful and warlike people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Crassus, Cæsar’s legate, after a hard-fought battle. The modern Sos probably represents the ancient town of this people.

Sound. The velocity of sound in the air, at the temperature of 32° Fahr., is about 1090 feet in a second. It is increased or diminished 1.07 feet for each degree of temperature above or below 32°. The distance of an object can be ascertained by the report of fire-arms, by observing the number of seconds that elapse between the flash and the report of a gun, and multiplying the number by the velocity of sound in air.

Sound, To. To betoken or direct by a sound; as, to sound the retreat; sound the assembly, etc.

Sourabaya, Soerabaya, Soorabaya, or Surabaya. A large seaport town of Java, on the northeast coast. When the French had possession of Java, the French government resolved to make Sourabaya a port of consequence. Gen. Daendels expended large sums in the construction of works for the defense of the harbor, and was proceeding in his plans when the island was taken by the British.

South Carolina. An Atlantic State of the American Union, of a triangular form, with North Carolina and Georgia on its inland sides. It is said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon in 1512, and to be permanently settled by the English about 1660. The province was divided into North and South in 1729. The Carolinas were slave States. Great excitement prevailed in them in November, 1860, on account of Mr. Abraham Lincoln’s election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States December 20, 1861. The State was restored to the Union in June, 1868. This State took an active part in the civil war (1861-65), on the Confederate side. See Charleston, Columbia, Morris Island, Moultrie, Fort Sumter, etc.

Southern Confederacy. See Confederate States of America.

Sow. A kind of covered shed, formerly used by besiegers in filling up and passing the ditch of a besieged place, sapping or mining the wall, and the like. It had its name from its being used for rooting up the earth like swine, or because the soldiers therein were like pigs under a sow.

Sowar. A trooper in an Indian cavalry regiment.

Space. A quantity or portion of extension; the interval between any two or more objects; as, the space between ranks.

Spadroon. A sword much lighter than a broadsword, and made both to cut and thrust.

Spahis. Were the cavaliers furnished by the holders of military fiefs to the Turkish army, and formed the élite of its cavalry. The Spahis along with the Janissaries owe their organization primarily to Orchan, the second of the Ottoman sultans, finally to Sultan Amurath I., and when levied en masse could number 140,000, but such a levy was very seldom called for. In the field they were divided into two classes, distinguished by the color (red and yellow) of their standards. One class had pistols and carbines, the other bows and arrows, and both carried a sabre, lance, and jerid, or javelin. They were excellent irregular troops; but when European organization was introduced into the Turkish army, they were replaced (1826) by regular horse. At the present time the French have numerous regiments of Spahis, raised from among the native tribes of Algeria and from France in about equal proportions; the dress, especially of the indigenous soldiers, partakes very much of the Arab character. The natives are allowed to rise to any grade below that of captain; but all the superior officers are of French descent.

Spain. A kingdom of Europe, occupying the larger portion of the great peninsula which forms the southwestern corner of the European continent, reaching farther south than any other European country, and farther west than any except Portugal. Spain, the Spania, Hispania, and Iberia of the Greeks, and known to the Romans by the same names, was inhabited at the period at which it first receives historical mention, by a people deriving their origin from different races. It is supposed to have been originally inhabited by a distinct race called Iberians; upon whom, however, a host of Celts are supposed to have descended from the Pyrenees. In the earliest times of which we have any record, these two races had already coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the Celtiberians. The Phœnicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the coasts of Spain about 360 B.C.; and the Romans conquered the whole country, 206 B.C., which they erected into a Roman province, consisting of two political divisions,—Hispania Citerior (Hither Spain) and Hispania Ulterior (Farther Spain). From the time of the complete supremacy of the Romans till the death of Constantine, the condition of Spain was eminently prosperous. In 409, hordes of barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees, and swept over and desolated the peninsula; about 412, the Visigoths invaded the country, and their king, Athaulf, who acknowledged a nominal dependence on the Roman emperor, established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. The battle of Xerxes in 711 gave the Moors almost undisputed mastery of nearly the whole of Spain, as well as of the outlying Gothic province of Septimania (Languedoc) in Franco. The Moors held Spain, for the first few years of their rule, as a dependency of the province of North Africa; but, after the downfall of Muza and his son Abd-el-aziz, who had been the deputy-governor of Spain, the country was governed (1717) by emirs appointed by the caliph of Damascus. The favorite scheme pursued by the Spanish emirs was the extension of their conquests into Gaul, to the neglect of the rising power of the Goths in Asturias; they also took the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Apulia and Calabria; but their northward progress was signally checked on the plain of Tours by Charles Martel. Anarchy and bloodshed were prominent features of the first forty years of Mohammedan rule in Spain. Within this period of forty years, no fewer than twenty emirs had been called to the direction of affairs; but a revolution at Damascus, which unseated the Ommiades, and placed the Abbasides in possession of the caliphate, put an end to this state of misrule in Spain. The Moors at length suffered a great defeat at Tarifa, by Alfonso XI. of Castile in 1340, and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain were united in one monarchy in 1479; but the power of the Moors was not finally extirpated until 1492, when Spain was consolidated into one empire from the Pyrenees to the Strait of Gibraltar. But the expulsion of the Moors and Jews was productive of the direst results, and the decline of the splendid Spanish empire may be said to have had its origin in the event which raised the country to the height of its magnificence. In the reign of Charles I., Mexico and Peru were added to the possessions of Spain. Philip II., by his enormous war expenditure and maladministration, laid a sure foundation for the decline of the country; and the reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the decline of Spain by the contests with the Dutch, and with the German Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War, the intermeddling in the affairs of Northern Italy, the rebellion of the Catalans, the wars with France, and the rebellion of Portugal (1640), which had been united to Spain by Philip II. That of Charles II. was still more unfortunate, and the death of the latter was the occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession. (See Succession Wars.) During the inglorious reign of Charles IV. (1788-1808), a war broke out with Britain, which was productive of nothing but disaster to the Spaniards, and by the pressure of the French another arose in 1804, and was attended with similar ill success. Charles abdicated in favor of his eldest son, the prince of the Asturias, who ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napoleon to resign all claims to the Spanish throne, Ferdinand became a prisoner of the French in the year of his accession, and in the same year Joseph, the brother of the French emperor, was declared king of Spain. But an armed resistance was organized throughout the whole country, and the supreme junta, that of Seville, declared war against Napoleon and France on June 6, 1808. In July, England, on solicitation, made peace with Spain, recognized Ferdinand VII. as king, and sent an army to aid the Spanish insurrection. This war lasted until the beginning of 1814, when the allied armies of England, Spain, and Portugal were thoroughly victorious. For important events which took place during this war, see appropriate headings in this work. Ferdinand VII. treated the subjects who had shown him devoted loyalty with infamous ingratitude, and subsequently obtained the aid of France to establish despotism. The reign of his daughter Isabella II. was disturbed by the Carlist rebellion in 1834-39, in which the British aided the queen with an army under Sir De Lacy Evans. The next events of importance were the contest between Espartero, the regent, and Queen-dowager Christina, for the supreme power during the minority of the queen; Espartero’s flight before O’Donnell and Narvaez (1843); his restoration in 1847; banishment of Queen Christina (1854); formation of the O’Donnell ministry (1858); war with Morocco and annexation of St. Domingo (1861); war with Peru and Chili (1864-65), and permanent truce in 1871; Prince Amadeus of Savoy declared king in December, 1870; abdication, February, 1873; insurrection of Don Carlos, 1873-76, when Prince Alfonso, son of Queen Isabella, became king. For more specific history of provinces and cities of Spain, see appropriate headings.

Spancelled. In heraldry, a term applied to a horse, two of whose legs are fettered by a log of wood.

Spandau. A fortified town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 7 miles west from Berlin. It was taken by the Swedes in 1631, and by the French in 1806.

Spanish Fury, The. A name given, in history, to the attack upon Antwerp by the Spaniards, November 4, 1576, which resulted in the pillage and burning of the place, and a monstrous massacre of the inhabitants.

Spanish War of Succession. See Succession Wars.

Spare-pole. See Ordnance.

Spare-pole Key. See Ordnance.

Spare-pole Ring. See Ordnance.

Spare-wheel Axle. See Ordnance.

Sparta. Also called Lacedæmon, the capital of Laconia and the chief city of Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank of the Eurotas (now Iri), about 20 miles from the sea. Sparta was never surrounded by walls, since the bravery of its citizens and the difficulty of access to it were supposed to render such defense needless. In the mythical period, Argos was the chief city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta is represented as subject to it. The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, which, according to tradition, took place eighty years after the Trojan war, made Sparta the capital of the country. The oldest inhabitants of the country maintained themselves at Amyclæ, which was not conquered for a long time. From various causes the Spartans became distracted by intestine quarrels, till at length Lycurgus gave a new constitution to the state. This constitution laid the foundation of Sparta’s greatness. She soon became aggressive, and gradually extended her sway over the greater part of Peloponnesus. In 743 B.C. the Spartans attacked Messenia, and after a war of twenty years subdued this country. In 685 the Messenians again took up arms, but at the end of seventeen years were again completely subdued, and their country from this time forward became an integral part of Laconia. After the close of the second Messenian war, the Spartans continued their conquests in Peloponnesus. They defeated the Tegeans, and wrested the district of Thyreæ from the Argives. At the time of the Persian invasion they were confessedly the first people in Greece; and to them was granted by unanimous consent the chief command in war. But after the final defeat of the Persians, the haughtiness of Pausanias, king of Sparta, disgusted most of the Greek states, and led them to transfer the supremacy to Athens (477). From this time the power of Athens steadily increased, and Sparta possessed little influence outside of the Peloponnesus. The Spartans made several attempts to check the rising greatness of Athens, and their jealousy of the latter led at length to the Peloponnesian war (431). This war ended in the overthrow of Athens, and the restoration of the supremacy of Sparta over the rest of Greece (404). But the Spartans did not retain this supremacy more than thirty years. Their decisive defeat by the Thebans, under Epaminondas, at the battle of Leuctra (371), gave the Spartan power a shock from which it never recovered; and the restoration of the Messenians to their country two years afterward completed the humiliation of Sparta. Thrice was the Spartan territory invaded by the Thebans, and the Spartan women saw for the first time the watch-fires of an enemy’s camp. The Spartans now finally lost their supremacy over Greece; and about thirty years afterward the greater part of Greece was obliged to yield to Philip of Macedon. The Spartans, however, kept haughtily aloof from the Macedonian conqueror, and refused to take part in the Asiatic expedition of his son, Alexander the Great. The power of Sparta continued to decline until the beginning of the reign of Cleomenes III. (236), whose reforms for a time infused new blood into the state, and for a short time he carried on war with success against the Achæans. But Aratus, the general of the Achæans, called in the assistance of Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, who defeated Cleomenes at the decisive battle of Sellasia (221), and followed up his success by the capture of Sparta. Sparta now sank into insignificance, and was ruled by a succession of native tyrants, till at length it was compelled to abolish its peculiar institutions, and to join the Achæan League. Shortly afterward it fell, with the rest of Greece, under the Roman power. The Spartans were a race of stern, cruel, resolute, rude, and narrow-minded warriors, capable of a momentary self-sacrificing patriotism, but utterly destitute of the capacity for adopting or appreciating a permanently noble and wise policy.

Spartans. See Sparta.

Sparthe. An Anglo-Saxon term for a halbert or battle-axe.

Sparum. A kind of dart, which was used by the ancients in war, and was shot out of a cross-bow. The wound it occasioned was extremely dangerous, as its point was triangular. Several of these darts were discharged in a volley.

Spatterdashes. Were a kind of covering for the legs of soldiers, made of cloth, or coarse linen waxed over, and buttoned tight, by which the wet was kept off.

Spatts. Were a kind of spatterdashes, that reached only a little above the ankle.

Spayade. In heraldry, a stag in his third year; a spay.

Spear. A lance or long weapon with a sharp point, formerly used as a manual or missile weapon. Pliny ascribes the invention of the spear to the Etolians. The spear of the Greeks was generally of ash, with a leaf-shaped head of metal, and furnished with a pointed ferrule at the butt, with which it was stuck in the ground; a method used, according to Homer, when the troops rested on their arms, or slept upon their shields. The cross spear-heads of the Britons were all pyramidal, narrowing at the base. The heads of the Anglo-Saxon spears were exceedingly long, and sometimes dreadfully barbed.

Spear-hand. The hand in which a horseman holds a spear; the right hand.

Spear-head. The pointed end of a spear.

Spearman. One who is armed with a spear.

Special Duty. Soldiers may be employed on duties not strictly military, when the exigencies of the service require it, for the reason that they are incident to the operations of an army; as, mechanics, laborers, cooks, and attendants in hospitals, clerks, scouts, etc. Soldiers when detailed on these duties are generally reported on special or extra duty, but are required to attend the regular inspections and musters, and if not proficient in drill, should be required to attend drills until they know their duties as soldiers. Officers when placed on duty which temporarily relieves them from duty with their companies, as acting commissaries and quartermasters, or on court-martial duty, etc., are reported on special duty.

Special Orders. See Orders, Special.

Specific Gravity. See Gravity.

Specification. The designation of particulars; particular mention; as, the specification of a charge against a military officer. A written statement containing a minute description or enumeration of particulars, as of charges against officers or soldiers.

Speen. A parish of England, in Berkshire, 2 miles from Newbury, in which the second battle of Newbury was fought, October 27, 1646.

Spencer Rifle. See Small-arms, and Magazine Guns.

Spend. This term is sometimes used in military matters to express the consumption of anything; as, to spend all your ammunition.

Spent Ball. A ball shot from a fire-arm, which reaches an object without having sufficient force to penetrate it.

Speyer, also Speier. The capital of Rhenish Bavaria (the former Palatinate), and one of the oldest towns in Germany, stands at the influx of the Speyerbach in the Rhine 23 miles north of Carlsruhe. During the Orleans Succession war—well called by the Germans the Mordbrenner Krieg—the whole Palatinate was savagely wasted, Speyer was taken by the French, its inhabitants driven out, and the city blown up with gunpowder and burned to the ground. Only the cathedral resisted the barbarous efforts to mine it. In 1794, it was wasted by the French under Custine, and has never recovered from these calamities.

Spherical Bullets. See Projectile.

Spherical Case-Shot. A spherical case-shot consists of a thin shell of cast iron, containing a number of musket-balls, and a charge of powder sufficient to burst it; a fuze is fixed to it as in an ordinary shell, by which the charge is ignited and the shell burst at any particular instant. A spherical case-shot, when loaded ready for use, has about the same specific gravity as a solid shot, and therefore, when fixed with the service charge of powder, its range, and its velocity at any point in its range, is about equal to that of a solid shot of the same caliber. The spherical case mostly used for field service is the 12-pounder, and contains, when loaded, 90 bullets. Its bursting charge is 1 ounce of powder, and it weighs 11.75 pounds. Its rupture may be made to take place at any point in its flight, and it is therefore superior to grape or canister. The attrition of the balls with which it is loaded, formerly endangered the firing of the bursting charge. This is now obviated, in making one mass of the balls, by pouring in melted sulphur. It is also prevented by Capt. Boxer’s improved spherical case-shot, of which there are two forms. In one form the bursting charge of powder is contained in a cylindrical tin box, attached to a brass socket which receives the fuze, and which is screwed into the shell. In the other, the part of the shell containing the bursting charge is separated from that containing the bullets by a diaphragm of sheet-iron, cast into the shell (i.e., the shell is cast on to the diaphragm which is inserted into the core). The bullets are introduced into the shell by a second orifice, and are kept in their places by a composition afterwards poured in. The present 12-pounder spherical case-shot, fixed with a charge of 2¹⁄₂ pounds of powder, is effective at 1500 yards. The proper position of the point of rupture varies from 50 to 130 yards in front of, and from 15 to 20 feet above, the object. The mean number of destructive pieces from a 12-pounder spherical case-shot, which may strike a target 9 feet high and 54 feet long, at a distance of 800 yards, is 30. The spherical case-shot from rifle-cannon is said to be effective at over 2000 yards. Spherical case should not be used at a less distance than 500 yards.

Spicheren, or Speicheren. See Saarbruck.

Spike Cannon, To. Is to drive into the vent a jagged and hardened steel spike with a soft point, or a nail without a head; break it off flush with the outer surface and clinch the point inside by means of a rammer. A gun may be unspiked if the spike is not screwed in or clinched, and the bore is not impeded, by putting in a charge of powder one-third of the weight of the shot, and ramming junk-wads over it; laying on the bottom of the bore a slip of wood, with a groove on the under side containing a strand of quick-match, by which fire is communicated to the charge. In a brass gun, take out some of the metal at the upper orifice of the vent, and pour sulphuric acid into the groove, and let it stand some hours before firing. If this method, several times repeated, is not successful, unscrew the vent-piece if it be a brass gun; and if an iron one, drill out the spike, or drill a new vent.

Artillery can be rendered unserviceable by other methods besides spiking, as follows: (1) Wedge a shot in the bottom of the bore by wrapping it with felt, or by means of iron wedges, using the rammer or a bar of iron to drive them in. (2) Cause shells to burst in the bore of bronze guns. (3) Fire broken shot from them with large charges. (4) Fill the piece with sand over the charge, to burst it. (5) Fire a piece against another, muzzle to muzzle, or the muzzle of one to the chase of the other. (6) Light a fire under the chase of a bronze gun, and strike on it with a sledge, to bend it. (7) Break off the trunnions of iron guns; or burst them by firing them at a high elevation, with heavy charges and full of shot.

To drive out a shot wedged in the bore: unscrew the vent-piece if there be one, and drive in wedges so as to start the shot forward; then ram it back again in order to seize the wedge with a hook; or pour in powder, and fire it after replacing the vent-piece. In the last resort, bore a hole in the bottom of the breech, drive out the shot, and stop the hole with a screw. When a shot is jammed in a gun and cannot be rammed home to the cartridge, destroy the charge by pouring water down the vent and muzzle until the ingredients are dissolved, and cleared out of the bore; then introduce a small quantity of powder through the vent and blow out the shot.

Spin Hay, To. Is to twist it up in ropes, very hard, for an expedition; by which means it is less bulky, and less troublesome for the cavalry to carry behind them. An expert horseman can spin five days’ forage into a very narrow compass.

Spingard. A kind of small cannon.

Splay. The divergence outwards from the line of fire of the lines which mark the bottom of the sides of an embrasure.

Splinter-bar. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Splinter-proof. Strong enough to resist the splinters of bursting shells.

Spoils. Whatever is taken from the enemy in time of war. Among the ancient Greeks, the spoils were divided among the whole army, only the share given to the general was the largest; but among the Romans the spoils belonged to the republic.

Spoleto (anc. Spoletium). A city of Central Italy, province of Umbria, is situated on a rocky hill, 61 miles north-northwest of Rome. During the second Punic war, Hannibal is said to have been repulsed by the colonists in an assault which he made on the town (217 B.C.), after the battle of Thrasymene. In 1860 it was taken by the Italians from a body of Irish mercenaries in the service of the pope, and now forms part of the kingdom of Italy.

Sponge. See Implements.

Sponge and Rammer-stop. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Sponge-bucket. See Implements.

Sponge-chain. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Sponge-hook. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Spontoon. A weapon bearing resemblance to a halberd, which, prior to 1787, was borne instead of a half-pike by officers of British infantry. It was a medium for signaling orders to the regiment. The spontoon planted in the ground commanded a halt; pointed backwards or forwards, advance or retreat; and so on.

Sporting Powder. Gunpowder used in sporting arms,—usually finer grained than that for military arms.

Sporting Rifle. A rifle made especially for hunting. There is no invariable feature distinguishing it from other rifles. Ordinarily the rear sight is not elevating.

Spottsylvania Court-house. A village in Spottsylvania Co., Va., situated on the river Po, 65 miles north from Richmond. A series of desperate battles took place in the neighborhood of this village between the Federals and Confederates, from May 8 to 21, 1864, in which the former compelled the latter, after much carnage, to retreat to the North Anna River, which ultimately resulted in the battle of Cold Harbor (which see).

Spread-eagle. In heraldry, an eagle, or the figure of an eagle, with its wings elevated and its legs extended;—often met as a device in heraldry, upon military ornaments, and the like.

Springfield. A post-town, capital of Greene Co., Mo., 130 miles southwest of Jefferson City. Near here was fought the desperate battle of Wilson’s Creek, in which the Federals had the advantage over the Confederates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel Lyon, August 10, 1861.

Springfield. A city of Massachusetts, on the east bank of the Connecticut River, 98 miles west by south of Boston. The national armory is located here, which repaired and altered in 1869 upwards of 25,000 rifles and muskets. The present U. S. breech-loader, model of 1873, is made here.

Springfield Rifle. See Small-arms.

Sprue. See Ordnance, Construction of, Molding.

Spur. An apparatus fastened to the heel of a horseman, for goading the horse. It is much less used than formerly. All cavalry soldiers wear spurs; but their use, except in the heat of an actual charge, is discouraged as much as possible. In the days of chivalry, the use of the spur was limited to knights, and it was among the emblems of knighthood. To win his spurs, was for a young man to earn knighthood by gallant conduct. The degradation of a knight involved the hacking off of his spurs; and the serving before a knight of a pair of spurs on a dish, was a strong hint by his host that he had outstayed his welcome.

Spurs, Battle of the. See Courtrai.

Spy. In war, is a useful but not highly honored auxiliary, employed to ascertain the state of an enemy’s affairs, and of his intended operations. Spies have been used in all wars from the time when Moses sent Joshua on such a purpose to the present time. Their employment is quite recognized by the law of nations as interpreted by Grotius, Vattel, and Martens; nor is it held to be any dishonor to a general to avail himself of their services. On the other hand, the spy himself is looked upon as an outlaw, and one devoid of honor. If taken by the enemy, he is put to death ignominiously and without mercy. As, however, the calling is so dangerous, and so little redounds to honor, it is never permissible for a general to compel by threats any person, whether of his own or the hostile party, to act as a spy; but he is at liberty to accept all such services when proffered. A spy is well paid, lest he betray his employer. In the British army, spies are usually controlled by the quartermaster-general. Martial law, though distinct enough in ordering the death of a spy, is not clear in defining what constitutes a spy. A man—not of the enemy—within the enemy’s lines, and in the enemy’s uniform, would presumably be a spy. If in civil dress, and unable to give a good account of himself, his chance of hanging would be considerable; but if found in one camp in the uniform of the opposite side, he may not be treated otherwise than as a prisoner of war, or at least as a deserter from the enemy. Both as regards honor and penalties, it would seem that spies ought in fairness to be divided into two classes,—first, those who betray their own country to an enemy; secondly, those who, being enemies, contrive surreptitiously to obtain information by penetrating into the opposing army. The first class are traitors of a deep dye, for whom no ignominious death is too bad; but the second class are often brave men, who dare much in the service of their country. It is unfair to accord them the same treatment as the traitors.

Squad. A small portion of a company, troop, or battery, placed in the especial charge of an officer or non-commissioned officer for purposes of inspection and supervision. In the infantry it corresponds with a section. It also signifies a small number of men drilled together. The term awkward squad is applied to those soldiers who, on account of clumsiness or want of attention, are sent back to the lowest squad to be re-drilled.

Squad Book. In the British service, is the roll of a squad, containing, besides the names, the trades and other particulars of the men.

Squad-bags. In the British service, are black canvas bags, which are issued at the rate of one to every 25 men, and are intended to contain those articles of a man’s kit which are not comprised in the “service kit.” They are only used when a regiment is in the field or on the line of march. In India, where knapsacks are never carried, a small squad-bag is issued to each soldier.

Squadron. In military language, denotes two troops of cavalry. It is the unit by which the force of cavalry with an army is always computed. Three or four squadrons constitute a regiment. The actual strength of a squadron ranges from 120 to 200 sabres.

Squall. A sudden and violent gust of wind, often attended with rain or snow. Black squall, a squall attended with dark, heavy clouds. Thick squall, a black squall accompanied by rain, hail, sleet, etc. White squall, a squall which comes unexpectedly, without being marked in its approach by the clouds.

Square. In military evolutions, is the forming of a body of men into a rectangular figure, with several ranks or rows of men facing on each side. With men of ordinary firmness, a square should resist the charges of the heaviest horse. The formation is not new, for a Grecian Syntagma was a solid square of 16 men in every direction; but in modern warfare, the solid square having been found cumbrous, has been abandoned for the hollow square, with officers, horses, colors, etc., in the centre. The front rank kneels, and the two next stoop, which enables five ranks of men to maintain a rolling fire upon an advancing enemy, or to pour in a murderous volley at close quarters.

Square-pierced. In heraldry, a term used to designate a charge perforated with a square opening, so as to show the field. A cross square-pierced is often improperly confounded with a cross quarter-pierced, where the intersecting part of the cross is not merely perforated, but entirely removed.

Squire. An attendant on a warrior was formerly so called.

Stab. To pierce with a pointed weapon; as, to be stabbed by a bayonet, dagger, etc.

Stabiæ (now Castella Mare di Stabia). An ancient town in Campania, between Pompeii and Surrentum; was destroyed by Sulla in the Social war.

Stable Guard. In each squadron, the stable guard generally consists of a corporal and one man for every 20 horses. It is their duty to feed the horses, watch over their safety during the night, and attend to the general police of the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at the hours of stable call.

Stable Horse. A name formerly applied to that part of the Tippoo Sahib’s cavalry which was best armed, accoutred, and most regularly disciplined.

Stack Arms. To set up muskets or rifles together, with the bayonets crossing one another, and forming a sort of conical pile.

Stack of Arms. A number of muskets or rifles set up together, with the bayonets crossing one another, forming a sort of conical pile.

Stacket. A stockade.

Stadia. A very simple aid in estimating distances, consists of a small stick, held vertically in the hand at arm’s length, and bringing the top of a man’s head in line with the top of the stick, noting where a line in the eye of the observer to the feet of the man cuts the stick or stadia, as it is called. To graduate the stadia, a man of the ordinary height of a foot-soldier, say 5 feet 8 inches, is placed at a known distance, say 50 yards, and the distance on the stick covered by him when it is held at arm’s length is marked and divided into eight equal parts. If the distance is now increased until the man covers only one of these divisions, we know he is at a distance equal to 50 × 8 = 400 yards. This instrument is not very accurate, except for short distances. A much more accurate stadia is constructed by making use of a metal plate having a slit in it in the form of an isosceles triangle, the base of which, held at a certain distance from the edge, subtends a man (5 feet 8 inches), say at the distance of 100 yards. A slider moves along the triangle, being always parallel to the base, and the length of it comprised between the two sides of the triangle represents the height of men at different distances, which are marked in yards on the side of the triangle, above or below, according as the object looked at is a foot-soldier or horseman. In order to keep the stadia always at the same distance from the eye, a string is attached to the slider, the opposite end having a knot tied in it, which is held between the teeth while using the instrument, which is held in the right hand, the slider being moved with the left-hand finger. The string should always be kept stretched when the instrument is used, and the line in a vertical position. It must be graduated experimentally by noting the positions in which the slider represents the height of the object. The instrument used is not, however, reliable. Its uncertainty increases in an equal ratio with the distance of the object observed. At the extreme ranges it is quite useless. At the school for firing, at Vincennes, therefore, they rely entirely on the eye alone for the judgment of distances, and great pains by careful practice and instruction is taken to perfect that judgment. A simple instrument by which distances can be determined is, therefore, still a great desideratum.

Staff. The staff of an army consists of a body of skilled officers whose duty it is to combine and give vitality to the movements and mechanical action of the several regiments and drilled bodies composing the force. The distinction between an officer on the staff of an army and a regimental officer is that the latter is concerned with his own regiment alone, while the former deals with his army (of course under the orders of his commanding officer), or section of an army, and regulates the combined action of the several arms and bodies of men. A good staff is all-important to the success of a military enterprise. In the British service the general staff of an army comprises the general in actual command, with the subordinate generals commanding the several divisions and brigades; as assistants to these the officers of the adjutant-general’s department,—i.e., the adjutant-general, his deputy, assistants, and deputy-assistants, if the army be large enough to require them all. Similarly, the officers of the quartermaster-general’s department; the brigade-major; the provost-marshal, and the judge-advocate.

In the U. S. service the general staff consists of the officers of the several military bureaux, such as of the adjutant-general’s department, the quartermaster’s department, etc. For the officers comprising these corps, see appropriate headings throughout this work.

The general staff of the British army consists at present of a field-marshal commanding-in-chief, whose headquarters are at London; under him, of a lieutenant-general commanding-in-chief in Ireland. This command includes, of course, the general officer commanding in each military district of the United Kingdom and in each colony; each of these generals having the usual subordinate staff subject to his orders. India forms a nearly independent command, under a commander-in-chief, whose headquarters are at Bengal. There are subordinate commanders-in-chief in Bombay and Madras; and in each presidency there are several military divisions.

The personal staff consists of the aides-de-camp and military secretaries to the respective general officers. These officers, who are treated of separately in this work, are appointed within certain limits by the generals whom they serve, and their appointments expire on those generals ceasing to command.

The garrison staff consists of the officers governing in fortresses and garrisons; as commandants, fort-majors, town-majors, fort-adjutants, and garrison-adjutants.

The civil or department staff includes those non-combatant officers who have to provide for the daily requirements of the troops. These are the commissaries, barracks, medical, chaplains, purveyors, store, and veterinary departments.

The recruiting staff consists of inspecting field-officers, district paymasters, district adjutants, and superintending officers.

The pensioner staff includes only the staff-officers of the enrolled force.

Regimental Staff.—(See Officers, Staff-.) Staff-officers should carry in their heads all general information regarding the army with which they are serving; the composition and distribution of corps, divisions, brigades, etc.; they should remember as accurately as possible the strength of each battalion in their immediate division, and the names of the respective commanding officers. Officers of the headquarters staff should know the position of every division or detachment each night; their composition and strength, and the names of their commanders, etc.

In communicating orders to others, staff-officers must speak and write in the name of their generals. They must remember that they have no power of themselves to confer favors, and that all patronage rests with the general. In theory they are merely his agents, and, although, in practice, officers of importance have much in their power, they should be careful to prevent its being generally known. Their commander must never be ignored, even when they know him to be a fool. It is not that you injure an individual by slighting him, but that by doing so you deprive of that general confidence which for the public good it is essential he should possess.

In delivering verbal orders, and in their dealings with superior officers, the staff should be most respectful. A staff-officer should feel bound by his position, if not by his breeding, to treat every one with the courtesy due from one gentleman to another. The motto for the staff should be “affability and reticence.”

Staff, Cylinder. See Inspection of Cannon.

Stafford. A town of England, in Staffordshire, 123 miles northwest by west from London. In the civil war of the 17th century, it was occupied by the king’s forces, after the capture of Lichfield by their adversaries. An indecisive battle was fought at Hopton Heath, in the vicinity, in 1643, and at a later period the town was taken by the Roundheads, under Sir William Brereton. The castle was also taken shortly after, and at the close of the war was entirely demolished.

Stakes, Pointing-. See Pointing-stakes.

Stalwart. Brave; bold; strong; redoubted; daring.

Stamford. An ancient town of England, in Lincolnshire, 12 miles northwest from Peterborough. The Britons and Saxons here defeated the Picts and Scots in 449. Many of the Jews of Stamford were slain, and the whole community plundered in 1190 by those who had enlisted for the Crusade.

Stand. The act of opposing. Thus, troops that do not yield or give way, are said to make a stand.

Stand, To. To stand one’s ground, to keep the ground or station one has taken; to maintain one’s position; as, raw troops are not able to stand their ground against veteran soldiers. To stand fire, to receive the fire of arms from an enemy without giving way. To make a stand, to halt for the purpose of offering resistance to a pursuing enemy.

Stand at Ease. In the British service, is to be allowed, when in the ranks, a certain indulgence with regard to bodily position, with or without arms.

Stand Fast. Is the term used as a caution to some particular part of a line or column, to remain quiescent while the rest are moving.

Stand of Arms. See Arms, Stand of.

Stand of Ammunition. See Ammunition, Stand of.

Stand of Colors. A single color, or flag.

Stand to the Guns. Is to prepare for action, by taking one’s station at the guns.

Stand to your Arms. Is a cautionary command, when soldiers are put upon the alert.

Standard. A measure by which men enlisted into the army have the regulated height ascertained.

Standard. In its widest sense, a standard is a flag or ensign under which men are united together for some common purpose. The use of the standard as a rallying-point in battle takes us back to remote ages. The Jewish army was marshaled with the aid of standards belonging to the four tribes of Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, and Dan; and the Egyptians had ensigns with representations of their favorite animals. The flag of Persia was white, and, according to Xenophon, bore in his time a golden eagle with expanded wings; it was fixed on a chariot, and thus conveyed to the field of battle. Æschylus, in enumerating the six chiefs who, headed by Polynices, set themselves in battle array against Thebes, describes the device on the standard of each. In the earliest era of Roman history, a bundle of hay or fern is said to have been used as a military standard, which was succeeded by bronze or silver figures of animals attached to a staff, of which Pliny enumerates five,—the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. In the second consulship of Marius, 104 B.C., the other animals were laid aside, and only the eagle retained, and down to the time of the later emperors, the eagle, often with a representation of the emperor’s head beneath it, continued to be carried with the legion. On the top of the staff was often a figure of Victory or Mars. Each cohort had also an ensign of its own, consisting of a serpent or dragon woven on a square piece of cloth, and elevated on a gilt staff with a cross-bar. Under the Christian emperors, the Labarum was substituted for the imperial standard. Standards or ensigns among the Greeks were of different kinds; some had the representations of different animals, bearing some relation to the cities they belonged to. Among the earlier Greeks the standard was a piece of armor at the end of a spear; though Agamemnon, in Homer, uses a purple vail to rally his men, etc. Afterwards the Athenians bore the olive and owl; the Thebans, a sphinx; the other nations, the effigies of their tutelary gods, or their particular symbols, at the end of a spear. The Corinthians carried a pegasus, the Messenians their initial Μ, and the Lacedæmonians Λ. But the most frequent ensign among the Greeks was a purple coat upon the top of a spear. The flag or standard elevated was a signal to begin the battle, and the standard depressed was a signal to desist. The Anglo-Saxon ensign was splendid. It had on it the white horse, the Danish being distinguished by the raven. Various standards of great celebrity occur in mediæval history, among which may be enumerated the Flag of the Prophet (which see); the standard taken from the Danes by Alfred of England; and the Oriflamme, originally belonging to the Abbey of St. Denis, and borne by the counts of Vexin, which eventually became the standard of the French kingdom. In the Middle Ages the ensigns of the army were the banderols, banners, guidons, pencels, and pennons, for which see appropriate headings. In strict language, the term standard is applied exclusively to a particular kind of flag, long in proportion to its depth, tapering towards the fly, and, except when belonging to princes of the blood royal, slit at the end. Each baron, knight, or other commander in feudal times, had a recognized standard, which was distributed among his followers. The length of the standard varied according to the rank of the bearer. A king’s standard was from 8 to 9 yards in length; a duke’s, 7 yards; a marquis’s, 6¹⁄₂ yards; an earl’s, 6 yards; a viscount’s, 5¹⁄₂ yards; a baron’s, 5 yards; a banneret’s, 4¹⁄₂ yards; and a knight’s, 4 yards. There was never a complete coat of arms on the standard; it generally exhibited the crest or supporter with a device or badge of the owner, and every English standard of the Tudor era had the cross of St. George at the head. Standards were registered by the heralds, and the charges on them selected and authorized by an officer-of-arms.