B. (continued 2)

Berserker. A legendary Scandinavian hero of the 8th century, celebrated for his strength and valor. He fought without a coat of mail or helmet, whence his name. The name Berserkers was also applied to a class of warriors who, under the influence of a sort of demoniac possession, fought naked, performing marvelous feats of valor, unmindful or insusceptible of wounds.

Berwick-on-Tweed. A fortified town on the northeast extremity of England; the theatre of many bloody contests while England and Scotland were two kingdoms; it was claimed by the Scots because it stood on their side of the river; annexed to England in 1333; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1482; in 1651 it was made independent of both kingdoms; the town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to Gen. Monk in 1659.

Besançon. A fortified city of France, capital of the department of Doubs; sacked by Attila; captured and ruined by the ancient Germans; rebuilt by the Burgundians; it was ceded to Spain by the peace of Westphalia; taken by Louis XIV. on May 15, 1670; united to France in 1678; in 1814 the Austrians besieged it without success.

Besiege. To lay siege to or invest any fortified place with armed forces.

Besieged. The garrison that defends the place against the army that lays siege to it.

Besiegers. The army that lays siege to a fortified place.

Bessarabia. A frontier province of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being possessed by the Goths, Huns, etc., it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded to Russia in 1812.

Bessemer Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Bessi. A fierce and powerful Thracian people, who dwelt along the whole of Mount Hæmus as far as the Euxine. After the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B.C., the Bessi were attacked by the latter, and subdued after a severe struggle.

Bethoron. A village of Palestine. Near here Judas Maccabæus gained advantages on two different occasions over the generals of Antiochus.

Bethsur. An ancient city of Palestine, now extinct. The Syrian general Lysias captured it, 163 B.C., after a severe combat in which Eleazar, a brother of Judas, perished.

Béton. French term for concrete. Much used in permanent fortifications. See Concrete.

Béton Aggloméré. A species of concrete invented by M. Coignet. Used in building arches, aqueducts, cellar walls, etc. It differs from ordinary béton, having much greater strength and hardness,—qualities derived from the ramming to which it is subjected.

Betray. To deliver perfidiously any place or body of troops into the hands of the enemy. To discover that which has been intrusted to secrecy.

Betty. A machine used for forcing open gates or doors. See Petard.

Bey. See Beg.

Beyroot, or Beyrout (anc. Berytus). A seaport of Syria, colonized from Sidon; alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens; and after many changes, fell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pasha in 1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyroot (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon), took place October 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral engaged. Beyroot suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in Syria in May, 1860.

Béziers. A city of France, department of Hérault; sacked by the Vandals in the 5th century; by the Visigoths in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries; by the Saracens in 720; by Charles Martel in 737; in 1209, this city was taken by the Catholics under Simon de Montfort and Arnaud, abbé of Citeaux, and was the scene of a barbarous massacre of the Albigenses; 60,000 inhabitants were slain without consideration of sex or age (7000 were found dead in the church de la Magdeleine, where they sought refuge from their relentless slayers).

Bhootan. A country north of Lower Bengal. Invaded by the British in December, 1864, in consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy.

Bhurtpoor (India). Capital of Bhurtpoor, was besieged by the British, January 3, 1805, and attacked five times up to March 21, without success. The fortress was taken by Gen. Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805; this led to a treaty on April 17. On the rajah’s death, during a revolt against his son, Bhurtpoor was taken by storm, by Lord Combermere, January 18, 1826.

Biacolytes. A military organization in the Grecian empire, whose duty was to prevent the committal of any excesses against life or property. Their service was analogous to that of the French gendarmes.

Biagrasso, or Abbiategrasso. A city on the Ticinella, in Lombardy; here, in 1524, the French were defeated by the Imperialists.

Bibans, or Bibens. “The Gates of Iron.” A dangerous defile of the Atlas Mountains, between Algiers and Constantine; it is traversed by a number of currents. The French, led by the Duke of Orleans and Marshal Valée, passed through it in 1839.

Bibaux, or Petaux (Fr.). In ancient times, were soldiers who fought on foot, with cross-bow and lance.

Biberach (Würtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians,—under Latour, October 2, 1796, and under Kray, May 9, 1800.

Bicker. A word formerly used in the sense of to skirmish; to fight off and on; to make repeated attacks.

Bicocca (Northern Italy). Lautrec and the French were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists, April 29, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his conquests in Milan.

Bicoque (Fr.). A term used in France to signify a place ill fortified and incapable of much defense. It is derived from a place on the road between Lodi and Milan, which was originally a gentleman’s country-house surrounded by ditches. In 1522, a body of Imperial troops were stationed in it, and stood the attack of the whole French army, during the reign of Francis I. This engagement was called the battle of Bicoque.

Bicorneurs (Fr.). Name given to the militia of Valenciennes.

Bidarkee. A skin boat used by the Aleuts.

Bidassoa. A river of the Pyrenees, which forms one of the boundaries of France and Spain, the passage of which is memorable as completing the endeavors of Lord Wellington to drive the French, under Marshal Soult, out of the Peninsula into France. In 1808, Marshal Junot crossed the Bidassoa with the armies of France to invade the Peninsula, and in 1813, Lord Wellington crossed it, after driving the French out of Spain.

Bidauts, or Bidaux (Fr.). An ancient French corps of infantry; according to some authorities they were armed with two javelins.

Bien-Hoa. A fortified seaport town of the French colony in Cochin China; it was taken from the Annamites by the French under Rear-Admiral Bonard, December 15, 1861.

Bienne. A town of Switzerland; it was captured and burned by the bishop of Basel in 1367.

Biga. A Roman term applied in ancient times to vehicles drawn by two horses abreast, and commonly to the Roman chariot used in processions or in the circus. In shape it resembled the Greek war-chariot,—a short body on two wheels, low, and open behind, where the charioteer entered, but higher and closed in front.

Big Bethel. A village of York Co., Va., near Back River, about 12 miles northwest of Fortress Monroe, on the road from Hampton to Yorktown, and about 3 miles beyond Little Bethel, on the same road. In June, 1861, the main body of the Confederate army, under Gen. Magruder, being in the vicinity of Yorktown, an outpost of considerable strength was established at Little Bethel, which Gen. Butler, who was in command at Fortress Monroe, determined to dislodge. Accordingly, on the night of June 9, two New York regiments were ordered to gain the rear of the enemy’s position, while a battalion of Vermont and Massachusetts troops and a New York regiment were to attack in front at break of day. Before daybreak, through some error, these forces approached and fired into each other, and thus betrayed their projected movements to the enemy, who retreated to Big Bethel, where there was another outpost, with works of some strength in process of erection. Gen. Pierce, who was in command of the Federal expedition, determined to carry these works. An attack was ordered, and after nearly three hours’ fighting, the Federals being exposed to a heavy fire, while the Confederates were almost entirely protected, Gen. Pierce determined to retreat, which he did in good order, the enemy falling back the same day to Yorktown. The number of Federal troops was between 3000 and 4000, while that of the enemy was nearly 1500. The Federal loss was about 60, that of the Confederates was small in comparison.

Big Horn. A navigable river of the United States, near Fremont’s Peak, in the Rocky Mountains. It has a northeast course of about 400 miles, being the longest affluent of the Yellowstone, which, again, is the largest affluent of the Missouri. A desperate battle was fought on the Little Big Horn, between the 7th U. S. Cavalry and the Sioux Indians, June 25, 1876.

Bigles. A military corps of Rome, whose particular duty was to furnish sentinels; the bread which these troops received was called bigliaticum.

Bihach, or Bichacz. One of the strongest fortress-towns of Croatia, European Turkey; it has been the scene of frequent contests during the Turkish wars.

Bilbo. A rapier, a sword; so named, it is said, from Bilboa, in Spain, where the best are made.

Bilboa, or Bilbao (Northeast Spain). Founded about 1300; taken by the French in 1795; captured and recaptured during the invasion of the French in 1808; delivered from the Carlists by Espartero, aided by the British, December 24, 1836.

Bilboquet. A small 8-inch mortar, whose bore is only half a caliber in length. It throws a shell of 60 pounds about 400 toises.

Bill. A weapon much used by infantry, in the 14th and 15th centuries, for defense against cavalry, consisting of a broad, hook-shaped blade, having a short pike at the back and another at the summit, and attached to the end of a long staff.

Billet (Fr. Billet de logement). In England, is a ticket for quartering soldiers on publicans and others, which entitles each soldier, by act of Parliament, to candles, vinegar, and salt, with the use of fire and the necessary utensils for dressing and eating his meat. In the United States, no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in the manner to be prescribed by law (Art. 3, Amendments to the Constitution of the United States).

Bill-hook. A small hatchet used in European armies in cutting wood for fascines and other military purposes. The pioneers of the infantry are always provided with them, and a sufficient supply is issued to regiments engaged on active service.

Binche. A town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. The French drove the Austrians out of this place in 1794.

Bipennis. A double-headed axe, the weapon which, according to ancient historians and authors, particularly distinguished those fabulous female warriors, the Amazons.

Biporus. With the ancients this word signified a double-prowed boat, so that it could change its course to the opposite direction without turning.

Bir, or Biridjek. A walled town of Asiatic Turkey, on the Euphrates, which was ruined by Tamerlane.

Birse. A small river in Switzerland, on the banks of which, on August 26, 1444, 1500 Swiss fought an army of about 20,000 men, commanded by the dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XI. There were but 11 of the Swiss who survived the day, while their enemy left 8000 men and 1100 horses on the battle-field. On the same river 6000 confederate Swiss gained a splendid victory over 15,000 Austrians, July 22, 1499.

Birtha. See Tekrit.

Biscaïen (Fr.). A name formerly given to a long-barreled musket, the range of which was greater than the ordinary musket. Now this appellation is given to a leaden ball about the size of an egg, which is used for canister or case-shot.

Bisceglia. A fortified seaport town of Naples, on the Adriatic, 21 miles northwest of Bari. Here a celebrated combat took place between 13 Spaniards and the same number of French. Among the latter was the Chevalier Bayard.

Biskara, or Biskra. A town of Algeria, on the Kantara, taken by the French, March 3, 1844.

Bistritz. A fortified town of Transylvania, situated on the Bistritz River. Forming, as it does, the last strong position in the northeast of Transylvania, it was repeatedly, during 1848-49, the scene of hot strife between the Hungarian and Austrian generals.

Bitche. A town of France, in the department of the Moselle, in a wild and wooded pass of the Vosges. The Prussians, under Colonel Count von Wartensleben, attempted to surprise it in 1793, but failed.

Bithynia. An ancient division of Asia Minor, separated from Europe by the Propontus (Sea of Marmora) and the Thracian Bosphorus (Strait of Constantinople). It contained the famous Greek cities or colonies of Chalcedon, Heraclea, etc., and at later periods, Nicomedia, Nicæa, and Prusa. The inhabitants were supposed to be of Thracian origin. The country is said to have been subdued by Crœsus of Lydia (560 B.C.), and five years later fell under the Persian dominion. About 440 or 430 B.C. it became an independent kingdom, under a dynasty of native princes, who made Nicomedia their capital. It afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, and was governed as a province. In 1298, Osman the Turk broke into the country, and in 1328 Prusa, or Brusa, then its chief town, became the capital of the kingdom of the Osmanli.

Bitonto. A town of Naples where Mortemar and the Spaniards defeated the Germans, on May 26, 1734, and eventually gained the kingdom of the Two Sicilies for Don Carlos.

Biturritæ (now Bedarrides). In the department of Vaucluse, France. It was a city of the Allobroges, who were totally defeated in its environs by Domitius Ahenobarbus in 122 B.C.

Bivouac. A night-watch in open air. Troops bivouac when they make the best of it for the night, encamping in the open air. The term was also applied to a night-guard of the whole army, when apprehensive of surprise. The word comes from the German bei, “near,” and wache, “watch.” In recent times it is common for soldiers on the march to use the tente d’abri, or shelter-tent.

Bizerta, or Benzerta. The most northern town of Africa, and a fortified seaport of Tunis. It is defended by two castles, which, however, are commanded by adjacent heights. Though its port now only admits small vessels, it was formerly one of the best in the Mediterranean. This city was noted for the piracy of its inhabitants.

Black. In blazonry, sable denotes constancy, wisdom, and prudence.

Black-book. An ancient book of English admiralty law, compiled in the reign of Edward III. It has always been deemed of the highest authority in matters concerning the admiralty in England.

Blackfeet. A once powerful and ferocious tribe of American Indians of Algonkin stock, who infest the country between the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, and are also found in British America. See Indians and their Agencies.

Blackheath (Kent, near London). Here Wat Tyler and his followers assembled, June 12, 1381, and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, June 1, 1450. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flannock’s insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern on the ascent to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was rediscovered in 1780.

Black Hole. The appellation familiarly given in England to the dungeon or dark cell of a prison. The name is associated with a horrible catastrophe in the history of British India, namely, the cruel confinement of a party of English in an apartment called the “Black Hole of Calcutta,” on the night of June 19, 1756. The garrison of a fort at Calcutta having been captured by the nabob Surajah Dowlah, he caused the whole of the prisoners taken, 146 in number, to be confined in an apartment 20 feet square, having only two small windows, which were obstructed by a veranda. After a night of excruciating agony from heat, thirst, and want of air, there remained in the morning but 23 survivors.

Black Rod, Usher of the. An officer of the English House of Lords, whose emblem of authority is the wand or rod, with a gold lion on top. He belongs to the order of the Garter, and keeps the door when the chapter of that order is in session. His principal duty is to summon the Commons to the House of Lords when royal assent is given to bills, etc., and to take into custody any peer guilty of breach of privilege.

Black Sea, or Euxine. Pontus Euxinus of the ancients; a large internal sea between the southwest provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, connected with the Sea of Azof by the Straits of Yenikalé and with the Sea of Marmora by the Bosphorus. This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians till it was closed to all nations by the Turks after the fall of Constantinople, in 1453. The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of Kainavdji, July 10, 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders, since which time the Russians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the British and French fleets, January 3, 1854. A dreadful storm in this sea raged from November 13 to 16, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores for the allied armies. By the treaty of 1856 the Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all nations, the Russians and Turks not being allowed to keep ships of war on it. In 1871 the Russians were again permitted to have men-of-war on this sea.

Black Watch. Armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Munros, etc.) employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the celebrated 42d Regiment, which was formerly enrolled “The Royal Highland Black Watch.” Their removal probably facilitated the outbreak of 1745. They wore dark tartans, and hence their name.

Blackwater, Battle of. In Ireland, August 14, 1598, when the Irish chief O’Neal defeated the English under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement VIII. sent O’Neal a consecrated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgences as to Crusaders.

Bladensburg. A village of Prince George Co., Md., memorable for the battle which was fought here August 24, 1814, between the British and Americans, and which resulted in the capture of Washington.

Blair-Athol. A village in Perthshire, Scotland; it was occupied by the Marquis of Montrose in 1644; stormed by a party under the command of one of Cromwell’s officers in 1653; and gallantly defended by Sir Andrew Agnew, in 1746, when besieged by a portion of the Highland army, until he was relieved by the Hessians under the Earl of Crawford. The pass of Killekrankie, about two miles from Blair Castle, is famous for the battle which was there fought in 1689, between the Highlanders under Viscount Dundee, and King William’s troops under Gen. Mackay.

Blaise. A military order instituted by the kings of Armenia, in honor of St. Blaise the Martyr, anciently bishop of Sebasta, and the patron saint of Armenia. Justinian calls them Knights of St. Blaise and St. Mary, and places them not only in Armenia, but in Palestine. They made a vow to defend the Church of Rome, and followed the rule of St. Basil. This institution appears to have commenced about the same time with the Knights Templar and Hospitallers.

Blakely Gun. See Ordnance, Built-up Guns.

Blakely Projectiles. See Projectile.

Blamont. A small town of France, department of Doubs. This small place was protected by an ancient fortress, which was ruined by the allies in 1814.

Blanch-Lyon. A title of one of the English pursuivants-at-arms. See Pursuivant.

Blank. The point of a target at which aim is taken, marked with a white spot; hence, the object to which anything is directed.

Blank Cartridge. See Cartridge.

Blanket-boats. A practical and highly useful plan for crossing streams is by means of boats constructed of a single rubber blanket, capable of carrying a soldier, knapsack, arms, and accoutrements, with only 4 inches of displacement. The size of some of the ordinary blankets is 6 feet long and 4 feet 9 inches wide; but 7 feet by 5 feet would be preferable. If the height of the boat be made 1 foot, the length will be 4 feet, and the width 2 feet 9 inches, so as to be completely covered by the blanket. The frame may be made of round sticks, 1 inch and 1¹⁄₂ inch in diameter, in the following manner:

For the bottom the two end-sticks are 2 feet 9 inches long, and the side-pieces 3 feet 9 inches long. They are connected by boring a ¹⁄₂-inch hole through the end-pieces, and into the ends of the side-pieces, into which pins are driven. The top is formed in the same manner, and both top and bottom of 1¹⁄₂-inch sticks. The side-pieces of the bottom, and the top and bottom frames are connected by 1-inch round sticks inserted in ¹⁄₂-inch holes, in the same manner as the upright pieces are fastened in a chair. To keep the frame from falling apart, loops of cord are passed from top to bottom, and from side to side, and twisted with a stick. The rubber blanket is then spread upon the ground, the frame placed upon it, the sides and eyes turned up and lashed to the top rail by twine passed through the eyelets. Loops of cord are passed over these projecting ends, and twisted with a stick, which binds the parts together. One of these boats having a horizontal area of 11 square feet, would require 687 pounds to sink it 1 foot, and the average weight of a man would displace less than 4 inches.

In using these blanket-boats it will be convenient to lash several together, side by side, upon which soldiers can be transported. The float can be paddled or a rope may be stretched across, supported by floats, and the men can pull themselves across. If used for cavalry, some of the men can hold the bridles of the horses, while the others can pull, paddle, or pole across the stream, the saddles being placed in the boats. The frames are abandoned, or used for fuel, when the army has crossed over.

Several of these boats lashed together, and covered with poles, would form a raft on which wagons could be carried over; but for artillery, rafts of wagon-bodies, or something possessing greater powers of flotation, should be employed. The bill of materials for the frame of a blanket-boat is: 4 end-pieces, 1¹⁄₂ inches round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long; 4 side-pieces, 1¹⁄₂ inches round or square, 3 feet 9 inches long; 30 uprights, 1 inch round or square, 1 foot long; 10 pieces across bottom, 1 inch round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long; 8 double pins, ¹⁄₂-inch in diameter, 3 inches long; 4 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 9 feet long; 6 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 3 feet long; 1 india-rubber blanket, 6 feet long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, with eyelet holes around all sides, not more than 6 inches apart, and 30 feet of twine to lash the blanket to the frame.

Blanketeers. A number of operators who, on March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter’s Field, near Manchester, England, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great-coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. This was termed the “blanket meeting.” They proceeded to march towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was to commence a general insurrection. Eventually the ringleaders had an interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working-classes and the government ensued.

Blasting. The displacement of earth or rock by the use of an explosive. One of the most important parts of the art of mining in its various branches of tunneling, shaft-boring, well-digging, submarine mining, etc. The explosive is ordinarily placed in a bore hole, but in submarine mining this is sometimes dispensed with when a high explosive like nitro-glycerine is used.

Blasting Powder. An explosive in the form of powder used for blasting. The most powerful blasting powders in common use are made by adding certain substances to nitro-glycerine, which, by absorbing it, reduce it to the form of powder, and thus render it comparatively safe against the shocks and jars of use. (See Giant Powder, Dynamite.) The term blasting powder is also specially applied to a powder analogous to gunpowder, but which contains sodium nitrate in place of potassium nitrate, or saltpetre.

Blaubeuren. A town of Würtemberg, on the Blau; here the French defeated the Austrians in 1800; the fortress was razed in 1806.

Blayle (anc. Blavia). A fortified seaport of France, in the department of Gironde, 20 miles north-northwest of Bordeaux. The Duchess de Berry was imprisoned in the citadel in 1833. This city was captured by the French, from the English, in 1339; the Protestants took possession of it in 1568, and the English tried in vain to take it in 1814.

Blazonry (from the German Blasen, “to blow”). The art of describing in technical language the objects or charges borne in a coat of arms, and the manner of arranging them on a shield. The term originated from the custom of blowing a trumpet to announce the arrival of a knight, or his entrance into the lists at a joust or tournament. The blast was answered by the heralds, who described aloud and explained the arms borne by the knight.

Blechstreifen, or Blechschienen (Ger.) (Les laisches, Fr.). Thin metal plates which the ancient Gauls placed upon the buff coats of infantry; they were placed between the buff and the lining.

Bleneau. A village of France, in the department of the Yonne, about 29 miles west-southwest of Auxerre, celebrated as the place where Turenne gained a victory over the Prince of Condé in 1652.

Blenheim (Ger. Blindheim). A village of Bavaria, 23 miles north-northwest of Augsburg, memorable in connection with Marlborough’s great victory over the French and Bavarians, August 13, 1704. The battle, though known in English history by the name of “Blenheim,” did not occur here, but at the neighboring village of Hochstädt, by which name it is known to the French and Germans. The French and Bavarian army consisted of 56,000 men, commanded by Tallard, Marsin, and the Elector of Bavaria, and opposed to it was the allied army 52,000 strong, commanded by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The loss of the French and Bavarians was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000. Near here, also, in 1800, the French defeated the Austrians.

Bleus, Les (i.e. “The Blues”). A name given to the soldiers of the Republic, by the Royalists, during the wars of La Vendée, on account of their uniform.

Blidah. A considerable town of Algeria, on the border of the Metidjah Plain; taken by the French in 1830, and permanently occupied by them since 1838.

Blieskastel. A small town of Rhenish Bavaria; near here, on November 19, 1793, 7000 Prussians and Saxons under Gen. Kalkreuth fought the French, about 20,000 strong, under Gen. Hoche, neither side gaining the victory. The Prussians held their ground without any great loss until dark, when, deeming their position untenable, they evacuated it during the night.

Blindage. A temporary bomb-proof or splinter-proof roofing, constructed of timber and the like, to give cover to magazines, batteries, hospitals, etc. See Blinds.

Blinds. In military affairs, are wooden frames, composed of four pieces, either flat or round, two of which are 6 feet long, and the others 3 or 4 feet, which serve as spars to fasten the two first together: the longest are pointed at both ends, and the two others are fastened towards the extremities of the former, at about 10 or 12 inches. Their use is to fix them either upright, or in a vertical position against the sides of the trenches or sap, to sustain the earth. Their points at the bottom serve to fix them in the earth, and those at the top to hold the fascines that are placed upon them; so that the sap or trench is formed into a kind of covered gallery, to secure the troops from stones and grenades.

Blind-shell. A shell, the bursting charge of which is exploded by the heat of impact. Used in modern ordnance against armor.

Blistered Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Block. See Implements.

Blockade. In military art, is an operation for capturing an enemy’s town or fortress without a bombardment or regular siege. The attacking party throws up works on the neighboring heights and roads, and part of the besieging force remains under cover in villages, or in a temporary camp, ready to repel any sortie attempted by the besieged. The whole purpose in view is to prevent the besieged from receiving supplies of any kind, in order that, when food or ammunition is exhausted, they may be compelled to surrender. Fortresses situated on steep and rocky eminences, difficult to conquer by bombardment or assault, may often be reduced by blockade, because the roads or paths for the reception of supplies are few, and can be guarded by a small number of troops.

Blockade. In international law, is the means in time of war of rendering intercourse with an enemy’s port unlawful on the part of neutrals; and it is carried into effect by an armed force (ships of war), which blocks up and bars export or import to or from the place blockaded. To be valid, a blockade must be accompanied by actual investment of the place, and it may be more or less rigorous, either for the purpose of watching the operations of the enemy, or to cut off all excess of neutral vessels to that interdicted place. To be binding on neutrals, it ought to be shown that they have knowledge, or may be presumed to know of the blockade, for which reason a formal notification of the fact is usually made by the blockading power. The breach of blockade, which may be effected by coming out of a blockaded port, or going in, subjects the property so employed to confiscation. On the proclamation of peace, or from any political or belligerent cause, the continuance of the investment may cease to be necessary, and the blockade is then said to be raised. The blockading force then retires, and the port is open as before to all other nations. In the present century recourse has been had to this means of cutting off supplies from the enemy on several occasions. The Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, 1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; the Gulf of Finland by the allies, 1854; and the ports of the Southern States by President Lincoln, April 19, 1861.

Blockader. One who blockades.

Block Battery. In gunnery, a wooden battery for two or more small pieces, mounted on wheels, and movable from place to place; very ready to fire en barbette, in the galleries and casements, etc., where room is wanted.

Block-house. An edifice or structure of heavy timber or logs for military defense, having its sides loop-holed for musketry, and often an upper story projecting over the lower, or placed upon it diagonally, with projecting corners, to facilitate a firing downward, and in all directions; the sides and ends are sometimes much like a stockade, and the top covered with earth; there may also be a ditch around it. Formerly much used in Germany and America, and used extensively in the United States as a defense against Indians, and during the civil war, 1861-65, for the protection of important places on railroads, such as bridges, etc. If exposed to the fire of artillery, block-houses should be formed of double rows of logs 3 feet apart, with well-rammed earth between them.

Bloodhound. A name given to certain species of the dog, distinguished for their keenness of scent, and the persistency with which they follow the track of game. They have been frequently employed during wars to track partisans, and even in the American civil war, 1861-65, were employed by the Confederates to track Union prisoners who escaped from their prisons. In time of peace they are sometimes employed to hunt felons, fugitive slaves, etc. When they are thus employed they acquire a peculiarly bloodthirsty and ferocious character.

Bloreheath. In Staffordshire, England; here on September 23, 1459, the Earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, Lord Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict.

Bludgeon. A short stick, with one end loaded, or thicker and heavier than the other, used as an offensive weapon.

Blue-light. A composition, burning with a blue flame, used as a night signal in ships, or for military purposes. See Pyrotechny.

Blunderbuss. A short gun or fire-arm, with a large bore, capable of holding a number of balls, and intended to do execution without exact aim.

Blyde, Bly, or Blude (Ger.). A kind of a war machine which was used in ancient times to throw stones; some authors compare it to the catapult. In the year 1585, at the siege of the castle of Rucklingen, Albert, duke of Saxony and Lüneburg, was killed by a stone thrown by a blyde.

Board of Officers. A number of officers assembled by military authority for the transaction of business.

Board of Ordnance. A government department, which formerly had the management of all affairs relating to the artillery and engineering corps of the British army. This board was abolished after the Crimean war.

Board, Pointing. In gunnery, this is a piece of wood 1 foot long, 2 or 3 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, having a notch cut in the middle of one side to fit on the stake, and graduated into equal divisions from its middle. When not in use the pointing cord may be wound on it. This board is used for directing mortars.

Boards of Examination. In the army, are instituted to determine upon appointments in regiments, and for appointments and promotion in the medical staff, engineer corps, and ordnance department. They are composed of army officers.

Boards of Survey. In the army, are convened for the purpose of fixing the responsibility for public property lost, damaged, or destroyed, of ascertaining what articles of public property may have been lost or abstracted whenever a soldier deserts, and of taking an inventory of the public property in charge of a deceased officer.

Boats, Blanket-. See Blanket-boats.

Bobruisk. A fortified town of Russia, in the government of Minsk. It is situated on the right bank of the Beresina, and is a station for the steam-packets navigating the Dnieper and Beresina. It was besieged ineffectually by the French in 1812.

Boccacci. The Italians have a peculiar kind of fire-arm which they call by this name; it is enlarged towards the muzzle in the shape of a trumpet. This gun is principally used by the Calabrians.

Bocchetta. A celebrated pass of the Apennines, the key of the route from Novi to Genoa. Redoubts were constructed here by the Imperialists in 1746 for the defense of the pass. The French traversed this pass when they entered Italy in 1796.

Bodegraven. A fortified town of Holland. On November 28, 1672, it was captured by the Duke of Luxemburg, who tarnished his victory by authorizing the town to be pillaged.

Bodkin. A dirk or dagger; a word still in use, though Johnson says it is the oldest acceptation of it.

Body. In the nomenclature of modern ordnance, is the part of the piece in rear of the trunnions.

Body. In the art of war, is a number of forces, horse or foot, united and marching under one commander. Main body of an army, sometimes means the troops encamped in the centre between the two wings, and generally consists of infantry. The main body on a march, signifies the whole of the army exclusive of the van- and rear-guards.

Body of the Place. The enceinte of a fortress, or main line of bastions and curtains, as distinguished from outworks.

Body-guard. A guard to protect or defend the person; a life-guard.

Bœotia. One of the political divisions of ancient Greece, lying between Attica and Megaris on the south, and Locris and Phocis on the north, and bounded on the other side by the Eubœan Sea and the Corinthian Gulf. The tribes of greatest importance who appear as rulers of Bœotia in the heroic age were the Minyæ and the Cadmeans, or Cadmeones,—the former dwelling at Orchomenus, and the latter at Thebes. About 60 years after the Trojan war the Bœotians, an Æolian people who had hitherto dwelt in Thessaly, having been expelled from that country, took possession of the land then called Cadmeis, to which they gave their own name of Bœotia. At the commencement of the historic period all the ancient tribes had disappeared, and all the cities were inhabited by Bœotians, the most important forming a political confederacy under the presidency of Thebes. After the battle of Chæronea (338 B.C.) and the destruction of Thebes by Alexander three years after, Bœotia rapidly declined, and so low had it sunk in the time of the Romans, that of all its great cities there remained only two, which had dwindled into insignificant towns; of the other great cities nothing remained but their ruins and their names. The people are represented as a dull and heavy race, with little susceptibility and appreciation of intellectual pleasures.

Bohain. A small town of France, in the department of Aisne, which fell into the hands of the Imperialists in 1537, and was recaptured a short time afterwards.

Bohemia. A political and administrative division of the Austrian empire, bounded on the north by Saxony and Prussian Silesia, east by Prussia and Moravia, south by Lower Austria, and west by Bavaria. It derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people who settled in the country about 600 B.C., and who were expelled by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus. About the middle of the 6th century a numerous army of Czechs entered the country and subdued it. In 1310 the crown came to the house of Luxemburg, when Charles IV. united Bohemia with the German empire. After many vicissitudes it fell to the house of Austria in the person of the Archduke Ferdinand, brother of Charles V., and brother-in-law of Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, who was killed in battle with the Turks near Mohacs, in 1526. In 1619 the Bohemians revolted against the house of Austria, and offered the crown to Frederick V., elector palatine, but Frederick was defeated at the battle of White Mountain in November, 1620, and the country has ever since remained under the sway of the emperors of Austria.

Bohmisch-Brod. A small town of Bohemia. Here the emperor Sigismund defeated the Hussites in 1434.

Boii. An ancient Celtic people who emigrated into Italy, where they waged war for several centuries against the Romans. They were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 B.C., and expelled front Italy. A portion of them founded the kingdom of Boiohemum (Bohemia), from which they were expelled by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus.

Bois-le-Duc. A fortified city of Holland, capital of North Brabant; besieged and captured by the Dutch in 1629, and by the French in 1794; surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in January, 1814.

Bojano. A town in the province of Molise, Naples. The site of Bojano has been identified as that of the famous Samnite city of Bovianum, which played so conspicuous a part in the Samnite, Punic, and Social wars. Unsuccessfully besieged by the Romans in 314 B.C., it was taken by them in 311 B.C., and yielded immense spoils. Passing out of their hands, it was retaken by them in 305 B.C., and once more reverting to its original owners, was a third time captured by the Romans in 298 B.C. During the second Punic war it formed the headquarters of the Roman army on more than one occasion. In the great Social war the confederates made it their capital. It was surprised by Sulla, and retaken by the Marsic general, Pompædius Silo. Cæsar established a military colony, and it afterwards throve under the Roman empire.

Bojeleschti. A village of Wallachia, where, in 1828, the Russians under Gen. von Geismar defeated the Turks, although the latter were superior in force. The Russians captured 7 guns, 24 ammunition- and 400 bread-wagons, 24 colors, and guns enough to arm 10,000 men. The Cossacks took 507 prisoners.

Bokhara. The ancient Sogdiana, a state of Central Asia in Independent Toorkistan. It was conquered by the Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs about 705. After many changes of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, 1505. The British envoys, Col. Stoddart and Capt. Conolly, were murdered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan in 1843. In the war with Russia, beginning in 1866, the emir’s army was defeated several times in May and subsequent months during that year. Peace was made July 11, 1867. The Russians were again victors, May 25, 1868, and occupied Samarcand the next day. Further conquests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand was secured by treaty November, 1868.

Bolade (Fr.). A weapon of the shape of a mace.

Bologna. The ancient Felsina, afterwards Bononia. A distinguished city of Italy, capital of the province of the same name; besieged and taken by Pope Julius II., 1506; taken by the French, 1796; by the Austrians, 1799; again by the French after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; restored to the Pope in 1815; a revolt suppressed by Austrian interference, 1831; rebellion in 1848; taken by the Austrians, May, 1849; provisional government formed June 15, 1859; Victor Emmanuel entered Bologna as sovereign, May 2, 1860.

Bolster. A block of wood on the carriage of a siege-gun, and on the mortar-wagon upon which the gun rests when moving it from place to place. The first is a breach-, the second a muzzle-bolster.

Bolster. A cushioned or padded part of a saddle.

Bolt. A pointed shaft or missile intended to be shot from a cross-bow or catapult; an arrow; a dart.

Bolt. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.

Bolt, Palliser. A screw-bolt for securing armor plates. The end upon which the screw-thread is cut is larger than the shank.

Bomarsund. A strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic Sea, taken by Sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the French military contingent under Gen. Baraguay d’Hilliers, August 16, 1854. The governor Bodisco and the garrison, about 2000 men, became prisoners, and the fortifications were destroyed.

Bomb. A hollow ball or shell of cast iron filled with explosive materials, and furnished with a fuze, which being ignited when the missile is discharged from a mortar or howitzer, burns during its flight, and causes it to explode with destructive violence when it falls. They are now commonly called shells.

Bombard. An ancient piece of ordnance, very short, thick, and wide at the bore. Some of the bombards used in the 15th century propelled stones weighing from 200 to 500 pounds each.

Bombard. To assault a town or fortress by projecting into it shells, etc., from mortars, in order to set fire to and destroy the houses, magazines, and other buildings.

Bombardelle (Fr.). A small bombard which was used in ancient times. In 1830, one was disinterred near Laon, France; it is the opinion of some that this bombardelle was manufactured during the reign of Charles VII., from 1436-40.

Bombardier. Is an artilleryman versed in that department of arms which relates especially to bombs and shells, mortars and howitzers, grenades and fuzes. In some foreign armies, the bombardiers form a separate corps. In the British service a bombardier is a non-commissioned grade in the artillery below that of corporal.

Bombardment. Is an attack upon a fortress or fortified town by means of shells, red-hot shot, carcasses, rockets, etc., to burn and destroy the buildings, and kill the inhabitants, and by this means compel its surrender. A bombardment requires little engineering skill; whereas a regular siege requires the aid of engineers to direct the attack against fortifications, guns, and soldiery, leaving the inhabitants and buildings untouched. It is generally regarded by military engineers as a cruel operation, and in modern times is mostly adopted as an adjunct to a siege. The stores required for a vigorous bombardment are immense. Thus, in 1759, Rodney threw 20,000 shells and carcasses into Havre; in 1792, the Duke of Saxe Teschen threw 36,000 shot and shell into Lille in 140 hours; in 1795, Pichegru threw 8000 shells into Mannheim in 16 hours; and in 1807, the English threw 11,000 shot and shell into Copenhagen in three days. Of the bombardments recorded in history may be mentioned that of Algiers by Duquesne in 1682-83, by the Venetians in 1784, and by the English in 1816; of Genoa in 1684; of Tripoli in 1685, 1728, and 1747; of Barcelona in 1691; of Brussels in 1694; of Toulon by the English in 1707; of Prague in 1744, 1759, and 1848; the bombardment of Lille by the Austrians in 1792; of Le Quesnoy, Breda, Lille, Lyons, Maestricht, and Mayence in 1793; of Menin, Valenciennes, and Ostend in 1794; of Copenhagen by the English in 1807; of Glogau, Breslau, and Schweidnitz by the French in 1806-7; of Saragossa by the French in 1808; of Flushing by the English in 1809; of Antwerp in 1832; of St. Jean d’Ulloa by the French in 1838; of Beyrout and St. Jean d’Acre by the English in 1840; of Barcelona by Espartero in 1842; of Mogador by the French in 1844; and of Odessa by the English and French fleets in 1854. Vera Cruz was bombarded by Gen. Scott for three days before its surrender, March 27, 1847. During the civil war recourse was had several times to this method of reducing fortified places. Among the most noted were the bombardment by Admiral Farragut for six days, April 18, 1862, of Forts Jackson and St. Philip (after which they surrendered); the bombardment of Fort Pulaski, Ga., by Gen. Gillmore, in April, 1862; the first bombardment of Fort Sumter in August, 1863, which effectually disabled the fort for immediate defense of Charleston harbor, although the works remained in the possession of the Confederates; and the second bombardment, which took place in October following, leaving the place in ruins. During the Franco-German war Strasburg was bombarded by the Prussians on August 18, 1870, and after an immense number of shells were thrown into it with ruinous effect the city surrendered on September 27. During the siege of Paris it was estimated that for two weeks in January, 1871, about 500 shells a day were thrown into the city, to the great destruction of life and property.

Bomb-chest. A chest filled with bombs, or only with gunpowder, placed under ground, to cause destruction by its explosion.

Bomb-proof. A term applied to military structures of such immense thickness and strength that bombs cannot penetrate them.

Bomb-shell. A hollow globe of iron, filled with powder, and thrown from a mortar; a bomb.

Bone, Bona, or Bonah. A fortified seaport town of Algeria, 85 miles northwest of Constantine; it is surrounded by a wall with square turrets which has four gates. Fort Cigogne is its chief defense; the French occupied this place in July, 1830.

Bonn. A town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna) was in the electorate of Cologne; it has been frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia in 1814.

Bonnet. In fortification, is a small defense work constructed at salient angles of the glacis or larger works. It consists of two faces only, with a parapet 3 feet high by 10 or 12 feet broad. There is no ditch. A larger kind, with 3 salient angles, is called a priest’s bonnet, or bonnet à prêtre. The use of the bonnet is to check the besiegers when they are attempting to make a lodgment.

Bonneval. A town of France, formerly fortified; it was partially destroyed by the English during the 15th century.

Bontchouk. A lance ornamented with a horse’s tail. When the kings of Poland led their armies, boutchouks were carried before them.

Boomerang. A very singular missile weapon used by the natives of Australia. It is made of hard wood, usually from 20 to 30 inches in length, from 2 to 3 inches wide, and ¹⁄₂ or ³⁄₄ of an inch thick. It is curved or bent in the middle at an angle of from 100° to 140°. When thrown from the hand with a quick rotary motion, it describes very remarkable curves, according to the shape of the instrument and the manner of throwing it, often moving nearly horizontally a long distance, then curving upward to a considerable height, and finally taking a retrograde direction, so as to fall near the place from which it was thrown, or even very far in the rear of it.

Booneville. A river-port, capital of Cooper Co., Mo., situated on the right bank of the Missouri River, 48 miles northwest of Jefferson City. During the civil war a Confederate force of about 2500 raw troops was here attacked by the Federals under Gen. Lyon, June 17, 1861. After a short conflict the Confederates were routed, abandoning their guns and camp equipage, which fell into the hands of the Union forces.

Boothauk. A fortified pass of Afghanistan, 12 miles to the east of Cabul. It runs for 5 miles between cliffs 500 feet high, and in some places only 50 yards wide.

Boots and Saddles. In cavalry tactics, a trumpet call which is the first signal for mounted drill, and for all other formations mounted; it is also the signal for the trumpeters to assemble.

Booty. Is the victors’ share in property captured from the vanquished. It is generally a military term, the word prize being more frequently used in the navy.

Bordeaux, or Bourdeaux (Southwest France). This city was sacked by the Visigoths, who were driven from it by Clovis; it was ravaged by the Saracens and Normans in the 8th and 9th centuries. It came into the possession of the Duke of Gascoyne in 911; in 1653 the city rebelled, but was taken by the royal troops; Bordeaux was entered by the victorious British army after the battle of Orthes, fought February 27, 1814.

Bordure, or Border. In heraldry, coats of arms are frequently surrounded with a bordure, the object of which is to show that the bearer is a cadet of the house whose arms he carries. Its character often has reference to the profession of the bearer; thus a bordure embattled is granted to a soldier, and a bordure ermine to a lawyer.

Bore. Of a piece of ordnance includes all the part bored out, viz., the cylinder, the chamber (if there is one), and the conical or spherical surface connecting them.

Borghetto. A town of Italy, on the Mincio, 15 miles southwest of Verona; it has a castle and a vast fortified causeway. The French here defeated the Austrians in 1796.

Borgo Forte. A town of Italy, in Lombardy, on the Po, 7 miles south of Mantua. The Austrians were here defeated by the French in 1796.

Bori. A Turkish term for military trumpets.

Boring Cannon. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Borissov. A town of Russia, on the left bank of the Berezina. A conflict took place here November 23, 1812, between the French and Russians; near this town, at the village of Studienka, the disastrous passage of Berezina was effected by the French army, November 26-27, 1812.

Bormann-fuze. A fuze which is used for spherical case-shot. The fuze-case is made of metal (a composition of lead and tin), and consists of a short cylinder, having at one end a horseshoe-shaped indentation, one end only of which communicates with the magazine of the fuze placed in the centre by a channel filled with rifle powder. This horseshoe indentation extends nearly to the other end of the cylinder, a thin layer of the metal only intervening. This is graduated on the outside into equal parts representing seconds and quarter-seconds. In the bottom of this channel a smooth layer of the composition is placed, with a piece of wick or yarn underneath it. On this is placed a piece of metal, the cross-section of which is wedge-shaped, and this, by machinery, is pressed down upon the composition, sealing it hermetically. The cylindrical opening is filled with musket powder and covered with a sheet of tin, which is soldered, closing the magazine from the external air. Before using the fuze several holes are punched through this sheet of tin, to allow the flame to enter the shell. On the side of the fuze the thread of a screw is cut which fits into one cut on the inside of the fuze-hole, and the fuze is screwed into the shell with a wrench. The thin layer of metal over the composition is cut through with a gouge or chisel, or even a penknife, at the interval marked with the number of seconds which we wish the fuze to burn. To prevent the metal of this fuze, which is soft, from being driven into the shell by the explosive force of the charge, a circular piece of iron, with a hole through its centre, and the thread of a screw on the outside, is screwed into the fuze-hole before the fuze is inserted. The most important advantage of this fuze is, that the shells can be loaded, all ready for use, and remain so any length of time, perfectly safe from explosion, as the fuze can be screwed into its place, and the composition never exposed to external fire until the metal is cut through.

Borneo. An island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Australia; discovered by the Portuguese about 1520; the pirates of this island were several times chastised by the British government; incorporated with the British empire, December 2, 1846.

Bornhoevede. A village of Holstein, where a battle was fought on July 22, 1227, between Woldemar II., king of Denmark, and Adolphus IV. of Holstein; the Danes were totally defeated.

Borodino. A Russian village on the Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, September 7, 1812, between the French under Napoleon, and the Russians under Kootoosof, 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory; but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which the French entered September 14. The French name it the battle of Moskwa, and it gave Marshal Ney his title of Prince of Moskwa.

Boroughbridge. A town in Yorkshire, England, the site of a battle between the Earls of Hereford and Lancaster and Edward II., March 16, 1322. The latter at the head of 30,000 men pressed Lancaster so closely that he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient force, and being defeated and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an eminence near Pontefract, and beheaded by a Londoner.

Boscobel. Near Donington, Shropshire, England, where Charles II. concealed himself after his defeat at Worcester.

Bosnia. In European Turkey, formerly part of Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in-law of Louis, king of Hungary, was made king, 1376. He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became their vassal. Bosnia was annexed to the Ottoman empire in 1522. Many efforts have been made by the Bosnians to recover their independence; they rebelled in 1849, and were subdued by Omar Pasha in 1851.

Bosniaken. Formerly light cavalry of the Prussians, resembling the present Uhlans. Frederick I. formed this cavalry in 1745.

Bosphorus, or Bosporus, Thracian (now Strait of Constantinople). The ancient name of the strait which connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora. Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge of boats over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 B.C.

Bosporus. The country on both sides of the Bosporus Cimmerius, or Strait of Yenikalé, formed in ancient times the kingdom of Bosporus. The Scythians conquered Bosporus, 285 B.C.; conquered by Mithridates VI., 80 B.C.; conquered by Cæsar, 47 B.C.; Polemon conquered Bosporus, 14 B.C. A list of obscure kings given by some writers ends with Sauromates VII., 344.

Boss. The apex of a shield.

Bosse, Bosse à Feu (Fr.). A term used in the French artillery to express a glass bottle which is very thin, contains 4 or 5 pounds of powder, and round the neck of which 4 or 5 matches are hung after it has been well corked. A cord 2 or 3 feet in length is tied to the bottle, which serves to throw it. The instant the bottle breaks the powder catches fire, and everything within the immediate effects of the explosion is destroyed.

Bostanji. The first Turkish foot-guards, about 12,000 strong; they guard the imperial castles and accompany the sultans to the field. They were originally employed as gardeners, guards for the seraglio, etc. Their number is now greatly reduced.

Boston. A city and capital of Massachusetts, situated on the west side of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of Charles River. It was built about 1627. Here originated that resistance to the British authorities which led to American independence. The act of Parliament laying duties on tea, papers, colors, etc. (passed June, 1767), so excited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, that they destroyed several hundred chests of tea, December 16, 1773. Boston seaport was shut by the English Parliament, until restitution should be made to the East India Company for the tea lost, March 25, 1774. The town was besieged by the British next year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle between the royalist and independent troops, in which the latter were defeated, took place June 17, 1775; the city was evacuated by the king’s troops, April, 1776. The inhabitants were very zealous against slavery in 1861.

Boston Massacre. A name popularly given to a disturbance which occurred in the streets of Boston on the evening of March 5, 1770, when a sergeant’s guard belonging to the British garrison fired upon a crowd of people who were surrounding them and pelting them with snowballs, and killed 3 men besides wounding several others. The leader of the townspeople was a black man named Crispus Attucks. The affair is of historical importance, as it prepared the minds of men for the Revolutionary struggle which followed.

Bostra, or Bozrah. A city of Arabia, in an oasis of the Syrian Desert, 76 miles south of Damascus; it was besieged, captured, and sacked by the Saracens, who were commanded by Khaled.

Bosworth Field. In Leicestershire, England, the site of the thirteenth and last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, August 22, 1485, when Richard III. was defeated and slain by the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. Sir William Stanley at a critical moment changed sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. It is said that Henry was crowned on the spot with the crown of Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field.

Bothwell Bridge. In Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Scotch Covenanters, who took up arms against the intolerant government of Charles II., and defeated the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, June 1, 1679, were totally routed at Bothwell Bridge, June 22, 1679, by the Earl of Monmouth, and many persons were tortured and executed.

Botoné, or Bottony. In heraldry, a cross-botoné is a cross of which the ends are in the form of buds or buttons.

Bottle Cartridge. See Cartridge, Bottle.

Bottoming. The foundation of a roadbed.

Botzen, or Bolzana (anc. Pons Drusi). The capital of the circle of Etsch in Tyrol. This town was captured by the French in 1809.

Boucanier (Fr.). A long, heavy musket, used by the American buccaneers, and with such skill as to give the weapon a high degree of celebrity.

Bouchain. A small strongly fortified frontier town of France, in the department of the North; besieged and captured by Louis XIV. in 1673; by the Duke of Marlborough in 1711; retaken by the French in 1712, and ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht.

Bouche (Fr.). Means the aperture or mouth of a piece of ordnance, that of a mortar, of the barrel of a musket, and of every species of fire-arms from which a ball or bullet is discharged.

Boufarik, or Boofareek. A place in Algeria where the French encountered the Arabs, October 2, 1832.

Bouge, or Boulge (Fr.). An ancient war-club, the head of which was loaded with lead, also called plombée.

Bougiah (anc. Salvæ). A seaport town of Algeria, which was captured by the French, October 19, 1833, and successfully defended against the Arabs, August 25, 1842.

Bouillon (Belgium). Formerly a duchy, was sold by Godfrey, its ruler, to Albert, bishop of Liège, to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095; it was seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 1815, when it was given to the king of the Netherlands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to Belgium after the revolution of 1830.

Boulaf. A kind of baton or very short mace, formerly used by the Polish generals.

Boulak, or Boolak. A town of Lower Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile; burned by the French in 1799; since rebuilt by Mohammed Ali.

Boulanger Chronograph. See Chronoscopes.

Boulanger Telemeter. See Range Finders.

Boulevard (Fr.). An ancient bastion, bulwark, or rampart.

Boulogne. A seaport in Picardy, Northern France; was taken by the British under Henry VIII., September 14, 1544, but restored at the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked this city, disabling 10 vessels and sinking 5, August 3, 1801; in another attempt he was repulsed with great loss. In 1804, Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors, to invade England; it is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the invasion. Sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to burn the flotilla with fire-machines called catamarans, October 2, 1804. Congreve rockets were used in another attack, and they set the town on fire, October 8, 1806. The army was removed on the breaking out of the war with Austria in 1805. Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor, made a descent here with about 50 followers, August 6, 1840, without success.

Bounty. A premium offered or given to induce men to enlist into the public service.

Bourbon, Isle of (in the Indian Ocean). Discovered by the Portuguese about 1545. The French here formed a colony in 1653 (according to others, 1642, 1646, 1649). In 1810, after a gallant resistance, it fell into the hands of the British, who retained it till the general peace, 1814. In 1815, before the downfall of Napoleon, it was once more besieged by the English, and along with the Mauritius again fell into their hands. After the general pacification of Europe, Bourbon was restored to France, in whose possession it now is; but the adjoining island has since been retained by its English conquerors.

Bourdonnante (Fr.). A name formerly given to a kind of bombard of a heavy caliber.

Bourg-en-Bresse. A town of France, capital of the department of Ain. The town was captured by the allies in 1814.

Bourges. The capital of the department of the Cher, in France; captured by Cæsar, 52 B.C.; destroyed by Chilperic, 583; carried by assault by Pepin, 762; sustained a siege during the reign of Charles VII., in 1415; captured by the Protestants, 1562; by Henry IV., 1594; by the Protestants, 1615, and by Marshal Matignon in 1616.

Bourguignote, or Bourgignotte (Fr.). A helmet worn by the Burgundians, from whom it was named. It was of polished iron, with a visor. Under Louis XIV. their head-dress was changed to a kind of bonnet.

Bourlette (Fr.). In antiquity, a mace which was garnished with iron points.

Bournous, Burnoose, or Burnos. A kind of cloak or overcoat, used by the Arabs, and which constitutes a part of the military clothing of some corps of the French army.

Bouton, or Boutoou (Fr.). A kind of war-club, formerly used by the Caribs of the Antilles.

Bovianum (now Bojano). A town of Italy, 10 miles southwest of Campobasso. It was sacked by the Romans in 311, 305, and 298 B.C. During the second Punic war it was several times the headquarters of the Roman army.

Bouvines (Northern France). The site of a desperate battle, July 27, 1214, in which Philip Augustus of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The Counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken prisoners.

Bow. A weapon made of a strip of wood, or other elastic material, with a cord connecting the two ends, by means of which, when drawn back and suffered to return, an arrow is propelled.

Bow, Cross. An ancient weapon of offense of the 11th century. Philip II., surnamed the Conqueror, introduced cross-bows into France. In this reign Richard I. of England was killed by a cross-bow at the siege of Chalus.

Bowie-knife. A knife from 10 to 15 inches long, and about 2 inches broad, worn as a weapon in the Southern and Southwestern States of the United States,—so named from its inventor, Col. James Bowie.

Bowman. A man who uses a bow; an archer.

Bow-shot. The space which an arrow may pass when shot from a bow.

Bowstring. The string of a bow. Also a string used by the Turks for strangling offenders.

Bowyer. The man who made or repaired the military bows was so called.

Boxer-cartridge. The metallic cartridge used in the service rifle of England. See Cartridge.

Boxtel (in Dutch Brabant). Here the British and allied armies, commanded by the Duke of York, were defeated by the French republicans, who took 2000 prisoners and 8 pieces of cannon, September 17, 1794.

Box Pontons. See Pontons.

Boyaca. A village of the republic of New Granada, South America, celebrated for the victory gained by Bolivar over the Spaniards, August 7, 1819, which secured the independence of Colombia.

Boyau. In military engineering, is a winding zigzag or trench, made by besiegers to enable them to approach a town or fortified place under cover. These trenches are also called zigzags, or approaches.

Boyne. A river in Kildare, Ireland, near which William III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., July 1, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men; the Protestant army lost about a third of that number (out of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The Duke of Schömberg was killed, shot by mistake by his own soldiers as he was crossing the river.

Brabançons (Fr.). Soldiers of fortune, adventurers, freebooters of Brabant, who, during the Middle Ages, hired their services to those chiefs who paid them best.

Bracelet. In ancient times, a piece of defensive armor for the arm; a part of a coat of mail.

Bracket. The cheek of a mortar-carriage, made of strong plank.

Braconnière, or Bragonnière (Fr.). In antiquity, a mail-armor, of the shape of a petticoat, which was attached to the cuirass, and reached from the hips to the middle of the thigh, and sometimes below the knee.

Braga (anc. Bracara Augusta). The capital of the province of Minho, in Portugal; it is fortified and defended by a citadel. The Suevi were here vanquished by the Goths in 585.

Brailoff, Brahilow, or Ibraila. A fortified town and the principal port of Wallachia, European Turkey. In 1770 the town was taken by the Russians, and almost razed to the ground; rebuilt, and again taken by the Russians in 1828, after a brave defense. It was restored to Turkey by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. During the war of 1854-56, it was occupied by Russian troops.

Brake. That part of the carriage of a movable battery or engine which enables it to turn.

Brake. An ancient engine of war analogous to the cross-bow and balista.

Bramham. In Yorkshire, England; near here the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolf were defeated and slain by Sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of Henry IV., February 19, 1408; and Fairfax was defeated by the royalists under the Duke of Newcastle, March 29, 1643.

Brand. The Anglo-Saxon for a burnished sword.

Brandenburg. A city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians, fortified Brandenburg, 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, or protector of the marches or frontiers. Occupied by the French, October 25, 1806.

Branding. Was a mode of punishment, in nearly all armies, inflicted on soldiers who were convicted of the crime of desertion,—the branding or marking being with ink, or other similar preparation. This practice is now discontinued in the American, and several European armies.

Brandschwaermer (Ger.). A small rocket which contained a bullet; it was fired out of a gun and used for the purpose of setting fire to straw-thatched buildings.

Brandywine. A river in Pennsylvania and Delaware, near which a battle took place between the British and Americans, in which the latter (after a day’s fight) were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777.

Brass. See Bronze.

Brassar. A piece of defensive armor for the arm.

Brassart. In plate-armor, joined plates of steel which protected the upper part of the arm, from the elbow to the shoulder. When the front of the arm only was shielded, the pieces were called demi-brassarts.

Brasset. A casque or head-piece of armor.

Braunau. A town of Bohemia, Austria; captured by the French, October 28, 1805.

Bray. A small town in the department of Seine-et-Marne, France; it was occupied by the allies, February 12, 1814.

Brazil. An empire in South America, was discovered by Vincent Pinzon in February, and Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its coasts by a tempest, in 1500. The French having seized Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and landed March 7, 1808. Brazil declared war against Uruguay in February, 1865; entered into a treaty with Uruguay and the Argentine Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, in May, 1865, and war was waged with varying results up to 1870.

Breach. Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the assault. The operation by which the opening is produced is called breaching, and the guns used for this purpose are breaching batteries. To repair a breach, is to stop or fill up the gap with gabions, fascines, etc., and prevent the assault. To fortify a breach, is to render it inaccessible by means of chevaux-de-frise, crow’s feet, etc. To make a lodgment in the breach. After the besieged are driven away, the besiegers secure themselves against any future attack in the breach. To clear the breach, that is, to remove the ruins, that it may be better defended.

Breach of Arrest. See Appendix, Articles of War, 65.

Bread and Water. A diet used as a military punishment.

Break Ground. Is to commence the siege of a place by opening trenches, etc.

Breast-height. In fortification, the interior slope of a parapet.

Breastplate. A plate worn upon the breast as a part of defensive armor.

Breastwork. In fortification, a defensive work breast-high, hastily thrown up, of earth or other material.

Brechin. A place in Scotland; sustained a siege against the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin was fought between the Earls of Huntly and Crawford; the latter was defeated, 1452.

Breech. In ordnance, is the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore, extending to the cascabel. The base of the breech is its rear surface.

Breech-block. The block of metal which closes the bore in breech-loading arms.

Breech-loader. A fire-arm that receives its load at the breech.

Breech-loading. Receiving the charge at the breech instead of the muzzle. A feature of modern small-arms. The principle, however, is very old, as some of the earliest guns were breech-loaders. A gun of the time of Henry VIII. still extant is substantially the same as the modern Snider. Puckle’s revolver of 1718 was mounted on a tripod, and was very much like the Gatling gun in its general features. The first American patent was to Thornton & Hall, of Massachusetts, 1811. These guns were extensively issued to U. S. troops. There is a specimen in the West Point Museum. Prior to 1861 the best known breech-loading small-arms were Sharps’, Burnside’s, Maynard’s, Merrill’s, and Spencer’s. See Small-arms.

In modern times the breech-loading principle for heavy ordnance has gained and lost favor at different epochs. On the continent of Europe it is generally accepted. Italy, however, has committed itself in the largest calibers to the enormous 100-ton muzzle-loaders of Sir William Armstrong. The same inventor introduced his breech-loading field-piece in England about 1850. His principle was approved and adopted for various calibers about 1858, but partial failures in his system led to an investigation by a committee of the House of Commons, 1862-63, and after a tedious discussion, the breech-loading principle was officially discarded (1866), though many of the guns were retained in the service. The successful application of hydraulic machinery in handling and loading heavy guns (1876) confirmed the government in its choice of muzzle-loaders. The difficulty of muzzle-loading in a turret and the impossibility of employing the great length of bore necessary to obtain the best results was, up to this time, the strong argument in favor of breech-loaders. Loading by hydraulic machinery from beneath the deck through a trap-door outside the turret obviated these objections to muzzle-loaders, and gave the gunners ample protection by closing the port, thus placing these guns for the time being on a par with breech-loaders. The bursting of the 38-ton gun on the “Thunderer” (1878), however, which has been generally attributed to double loading, has shaken confidence in hydraulic ramming, and now there is a strong current in favor of a return to breech-loaders. The splendid performance of Krupp guns on the practice-ground at Meppen, 1879, and the numerous misfortunes which have recently befallen the Woolwich and Elswick systems, have doubtless had their weight in this change of opinion.

Breech Mechanism. The mechanism used for opening and closing the breech of a fire-arm and securing it against the escape of the gas. In small-arms this is readily accomplished. The use of the metallic cartridge-case renders any special gas-check unnecessary, as the case itself by being expanded against the walls of the chamber serves the purpose. The various mechanisms used in small-arms have been classified as follows: 1st, Fixed chamber; 2d, Movable chamber. The second class is now obsolete. The fixed chamber class is subdivided into—1st, Barrel moves; 2d, Breech-block moves. The first class comprises many of the shot-guns in use, the second, the best known of military arms. Under this latter class are the following subdivisions: 1st, Sliding block; 2d, Sliding and rotating; 3d, Rotating about an axis. We find excellent guns under each of these classes which are further subdivided as to the direction of the motions. The Sharps’ may be taken as typical of the first of these classes, the Hotchkiss magazine gun of the second, and the Springfield of the third.

A similar classification may be made for breech-loading devices in heavy ordnance, but the problem here is not so simple. The pressure is much greater, the masses of metal much larger, and the cartridge must be used without a case to check the gas. Breech-loaders were impossible until the problem of checking the gas had been solved. The inventor of the first successful gas-check was an American, L. W. Broadwell, now residing abroad. The term Broadwell ring has been applied to all similar devices. This is a steel ring which fits in a recess reamed out in the rear of the chamber and abutting upon the breech-block. The inside of the ring is so shaped as to be pressed by the gas outwards and backwards, thus closing both the space outside of the ring and between it and the block. Broadwell is also the inventor of a breech mechanism which, with a few modifications, is that used by Krupp for all of his guns. The breech-block slides horizontally through a rectangular slot in rear of the chamber. In the Armstrong breech-loader, the block called the vent-piece is taken out and put in through a rectangular orifice on the top of the gun. It is locked in place by a hollow breech-screw. The French use a breech-screw with the threads cut away in longitudinal rows. The female-screw being similarly arranged, a very small rotation enables it to be entirely withdrawn. Among American devices are Thompson’s, a breech-block which rolls to the side and opens or closes the bore. Sutcliffe’s, a cylindrical block, with its axis parallel to the one hanging on a pin projecting from the front periphery of the hollow screw. The block is raised and locked by turning the screw, and falls into a recess below when the screw is half turned back. Mann’s, in which the gun rotates upwards about the trunnions something like a shot-gun, and many others.

Breech-pin. A strong plug firmly screwed in at the breech of a musket or other fire-arm.

Breech-sight. In gunnery, an instrument having a graduated scale of tangents by means of which any elevation may be given to a piece. Correctly speaking, the breech-sight gives the angle made by the line of aim or sight with the axis of the piece. The base of the breech-sight is a plate of brass curved to fit the base-ring or line, the scale and slides are similar to those of the pendulum hausse except that a hole is made in the plate, instead of a notch to sight through. Breech-sights are graduated for no disparts, a front-sight equal in height to the dispart being screwed into the top of the muzzle; in the Rodman guns, into the seat provided for the purpose between the trunnions. Breech-sights are also frequently held in sockets, and when the front-sight is placed on the trunnion, the socket is on the side of the breech. The pendulum hausse (see Hausse) is a breech-sight used for field-guns to correct the error arising from difference of level in the wheels of the carriage. The Quinan breech-sight (invented by Lieut. W. R. Quinan, 4th U. S. Artillery) is an improvement on the pendulum hausse. It is fixed in a socket on the right side of the breech. The scale has a spirit-level, by means of which it is made vertical. The front sight is a short tube with cross-hairs fixed in it. The advantages claimed over the hausse are increased steadiness and accuracy.

Bregenz, or Bregentz. A town of Tyrol, Austria; it was occupied by the French in 1799.

Breisach, Old. A very old town of the grand duchy of Baden; taken by Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul. Being regarded as the key to the west of Germany, it was a prominent scene of action during the Thirty Years’ War, at the conclusion of which it was ceded to the French. During the next century it frequently changed masters, now belonging to France and now to Austria; its fortifications were destroyed by the French in 1744, and during the war of the Revolution, in 1793, part of the town was burned by them. In 1806 the French handed it over to the house of Baden.

Breitenfeld. A village and manor of Saxony, about 5 miles north of Leipsic. It is historically remarkable for three battles, fought on a plain in its neighborhood. The first of these, between the Swedes and the Imperialists, which was fought September 7, 1631, was of the highest importance to Europe, as it secured the permanency of Protestantism and the freedom of Germany. Tilly’s pride had reached its highest point after the fall of Magdeburg, which took place on May 20, 1631; and in the early part of September of the same year he advanced against the Saxons with an army of about 40,000 men for the purpose of forcing the elector, John George I., into an alliance with the emperor. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, joined by the Saxons, advanced towards Leipsic, where Tilly lay, the latter advancing into the plain of Breitenfeld. The Imperial forces were completely defeated, and their three most distinguished generals, Tilly, Pappenheim, and Fürstenberg, wounded. The second battle which Breitenfeld witnessed again, resulted in the triumph of Swedish valor: it took place on October 23, 1642, between the Swedes, headed by Torstenson, one of the pupils of Gustavus, who had invested Leipsic, and the Archduke Leopold, with Gen. Piccolomini, who were advancing from Dresden to its relief. The Swedes gained a complete victory over the Imperialists, who fled into Bohemia, leaving behind them 46 cannon, 121 flags, 69 standards, and the whole of their baggage. The third battle of which Breitenfeld was the scene was fought on October 16-18, 1813. See Leipsic.

Bremen (Northern Germany). Said to have been founded in 788; in 1648 it was erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712; it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, by whom it was ceded to Hanover; it was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the Hanoverians in 1758; annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; its independence restored in 1813; its old franchises in 1815 It became a member of the North German Confederation in 1866.

Brenneville (Northwest France). Here Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, who had embraced the cause of William Clinton, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, August 20, 1119.

Brenta. A river which rises in Tyrol and flows, after a course of 90 miles, into the Adriatic Sea, at Porto di Brondolo. On the banks of this river the French twice defeated the Austrians in 1796.

Brentford. A county town of Middlesex, England. Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp fight, November 12, 1642.

Brescelia, or Bregelia (anc. Brixellum). A town on the right bank of the Po, in North Italy. Here the emperor Otho put himself to death in 69. On May 20, 1427, an army under Duke Philip Maria Visconti, of Milan, was here defeated by an army sent against him by the republic of Venice, under Francis Carmagnola.

Brescia. A town in Northern Italy (the ancient Brixia), became important under the Lombards, and suffered by the wars of the Italian republics, being attached to Venice. It was taken by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. It surrendered to the Austrian general Haynau, March 30, 1849, on severe terms; annexed to Sardinia in 1859.

Breslau. Capital of the province of Silesia, Prussia; it was burnt by the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia in January, 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under Prince Bevern, who was defeated November 22,1757. Breslau was taken, but was regained, December 21, the same year; besieged by the French, and surrendered to them January, 1807, and again in 1813.

Bressuire. A small town of France, department of Deux-Sèvres; it was fortified during the Middle Ages, and was captured from the English by the celebrated Du Guesclin in 1373; it was nearly destroyed during the wars of La Vendée.

Brest. A seaport in Northwestern France; besieged by Julius Cæsar, 54 B.C.; possessed by the English in 1378; given up to the Duke of Brittany in 1390. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744; marine hospital, with 50 galley-slaves, burnt, in 1766; the magazine again destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784. England maintained a large blockading squadron off the harbor from 1793 to 1815, but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station of France, and from the fortifications and other vast works of late construction it is considered impregnable.

Bretigny, Peace of. Concluded with France, May 8, 1360, by which England retained Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces; renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release King John, long a prisoner. The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in London.

Breuci. A powerful people of Pannonia, near the confluence of the Savus and the Danube, took an active part in the insurrection of the Pannonians and Dalmatians against the Romans, 6 A.D.

Brevet. An honorary rank conferred upon an officer, for meritorious services, above the rank he holds in his own corps. In the U. S. army rank by brevet is conferred, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for “gallant actions or meritorious services.” A brevet rank gives no right of command in the particular corps to which the officer brevetted belongs, and can be exercised only by special assignment of the President. Officers while so serving under assignment are said to have local rank (which see).

Brevet. To confer rank or title upon by brevet.

Brevetcy. The rank or condition of a brevet.

Bricole. An improved kind of traces used by the French in drawing and manœuvring artillery; analogous to the old drag-rope, but having the addition of a leather strap or girdle with a buckle, to which the drag is affixed, and an iron ring and hook at the end to drag by.

Bridge. A structure usually of wood, stone, brick, or iron, erected over a river or other water-course, or over a ravine, railroad, etc., to make a continuous roadway from one bank to the other.

Bridge. In gunnery, two pieces of timber which go between the two transoms of a gun-carriage. Not used in the U. S. service.

Bridge, Flying. See Pontons.

Bridge, Trail. See Pontons.

Bridge, Train. See Equipage.

Bridge, Trestle. See Trestle Bridge.

Bridges. When a river is more than 4 feet in depth, or when its bottom is of mud or quicksand, recourse must be had either to ferrying by means of boats, rafts, etc., or to military bridges. The latter are always to be preferred when circumstances will permit their establishment.

Military bridges are composed of a roadway and its supports; the first consists of beams or balks reaching across the adjacent supports, and covered with plank called chess.

The supports, from which the bridge takes its name, may be either fixed, as trestles, gabions, carriages, piles, or floating, as pontons, boats of commerce, rafts, etc.

Ponton bridges are preferable to all others when a passage by main force or surprise is to be undertaken. They may be constructed on any stream of sufficient depth; they may be replaced by rafts when the velocity of the stream does not exceed 6 feet per second. In swifter currents the latter are unmanageable, drag their anchors, and are liable to destruction from floating bodies.

Trestle bridges may be constructed in rivers whose depth does not exceed 9 feet, and whose velocity is not more than 6 feet. They may be employed with advantage in rivers of moderate depth and gentle current, with hard, even bottoms. When the bed of the river is uneven the adjustment of the trestles to the bottom is very tedious, and if the current is rapid, almost impossible. When the bed is of mud or fine sand, the settlement of the legs is liable to be irregular.

Gabion bridges are used over marshes and shallow streams. They consist of gabions constructed in the ordinary way, and of a height necessary to give a level road; these are placed in rows perpendicular to the axis of the bridge, are filled with stones, or gravel, and are capped with a piece of timber on which the balks rest.

Pile bridges are superior in point of stability to all other military bridges, but requiring much labor and time in their construction; they are usually restricted to securing the communications in rear of the army.

Bridge-head. A fortification covering the extremity of a bridge nearest the enemy. The French term for the same is tête du pont.

Bridle. An instrument with which a horse is governed and restrained, consisting of a head-stall, a bit and reins, with other appendages, according to its particular form and uses.

Bridle. In gunnery, the piece in the interior of a gun-lock, which covers and holds in place the tumbler and sear, being itself held by the screws on which they turn.

Bridle, Arm Protect. The term for a guard used by the cavalry, which consists in having the sword-hilt above the helmet, the blade crossing the back of the head, with the point of the left shoulder, and the bridle-arm; its edge directed to the left and turned a little upwards, in order to bring the mounting in a proper direction to protect the hand.

Bridoon. The snaffle rein of a military bridle, which acts independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider.

Brieg. A town of Silesia, Prussia, about 27 miles from Breslau; it was taken by Frederick II., April 4, 1741; dismantled by the French in 1807.

Briel, Brielle, or The Brill. A fortified seaport town on the north side of the island of Voorne, Holland. It was the nucleus of the Dutch republic, having been taken from the Spaniards by William de la Marck in 1572. This event was the first act of open hostility to Philip II., and paved the way to the complete liberation of the country from a foreign yoke. Briel was the first town of Holland which, without extraneous aid, expelled the French in 1813. The celebrated admirals De Witt and Van Tromp were natives of this place.

Brienne, or Brienne le Château. A town of France, department of the Aube. It has a fine castle, but it is chiefly celebrated as the place where Napoleon received the rudiments of his military education, and where, in 1814, a bloody battle was fought between the French and the allied forces of Russia and Prussia.

Brier Creek. In Warren Co., Ga. An American force 2000 strong, under Gen. Ashe, was defeated on this creek by the English under Prevost, March 4, 1779.

Brigade. A body of troops, whether cavalry, artillery, or infantry, or a mixed command, consisting of two or more regiments, under the command of a brigadier-general. Two or more brigades constitute a division, commanded by a major-general; two or more divisions constitute an army corps, or corps d’armée, the largest body of troops in the organization of the U. S. army.

Brigade. To form into a brigade, or into brigades.

Brigade. In the British service the artillery is divided into brigades, which consist of seven batteries each, under the command of a colonel. The Household Brigade is composed of the Horse Guards, Life Guards, and Foot Guards.

Brigade-Inspector. An officer whose duty it is to inspect troops in companies before they are mustered into the service.

Brigade-Major. An officer appointed to assist the general commanding a brigade in all his duties.

Brigadier-General. An officer in rank next above a colonel and below a major-general. He commands a brigade; and this officer is sometimes called simply brigadier.

Brigand. A species of irregular foot soldiers, frequently mentioned by Froissart. From their plundering propensities comes the modern use of the term.

Brigandine, or Brigantine. A coat of mail, consisting of thin, jointed scales of plate, pliant and easy to the body.

Brigantes. The most powerful of the British tribes, inhabited the whole of the north of the island from the Abus (now Humber) to the Roman wall, with the exception of the southeast corner of Yorkshire. They were conquered by Petilius Cerealis in the reign of Vespasian. There was also a tribe of this name in the south of Ireland.

Brignais (anc. Priscinniacum). An ancient fortress in France, department of the Rhone; it was captured in 1361 by bodies of adventurers, called Grandes Compagnies. Prince Jacques de Bourbon made an effort to dislodge them, but was completely defeated, and died of wounds received upon this occasion.

Brihuega. A town of New Castile, Spain; it was formerly surrounded by walls, of which traces still exist. Here, in 1710, during the War of the Succession, the English general Stanhope, owing to the dilatoriness of his allies in affording him support, was defeated by the Duke of Vendôme, and compelled to surrender with all his force, amounting to about 5500 men.

Brindisi (anc. Brundisium). A fortified seaport of Italy, on a small bay of the Adriatic; it was the usual place of embarkation for Greece and the East; taken by the Romans from the Sallentines in 267 B.C., and was afterwards the principal naval station of the Romans on the Adriatic. During the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey, this place was invested by Cæsar in 49 B.C.

Brins d’Est (Fr.). Large sticks or poles resembling small pickets, with iron at each end. They were used to cross ditches, particularly in Flanders.

Brise-mur (Fr.). A heavy piece of ordnance which was used during the 15th century to batter down walls, etc.

Brissarthe. A village of France, department of Maine-et-Loire. Here the Normans were defeated in 886 by Robert the Strong.

Bristol (West England). Built by Brennus, a British prince, 380 B.C.; is mentioned in 430 as a fortified city; taken by the Earl of Gloucester in his defense of his sister Maud, the empress, against King Stephen, 1138; taken by Prince Rupert, 1643; by Cromwell, 1645.

Brisure. In fortification, any part of a rampart or parapet which deviates from the general direction.

Britain (called by the Romans Britannia, from the Celtic name Prydhain). The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain; it is referred to by Herodotus, 450 B.C.; invaded by Julius Cæsar, 55-54 B.C.; Aulus Plautus and Vespasian reduced South Britain, 47. Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt; she is defeated by Suetonius; 80,000 slain, 61. Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesea, and overruns Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the government, 78-84. He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus; surrenders the island, 84. The Romans held sway in Britain down to about 420, soon after which time the Saxons invaded South Britain, and ultimately subdued it. It was merged into the kingdom of England about 829. See England.

Britain, Great. The name given in 1604 to England, Wales, and Scotland.

Briteste. A small town of France, in the old province of Guienne; besieged by the Duke of Vendôme in 1622, who was compelled to retreat, without accomplishing his object, after firing 2000 shots; he made five assaults and lost 1500 men.

British Legion. Raised by Lord John Hay, Colonel De Lacy Evans, and others, to assist the queen of Spain against the Carlists in 1835; defeated them at Hernani, May 5, 1836, and at St. Sebastian’s, October 1.

Brittany, or Bretagne (Northwest France). The ancient Armorica. Conquered by Julius Cæsar, 56 B.C. Brittany was formerly united to the monarchy, 1532; held by the Spaniards, 1591; recovered by Henry IV., 1594. The Bretons took part in the Vendean insurrection in 1791.