P. (continued 4)
Reading edition
Pretence, Escutcheon of, or Escutcheon Surtout. In heraldry, a small shield placed in the centre of the field of another shield. The husband of an heiress may bear the arms of his wife in an escutcheon of pretence, instead of impaling them. Feudal arms are also sometimes placed on an escutcheon of pretence, particularly in the insignia of elective sovereigns, who have been in use of bearing their own proper arms in surtout over those of the dominions to which they are entitled.
Pretorian. Appertaining to pretor; also the general’s guard among the ancient Romans.
Pretorium. The hall or court where the pretor lived and administered justice. It also denoted the tent of the Roman general, in which councils of war were held. The place where the pretorian guards were quartered or lodged, was likewise called pretorium.
Prevesa. A fortified town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the north shore of the Gulf of Arta, 58 miles south-southwest of Yanina. Prevesa belonged to the Venetians from 1684 until the fall of that republic in 1797. It was then held by the French for a time, but was afterwards taken by the Turks.
Prey. Anything, as goods, etc., taken by force from an enemy in war; spoil; booty; plunder.
Pricker. A light horseman was formerly so called.
Pricker. A priming-wire (which see).
Pride. In heraldry, a peacock or other bird, when the tail is spread out in a circular form, and the wings drooped, is said to be “in his pride.”
Priest-cap. In fortification, a work so named from its shape; called also swallow-tail. See Redan.
Prime. To charge with the powder, percussion-cap, or other device for communicating fire to the charge, as a fire-arm.
Primer. A wafer, cap, tube, or other device for communicating fire to the charge of powder in a cannon. The cap or tube usually contains a friction- or percussion-powder. The friction-primer is generally used in the land service. (See Friction-primer.) For service on shipboard, a quill filled with rifle-powder, having on the top a capsule of fulminate of mercury, is generally employed. The capsule is exploded by a blow from the lock-hammer. The tape-primer, used sometimes in blasting, is formed of long, flexible strips of paper or fabric containing fulminate or other quick-burning substance. The electric primer is used to fire simultaneous discharges, both in ordnance and blasting. In firing wet gun-cotton, the small charge of dry gun-cotton used in conjunction with the detonating exploder is called a primer. In small-arms the term is specially applied, at the present time, to the percussion-caps used in reloading metallic cartridge-cases. The cap is set in a recess in the head of the shell. When the firing-pin strikes the outside end of the cap, the fulminate is exploded by being driven against a perforated cone called the anvil. This anvil is usually a part of the shell. In the Winchester primer, recently invented, the anvil is a part of the primer itself, being inserted upon the fulminate. A shoulder in the recess holds the anvil when the cap is struck.
Priming. The powder, percussion-cap, or other device used to communicate fire to the charge in a fire-arm.
Priming-tubes. See Laboratory Stores.
Priming-wire. A pointed wire, used to penetrate the vent of a piece, for examining the powder of the charge, or for piercing the cartridge.
Primipilarii, Primopilarii, or Primipilares. Among the Romans, were such as had formerly borne the office of primipulus of a legion. The banner was intrusted to his care. Among other privileges which the primipilarii enjoyed, they became heirs to what little property was left by the soldiers who died in the campaign.
Primipilus. The centurion belonging to the first cohort of a legion. He had charge of the Roman eagle.
Princeton. A town of Mercer Co., N. J., about 40 miles northeast of Philadelphia. This place was the scene of an important engagement during the Revolutionary struggle, although the numbers engaged were comparatively small. On hearing of the English reverse at Trenton (which see), Gen. Howe immediately ordered Cornwallis, who was in New York, to proceed with his forces to Princeton. Leaving a part of his troops at this place, he proceeded towards Trenton with the intention of giving battle to the Americans, and arrived with his vanguard on January 1, 1777. Washington, learning that only three regiments were left at Princeton, by a circuitous night march arrived there by daybreak of January 3, surprised and completely routed the enemy with a loss of 200 killed and wounded, and as many prisoners. The American loss did not exceed 30. This event greatly aroused the drooping spirits of the colonists, who had been previously disheartened by a series of reverses.
Principes. In the Roman armies, were the infantry, who formed the second line in the order of battle. They were armed like the hastati, with this difference, that the former had half-pikes instead of whole ones.
Principles, Military. The basis or ground-work upon which every military movement is made, and by which every operation is conducted.
Prismatic Compass. A surveying instrument, much used on account of its convenient size and form in military sketching, and for filling up the details of a map where great accuracy is not required.
Prismatic Powder. See Gunpowder.
Prisoners. Are persons under arrest or in custody, whether in prison or not. Whenever any officer is charged with a crime, he is to be arrested and deprived of his sword by the commanding officer; and soldiers charged with crimes are to be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority. (See Appendix, Articles of War, 65 and 66.) When brought into court, a prisoner should be without irons, or any manner of shackles or bands, unless there is danger of an escape, and then he may be secured with irons.—Blackstone.
Prisoners of War. Are soldiers captured during an engagement, siege, or continuance of hostilities, who are deprived of their liberty until regularly exchanged.
Prisons, Military. Are buildings constructed for the retention of prisoners of war, or for the safe-keeping and punishment of offenders against military law. Sometimes during war forts and other strong buildings are utilized for these purposes. The following were noted prisons during the civil war, 1861-65, for the retention of Federal prisoners of war:
Andersonville (which see).
Belle Isle.—An island in the James River near the city of Richmond, Va. The unfortunate prisoners taken were placed on this island without shelter of any kind to protect them from the scorching rays of the sun during the day or the chilly cold mists of the night, until death or exchange released them from their sufferings.
Castle Thunder.—A fort in Charleston harbor, S. C., which was used for the same purpose.
Libby.—An old tobacco warehouse in Richmond, Va., which was temporarily converted into a military prison; and for cruelty and torture to the Union prisoners this place was second only to Andersonville.
Salisbury.—A town in North Carolina, which had another depot for prisoners.
There were also prisons established for the retention of Confederate prisoners at Camp Douglas, Chicago, Camp Chase, Ohio, Elmira, N. Y., Point Lookout, Md., and Rock Island, Ill.
At Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, a permanent military prison was established in accordance with an act of Congress passed March 3, 1873, in which soldiers of the U. S. army are confined for serious offenses against military law.
At Dartmoor, a desolate region in England, a prison was constructed in 1809 for the confinement of French prisoners of war which deserves a passing notice, inasmuch as Americans were confined there during the war of 1812. It comprised 30 acres, inclosed with double walls, with seven distinct prison-houses with inclosures. In 1812 there were 6000 American prisoners of war within its walls who were treated with much cruelty, and, in consequence of the appearance of mutinous intentions of some of the prisoners on account of the tardiness of the English officials in releasing them after the treaty of peace was ratified, they were fired upon by the English soldiers, which resulted in the killing of 5 and wounding of 33 prisoners. This act was regarded in America as a wanton massacre.
Privas. A town of France, capital of the department of Ardèche, 26 miles southwest from Valence. In the civil wars of the 16th and 17th centuries in France, Privas, which was then a strongly-fortified town, played a conspicuous part, being always favorable to the Protestant party. In 1629 it was bravely defended by a small garrison under St. André de Montbrun against Louis XIII., but after a siege of two months had to be abandoned. Montbrun being soon afterwards taken was hanged, and the fortifications of Privas were leveled to the ground.
Private. The title applied in the British army to a common soldier of the cavalry and infantry; the corresponding rank in the artillery being gunner or driver, and in the engineers, the sapper. A private in the cavalry is sometimes called a trooper. In the U. S. army all the soldiers who are below the grade of non-commissioned officers are called privates.
Privy-coat. A light coat or defense of mail, concealed under the ordinary dress.
Prize. That which is taken from another; a thing seized by force, stratagem, or superior power. Hence, specifically, anything captured by a belligerent using the right of war.
Prize. The application of a lever to move any weighty body, as a cask, cannon, or the like.
Prize Agent. In the British service, a person appointed for the distribution of such shares of money as may become due to officers and soldiers after battle, siege, or capture.
Prize-bolt. A manœuvring-bolt of a mortar-bed.
Prize-money. The proportion which is paid to the troops who are present at the capture or surrender of a place, etc., which yields booty.
Prizing. The same as prize, which see.
Proclamation. The act of publishing abroad; conspicuous announcements; official or general notice; publication; that which is put forth by way of public notice; an official public announcement or declaration; a published ordinance; as, the proclamation of a king. A proclamation may be issued to declare the intention of the head of a government to exercise some prerogative or enforce some law which has for a long time been dormant or suspended. In time of war, the head of the government by a proclamation may lay an embargo on shipping, and order the ports to be shut. But the most usual class of proclamations are admonitory notices for the prevention of offenses, consisting of formal declarations of existing laws and penalties, and of the intention to enforce them. Proclamations are only binding when they do not contradict existing laws, or tend to establish new ones, but only enforce the execution of those which are already in being, in such manner as the head of the government judges necessary.
Proconsul. In Roman antiquity, an officer who discharged the duties of a consul without being himself consul; a governor of a province, or a military commander under a governor. He was usually one who had previously been consul, and his power was nearly equal to that of a regular consul.
Prodd. A cross-bow, used for throwing bullets in ancient times.
Profile. A section of a parapet or other work in fortification.
Projectile. A body projected or impelled forward by force, especially through the air. In a limited military sense the term is applied to a body intended to be projected from a cannon by the force of gunpowder, or other explosive agent, to reach, strike, pass through, or destroy a distant object. The materials of which projectiles are usually composed are lead, wrought or cast iron, each possessing advantages according to the circumstances under which they are fired. But the material which combines in a greater degree than any other the essential qualities of hardness, strength, density, and cheapness, is cast iron, which is exclusively used in the U. S. service for large projectiles. Compound projectiles are sometimes made, so as to combine the good and correct the bad qualities of different metals. To obviate the serious results that may arise from the wedging of the flanges of a cast-iron projectile in the grooves of a rifle-cannon, it is frequently covered with a coating of lead or other soft metal. Cast and wrought iron have also been combined with success, and also cast iron and soft metal in such a manner as to attain the strength of one metal and the softness and expansibility of the other. Other metals, such as brass, are also used in projectiles of special construction. Projectiles are generally classified, according to their form, into spherical, or smooth-bore, and oblong, or rifle projectiles.
Spherical Projectiles are fired mainly from smooth-bore guns. They are solid shot, shells, spherical case or shrapnel, grape, canister, carcasses, grenades, light- and fire-balls. The advantages which they possess over the oblong are their uniformity of resistance to the air, presenting the least extent of surface for a given weight, the coincidence of their centres of form and inertia; they are less liable to wedge in the bore, as they touch the surface at only one point; and they are best adapted for rolling and ricochet fire on account of the regularity of their rebounds. Solid shot are usually made of cast iron, and are designated by the diameter of the bore of the piece in which they are to be used, or by their weight. Shells are cast with a core of sand (greater or less according to the thickness required), which is afterwards removed. The mortar-shell has the thinnest walls, and contains the greatest bursting charge for the same caliber; the gun-shell is thicker, and the battering-shell is nearly as strong as the solid shot. Shells are usually designated by the weight of the solid shot of the same diameter.
Oblong Projectiles are fired principally from rifled pieces, and have been adopted on account of the increase of range and accuracy which can be obtained with them. For this purpose it is necessary that the projectile should move through the air in the direction of its length. Though experience would seem to show that the only sure method of effecting this is to give it a rapid rotary motion round its axis by the grooves of the rifle, numerous trials have been and are now being made to produce the same effect with smooth-bored guns. One of the simplest plans for this purpose is to place the centre of gravity or inertia in advance of the centre of figure. Another is to make the projectile very long, with its rear portion of wood, and its point of lead or iron, somewhat after the manner of an arrow; but these plans do not seem to be of much practical utility. The system by which the desired result is obtained with the greatest certainty is the rifle system.
Rifle System.—Spiral grooves are cut into the bore of the piece, or it is ribbed with spiral bands, and the projectile is so formed or prepared as to follow them as it passes along the bore of the piece. The principal question which now occupies the attention of those engaged in improving this species of cannon is to obtain the safest and surest means of effecting this object. Various plans have been tried to obtain the proposed object; nearly all may be ranged under the following heads:
1. The Flanged System.—This comprises all projectiles which have certain flanges or projections to fit into the grooves of the gun in loading. These are usually deep and few in number, rounded at their bottom edges so as to cause the flanges or studs to pass up the inclined side when rotation is imparted. This is the system at present adopted in England. Though this plan affords a certain means of communicating the rifle motion, it has not always been found a safe one, probably from the wedging of the flanges in the grooves. Besides, the dirt from the burning of the powder collects in the grooves; and as it is difficult to clean them by the usual means, the projectile is liable to meet with obstruction in loading. To obviate these difficulties, the flanges are sometimes made of softer metal than the body of the projectile. Guns for flanged or studded projectiles usually have from 3 to 9 grooves, 0.15 to 0.25 inch deep.
2. The Compressive System.—By this system the projectile is forced by the action of the powder through the bore of a piece whose diameter without the grooves is less than the diameter of the projectile. Such are the projectiles for the breech-loading Krupp and Broadwell guns. These usually consist of cast iron or steel, and are covered with a coating of lead or other soft metal having horizontal ribs or corrugations, which is secured by a chemical solder, or cast into undercuts in the body of the shot. As the projectile is forced through the bore, an impression of the rifling is cut out of the ribs, the lead thus displaced finding room in the grooves between. This system has been found to work satisfactorily in breech-loading guns. The rifling should be shallow and consist of numerous grooves, slightly narrowing towards the muzzle. Large guns usually have from 20 to 76, from .05 to .08 inch deep. Experiments are now being made, with prospects of success, to substitute bands of soft copper encircling the projectile for the lead coating.
3. The Expansive System.—This system has been so exclusively used in the United States that it has frequently been called the American system. It embraces all projectiles which are loaded without regard to the rifling, but which are fitted with an expanding portion of some softer metal, as pewter, copper, wrought iron, or papier-maché, which is forced into the grooves by the discharge. This system requires for its rifling fewer grooves than the compressive, but a somewhat greater number than the flanged system. Among the projectiles of this class used during the civil war were the Blakely, Dyer, Hotchkiss, James, Parrott, Reed, Schenkle, and Stafford. The principal objections to an expanding or compound projectile are its want of strength to resist a charge of powder proportionately as large as that employed for a simple projectile, and the danger of its breaking and wedging in the bore of the piece. Of late years, however, marked improvements have been made, and projectiles of this class can now be safely fired with double their former charges. The large projectiles of this description now used in the United States consist of the usual cast-iron body having a sabot, or ring of brass or copper either cast or screwed to its base. This ring is divided into an upper and lower flange or lip by an annular groove. When the gun is fired, the gases enter this groove, forcing the lower flange down upon the projectile and the upper or outer into the rifling of the gun, where it is kept during its passage through the bore.
Armstrong Projectile.—But one kind of projectile is used in the Armstrong breech-loading guns for the field service, and this is so constructed as to act as a shot, shell, or case-shot at pleasure. It consists of a very thin cast-iron shell, inclosing 42 segment-shaped pieces of cast iron built up so as to form a cylindrical cavity in the centre, which contains the bursting charge and the concussion-fuze. The exterior of the shell is thinly coated with lead, which is applied by placing the shell in a mold and pouring it in a melted state. The lead is also allowed to percolate among the segments, so as to fill up the interstices, the central cavity being kept open by the insertion of a steel core. In this state the projectile is so compact that it may be fired without injury, while its resistance to a bursting charge is so small that less than one ounce of powder is required to burst it. When the projectile is to be tired as a shot, it requires no preparation; but the expediency of using it otherwise than as a shell is doubted. To make it available as a shell, the bursting tube, the concussion- and time-fuzes, are all to be inserted; the bursting tube entering first and the time-fuze being screwed in at the apex. If the time-fuze be correctly adjusted, the shell will burst when it reaches within a few yards of the object; or failing in this, it will burst by the concussion-fuze when it strikes the object, or grazes the ground near it. If it be required to act as a canister-shot upon an enemy close to the gun, the regulation of the time-fuze must be turned to the zero of the scale, and then the shell will burst on leaving the gun. The Armstrong projectiles for the muzzle-loading guns have rows of brass or copper studs projecting from their sides to tit into the grooves of the gun, which are constructed on the shunt principle. The projectile is made of wrought iron, or low steel, with very thick sides. There is no fuze, the explosion resulting from the heat generated by the impact, and the crushing in of the thin cap which closes the mouth of the powder-chamber. The sides and bottom of the shell being thick enough to resist crushing by the impact, and also to resist the explosive force of the bursting charge, its effect will, after penetration, be expended on the backing of the armor, or the decks which the armor is intended to screen. Such projectiles are called “blind shells.”
Blakely Projectile.—Capt. Blakely’s projectile has an expanding cap attached to its base by means of a single tap-bolt in the centre. It is prevented from turning by radial grooves cast on the surface of the bottom of the projectile, into which the cup is pressed by the charge. The angle between the curved sides of the cup and the bottom of the projectile is filled with a lubricating material. On the forward part of the body are soft metal studs, more numerous than the grooves of the bore of the piece, that some of them may always form a bearing surface for the projectile against the lands. The driving sides of the grooves are deeper than the others.
Dyer Projectile.—The Dyer projectile is composed of a cast-iron body, and a soft metal expanding cup, attached to its base. The adhesion of the cup is effected by tinning the bottom of the projectile, and then casting the cup on to it. The cup is composed of an alloy of lead, tin, and copper, in certain proportions. This projectile, as improved by Mr. Taylor at the Washington Arsenal, gives good results for even as large a caliber as 12 inches.
French Projectile.—The projectile used in the French field service is made of cast iron, and has 12 zinc studs on its sides, arranged in pairs, so as to fit the 6 grooves of the gun. For the larger cannon projectiles, but 3 studs are used, and these are cast on the projectile, nearly opposite to its centre of gravity; the bearing sides of the studs are faced with white metal to diminish friction against the grooves of the bore. The shape of the grooves is such as to centre the projectile. The latter projectile is used with increasing, the former with grooves of uniform twist. Russian, Austrian, and Spanish artillery projectiles belong to the studded, or button class, but differ from each other in the details of their construction.
Hotchkiss Projectile.—The Hotchkiss projectile is composed of three parts: the body, the expanding ring of lead, and the cast-iron cup. The action of the charge is to crowd the cup against the soft metal ring, thereby expanding it into the rifling of the gun. The time-fuze projectile has deep longitudinal grooves cut on its sides to allow the flame to pass over and ignite the fuze. The last rifle projectile submitted by Mr. Hotchkiss has an expanding cup of brass attached to its base in a peculiar manner. The cup is divided into four parts by thin projections on the base of the projectile. This arrangement is intended to facilitate the expansion of the cup and to allow the flame to pass over to ignite the fuze.
James Projectile.—The expanding part of the James projectile consists of a hollow formed in the base of the projectile, and eight radial openings, which extend from this hollow to the surface for the passage of the flame of the charge, which presses against and expands into the grooves of the bore, an envelope or patch, composed of paper, canvas, and lead. In a later pattern of this projectile, the internal cavity and radial openings are omitted, and the outside is furrowed with longitudinal grooves which increase in depth towards the base of the projectile, forming inclined planes, up which the outer covering of lead and canvas is moved by the force of the charge and expanded into the rifling of the piece.
The first projectile used in Parrott guns was invented by Dr. Reed of Alabama, in 1856 or 1857, and was made at Parrott’s foundry. It consisted of a soft wrought-iron cup, slightly swedged to fit the grooves, upon which was cast the body of the shot.
Palliser Projectile.—This is the most formidable armor-piercing projectile in use. It owes its efficiency to the material used,—chilled cast iron. In the later forms the head only is chilled, the body being cast in sand. Both shot and shell are cast with a core. The shell is “blind.” The curve of the ogival head is struck with a radius of one and one-half times the diameter of the projectile.
Parrott Projectile.—Capt. Parrott’s projectile, as now made, is composed of a cast-iron body with a brass ring cast into a rabbet formed around its base. The flame presses against the bottom of the ring and underneath it so as to expand it into the grooves of the gun. To prevent the ring from turning in the rabbet, the latter is recessed at several points of its circumference. Parrott’s incendiary shell has two compartments formed by a partition at right angles to its length. The lower and larger space is filled with a burning composition, the upper one is filled with a bursting charge of powder, which is fired by a time- or concussion-fuze. The burning composition is introduced through a hole in the bottom of the shell, which is stopped up with a screw-plug.
Sawyer Projectile.—The Sawyer projectile has upon its sides six rectangular flanges or ribs to fit into corresponding grooves of the bore. To soften the contact with the surface of the bore, the entire surface of the projectile is covered with a coating of lead and brass-foil. The soft metal at the corner of the base is made thicker than at the sides to admit of being expanded into the grooves, and thereby closing the windage. In the latest pattern of Sawyer projectiles, the flanges are omitted, and the projectiles are made to take the grooves by the expansion of the soft metal at the base, which is peculiarly shaped for this purpose.
Schenkle Projectile.—Schenkle’s projectile is composed of a cast-iron body, the posterior portion of which is a cone. The expanding portion is a papier-maché sabot or ring, which is expanded into the rifling of the bore by being forced on to the cone by the action of the charge. On issuing from the bore the wad is blown to pieces, leaving the projectile unencumbered in its flight. A great difficulty has been found in practice in always getting a proper quality of material for the sabot, and in consequence, these projectiles have not been found to be reliable.
Scott Projectile.—The shell devised by Commander Scott of the British navy, for firing molten iron, has three ribs cast upon it, which fit grooves so constructed as to centre it in the bore of the gun when fired. The interior of this shell is lined with loam to prevent the heat of the charge from penetrating through to the bursting charge. It is supposed to be broken and its contents diffused on striking the object.
Whitworth Projectile.—The cross-section of the bore of the Whitworth gun is a hexagon with the corners slightly rounded. The projectile is first formed so that its cross-section is a circle, and its sides taper towards both ends. The middle portion is then carefully planed off to fit the bore of the gun. The Whitworth blind shell for firing against armor-plates, is made of tempered steel, and each end is closed with a screw. To prevent the heat of impact from acting too soon on the bursting charge, it is surrounded by one or more thicknesses of flannel. A 7-inch shell of this kind has been found to have sufficient strength and stiffness to penetrate 5 inches of wrought iron before bursting.
Confederate Projectiles.—The rifle projectiles used by the Confederates in the late war belonged, with a few exceptions, to the expanding class. Besides the above there are three kinds of projectiles much used in the U. S. service, viz.:
Absterdam Projectile.—The best form is cast in a single piece, and has an expanding ring of brass which projects three-eighths of an inch beyond the base of the projectile.
Eureka Projectile.—Consists of a cast-iron body in one piece, with a brass sabot; the sabot is an annular disk intended to move on the frustum of a cone with an expanding cup in rear to take the grooves.
Ordnance Projectile.—Consists of a cast-iron body, with a sabot composed of an alloy of lead and tin, which is cast on the base of the projectile, and is held in position by undercuts and dovetails, the action of the charge being to force the sabot on the cast-iron body and to make it take the grooves.
Projectiles of special construction were formerly much used for particular purposes, as:
Bar-shot, which consisted of two hemispheres or spheres connected by a bar of iron either rigidly or in such a manner as to traverse its length; these were useful in cutting the masts and rigging of ships.
Chain-shot.—This differed from bar-shot only in the mode of connection, which was a chain instead of a bar.
Chain-ball.—To arrest the motion of rotation of an oblong projectile thrown under high angles, and with a moderate velocity, it has been proposed to attach a light body to its posterior portion by means of a cord, or chain, which will offer a resistance to the flight of the projectile, and cause it to move with its point foremost.
Nail-ball.—A round projectile, having a projecting pin to prevent it from turning in the bore of the piece.
Grooved Ball.—An oblong projectile, having spiral grooves cut along its base, by means of which the action of the charge produces rotation about the longer axis of the projectile. Sometimes these grooves are cut in the forward part of the projectile for the action of the air. Neither of these plans has succeeded in practice.
Bullets.—A bullet is a leaden projectile discharged from a musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or similar weapon.
Spherical Bullets.—When smooth-bore muskets alone were used the bullets were chiefly spherical in form and made by casting; at present, however, spherical bullets are manufactured by a compressing machine invented by Mr. George Napier. They are denominated by the number contained in a pound. In consequence of the great improvements that have been made of late in small-arms, the spherical bullet is now very little employed for military purposes, its use being chiefly confined to case-shot.
Oblong Bullets.—Are denominated by their diameter and weight. About 1600, when rifles began to be used as a military weapon, spherical bullets were fired; in the early part of the 18th century, however, it was found that good results could be obtained by the use of oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The foregoing plan was afterwards improved by making the projectile a little smaller than the bore, and wrapping it with a patch of cloth greased to diminish the friction in loading. The improvements which have been made in the last thirty years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and rifles are now almost universally employed, although until 1855 the mass of the American infantry was armed with smooth-bored muskets. The first person to overcome the difficulty of loading rifles was M. Delavigne, an officer of the French infantry. His plan, proposed in 1827, was to make the projectile small enough to enter the bore easily and to attach it to a sabot, which, when in position, rested upon the shoulder of a cylindrical chamber formed at the bottom of the bore to contain the powder. In this position the projectile was struck two or three times with the ramrod, which expanded the lead into the grooves of the barrel. The method of Delavigne was afterwards improved by Thouvenin and Minié, both officers of the French service. The projectiles suggested by them were elongated in form and the metal of the projectile was forced into the grooves of the rifling by means of a plug or cup driven into the base of the projectile, which was cast hollow for that purpose. The cup used in the Minié bullet wits made of sheet-iron. Mr. Greener of England appears to have been the first person to utilize this expanding or dilating action. Various other bullets have been invented, of greater or less usefulness, as the Whitworth, Pritchett or Enfield, and those used in the French, Austrian, and Swiss services. In the British service, the Enfield bullet is employed; this has a perfectly smooth exterior, and a conical boxwood plug inserted into a cavity at the base; they are made by machinery which draws in a coil of leaden rod, unwinds it, cuts it to the required length, stamps out the bullets with steel dies, drops them into boxes, and conveys them away.
United States Bullets.—The bullets used in the U. S. service are of two kinds, one for the rifle and carbine ball-cartridge weighing 405 grains, the other for the revolver cartridge weighing 230 grains. The metal used is an alloy of 16 parts of lead and 1 part of tin. The bullet in shape is a cylinder surmounted by a conical frustum terminating in a spherical segment. It has three rectangular cannelures which contain the lubricant. This latter is protected by the case which covers more than half the length of the bullet. A dished cavity is made in the base of the bullet to bring it to the proper weight.
Projectiles, Theory of. Is the investigation of the path, or trajectory as it is called, of a body which is projected into space. A body thus projected is acted upon by two forces, the force of projection, which, if acting alone, would carry the body onwards forever in the same direction and at the same rate; and the force of gravity, which tends to draw the body downwards towards the earth. The force of projection acts only at the commencement of the body’s motion; the force of gravity, on the contrary, continues to act effectively during the whole time of the body’s motion, drawing it farther and farther from its original direction, and causing it to describe a curved path, which, if the body moved in a vacuum, would be accurately a parabola.
Trajectory in Vacuo.—This general theory is not the object of the present discussion, but simply the theory of projectiles as far as it relates to fire-arms. The path that the centre of gravity of a projectile would describe in vacuo would be a parabola, and the greatest range given by an angle of fire of 45°. Under the same angles of fire the range would be proportional to the squares of the velocities, the velocity least at the summit of the trajectory, and the velocities at the two points in which the trajectory cuts the horizontal plane equal. The time of flight would be given for an angle of 45° by the formula:
T = 1⁄4√X
In which T represents the time of flight, and X the range expressed in feet. These results are found to answer in practice for projectiles which experience slight resistance from the air, or for heavy projectiles moving with low velocities, as is usually the case with those of mortars and howitzers, for which, within certain limits, the above results are sufficiently accurate in practice.
Trajectory in Air.—A body moving in air experiences a resistance which diminishes the velocity with which it is animated. Thus it has been shown that certain cannon-balls do not range one-eighth as far in the air, as they would if they did not meet with this resistance to their motion, and small-arm projectiles which have but little mass are still more affected by it. This resistance is expressed by the formula:
P = ApR2 (1 + vr) v2;
in which P represents the resistance in the terms of the unit of weight, v the velocity, and pR2 the area of a cross-section of the projectile, A the resistance in pounds on a square foot of the cross-section of a projectile moving with a velocity of one foot, r is a linear quantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. For all service spherical projectiles A is .000514, and for all service velocities r is 1.427 feet; the value of A for the rifle-musket bullet is .000358; hence, the resistance of the air is about one-third less on the ogival than on the spherical form of projectile. A being a function of the density of air, its value depends on the temperature, pressure, and hygrometric condition. It has been demonstrated that the final velocity of a projectile falling in the air is directly proportional to the product of its diameter and density, and inversely proportional to the density of the air; the retarding effect of the air is less on the larger and denser projectiles, and for the same caliber an oblong projectile will be less retarded by the air than one of spherical form and consequently with an equal, perhaps less, initial velocity, its range will be greater. It has also been shown that great advantage in point of range is obtained by using large projectiles instead of small ones, solid projectiles instead of hollow ones, leaden projectiles instead of iron ones, and oblong projectiles instead of round ones. The ogival form, or the form of the present rifle-musket bullet, experiences less resistance in passing through the air than any other known. In consequence of the variable nature of the resistance of the air, it has been found impossible to find an accurate expression for the trajectory. Capt. Didion, of Metz, has, however, found an approximate solution; he states that all cases of the movement of a projectile may be divided into three classes: 1st. When the angle of projection is slight or does not exceed 3°, as in the ordinary fire of guns, howitzers, and small-arms,—for slight variations of the angle of projection above or below the horizontal, the form of the trajectory may be considered constant, and when the object is but slightly raised above or depressed below the horizontal plane, it may be considered as in this plane. 2d. When angles of projection do not exceed 10° or 15°, as in the ricochet fire of guns, howitzers, and mortars. 3d. When the angle of projection exceeds 15°, as is the case in mortar fire. For each of these cases he has deduced formulæ, by means of which the range, time of flight, etc., can be determined. As a projectile rises in the ascending branch of its trajectory, its velocity is diminished by the retarding effect of the air, and the force of gravity, in consequence of the resistance of the air alone, the velocity continues to diminish to a point a little beyond the summit of the trajectory, where it is a minimum, and from this point it increases, as it descends, under the influence of the force of gravity, until it becomes uniform, which event depends on the diameter and weight of the projectile, and the density of the air.
The inclination of the trajectory decreases from the origin to the summit, where it is nothing, it increases in the descending branch from the summit to its termination, and if the ground did not interpose an obstacle, it would become vertical at an infinite distance. An element of the trajectory in the descending branch has a greater inclination than the corresponding element of the ascending branch. Strictly speaking, therefore, the trajectory of a projectile in air is not a parabola, but is an exponential curve with two asymptotes, the first the axis of the piece, which is tangent to the trajectory when the initial velocity is infinite, the second a vertical line toward which the trajectory approaches, as the horizontal component of the velocity diminishes and the effect of the force of gravity increases. The curvature of the trajectory increases in the ascending branch to a point a little beyond the summit. The point of greatest curvature is situated nearer the summit than the point of minimum velocity. In the fire of mortar-shells, under great angles of projection, the trajectory may be considered as an arc, in which the angle of fall is slightly greater than the angle of projection. In the formulæ deduced by Didion, in consequence of considering the inclination of the trajectory as constant, the resistance of the air is slightly underestimated in the more inclined portions of the trajectory or at the beginning and end, and slightly overestimated in the less inclined portions or about the summit. It follows that the calculated trajectory will at first rise above the true one, then pass below it and again pass above it; the calculated ranges are therefore slightly in excess of the true ones.
Trajectory of Oblong Projectiles.—From the law of inertia, a rifle projectile moves through the air with its axis of rotation parallel to the axis of the bore. Hence it follows that an oblong projectile, fired under a low angle of projection, presents a greater surface toward the earth, and less parallel to it, than a round projectile of the same weight, consequently the vertical component of the resistance of the air is greater, and the horizontal component less, in the first case than in the second. The effect of this will be to give an oblong projectile a flatter trajectory and longer range than a round one.
Deviation of Projectiles.—The path described by the centre of inertia of a projectile, moving under the influences of gravity and the tangential resistance of the air, is called the normal trajectory. In practice, various causes are constantly at work to deflect a projectile from its normal path. All deviating causes may be divided into two classes,—those which act while the projectile is in the bore of the piece, and those which act after the projectile has left it. The first class includes all the causes which affect the initial velocity, and give rotation to the projectile; the second includes the action of the air.
Causes which affect Initial Velocity.—The principal causes which affect initial velocity are variations in the weights of the powder and projectile, the manner of loading, the temperature of the piece, and the balloting of the projectile along the bore. Rotation. The principal cause of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation combined with the resistance of the air. By balloting. If the projectile be spherical and homogeneous, rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of the ball in the bore, arising from the windage. In this case the axis of rotation is horizontal, and passes through the centre of the ball; the direction of rotation depends on the side of the projectile which strikes the surface of the bore last. The velocity of rotation from this cause depends on the windage, or depth of the indentations in the bore, the charge being the same. By eccentricity. If, from the structure of the ball, or from some defect of manufacture, the centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of figure, rotation generally takes place around the centre of gravity. This arises from the fact that the resultant of the charge acts at the centre of figure, while inertia, or resistance to motion, acts at the centre of gravity. For the same charge the velocity of rotation passes through the centre of gravity, and is perpendicular to a plane containing the resultant of the charge and the centres of figure and gravity. For the same charge, the velocity of rotation is proportional to the lever arm, or the perpendicular, let fall from the centre of gravity to the resultant of the charge. Knowing the position of the centre of gravity of the ball in the bore, it is easy to foretell the direction and velocity of rotation. In general terms the front surface of the projectile moves toward the side of the bore on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the velocity of rotation is greatest when the line joining the centres of gravity and figure is perpendicular to the axis of the bore.
The Effect of Rotation.—The effect of rotation in producing deviation may be discussed under three heads: 1st. When the projectile is spherical and concentric; 2d. When it is spherical and eccentric; and, 3d. When it is oblong. If a projectile be spherical and concentric, rotation takes place from contact with the surface of the bore around a horizontal axis, and the effect will be to shorten or lengthen the range, as the motion of the front surface is downward or upward. If the projectile be eccentric, the motion of the front surface is generally toward the side on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the deviation takes place in this direction. The extent of the deviation for the same charge depends on the position of the centre of gravity; the horizontal deviation being the greatest when the centres of gravity and figure are in a horizontal plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece; the vertical deviation will be the greatest when these centres are in a vertical plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the axis of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajectory throughout the flight, all points of the surface have the same velocity in the direction of the motion of translation, and there will be no deviation. This explains why it is that a rifle projectile moves through the air more accurately than a projectile from a smooth-bored gun. In accurate firing, therefore, it is important to know the true position of the centre of gravity. In ricochet firing over smooth water, the number of grazes may be increased or diminished by placing, in loading, the centre of gravity above or below the centre of figure.
Deviation of Oblong Projectiles.—The cause of the deviation of an oblong rifle projectile is quite different from one of spherical form. An oblong projectile moving in the air is acted upon by two rotary forces, viz.: one which gives it its normal rotary motion around its axis of progression, and another the resistance of the air, which, in consequence of the deflection of the axis of progression from the tangent to the trajectory by the action of gravity, does not pass through the centre of inertia, but above or below it; depending on the shape of the projectile. From a law of mechanics, a body thus circumstanced will not yield fully to either of the forces that thus act upon it, but its apex will move off with a slow uniform motion to the right or left of the vertical plane, depending on the relative direction of the two rotary forces. If the action of these forces be continued sufficiently long, it will be seen that the axis of the projectile before referred to describes a cone around a line passing through the centre of inertia and parallel to the direction of the resistance of the air. Owing to the short duration of the flight of an ordinary projectile, it is only necessary to consider the first part of this conical motion. If the projectile rotates in the direction of the hands of a watch to the eye of the marksman, and the resultant of the resistance of the air pass above the centre of inertia, as it does in the service bullet with a conoidal point, then the point of the projectile will move to the right, which brings the left side of the projectile obliquely in contact with the current of the air. The effect of this position with reference to the air will be to generate a component force that will urge the projectile to the right of the plane of fire. This peculiar deviation was called by the French officers that first observed it, “derivation,” or “drift.”
Summary of Deviating Causes.—The following summary may be considered as embracing nearly all the causes of deviation of cannon and small-arm projectiles: 1st. From the construction of the piece. These causes are, wrong position of the sight; bore not of the true size; windage, etc. 2d. From the charge of powder. Improper weight; form of grain and variable quality of the powder, etc. 3d. From the projectile. Not of the exact size, shape, or weight; disfiguration in loading, or on leaving the bore; eccentricity. 4th. From the atmosphere, etc. The effect of wind; variations in the temperature, moisture, and density of the air; position of the sun as regards the effect on the aim; difference of level between the object and the piece; and rotation of the earth. It is found that a projectile will deviate to the right of the object in the northern hemisphere whatever may be the direction of the line of fire, and at a distance from it, depending on the latitude of the place, and on the time of flight and the range of the projectile.
Projectiles, Effects of. The effects of projectiles, and particularly that of penetration, depend on the nature of the projectile, its initial velocity, and the distance of the object. The effects of the various kinds of projectiles upon iron and steel plates are not yet thoroughly understood, and experiments are still being made, particularly in England, to determine the best combinations of wrought and cast iron, and steel, to resist the penetration of the enormous projectiles of the present day. Their effects upon wood, earth, etc., are, however, better understood.
Effect on Wood.—The effect of a projectile fired against wood varies with the nature of the wood and the direction of the penetration. If the projectile strikes perpendicular to the fibres, and the fibres be tough and elastic, as in the case of oak, a portion of them are crushed, and others are bent under the pressure of the projectile, but regain their form as soon as it has passed by them. In consequence of the softness of white pine, nearly all the fibres struck are broken, and the orifice is nearly the size of the projectile; for the same reason the effects of the projectile do not extend much beyond the orifice; pine is therefore to be preferred to oak for structures that are not intended to resist cannon projectiles, as block-houses, etc.
Effect on Earth.—Earth possesses advantages over all other materials as a covering against projectiles; it is cheap and easily obtained, it offers considerable resistance to penetration, and to a certain extent regains its position after displacement. It is found by experience that a projectile has very little effect on an earthen parapet unless it passes completely through it. Wherever masonry is liable to be breached, it should be masked by earthworks with natural slopes. Gen. Gillmore states that the powers of resistance of pure, compact, quartz sand to the penetration of projectiles very much exceed that of ordinary earth, or mixture of several earths. The size of the openings formed by the passage of a projectile into the earth is about one-third larger than the projectile, increasing, however, towards the outer orifice. Rifle projectiles especially are easily deflected from their course in earth, hence their penetration is variable. Unless a shell be very large in proportion to the mass of earth penetrated, its explosion will produce but little displacement,—generally, a small opening is formed around an exploded shell by the action of the gas in pressing back the earth. Time-fuzes, being liable to be extinguished by the pressure of the earth, are inferior to percussion-fuzes, which produce explosion when the projectile has made about three-fourths of its proper penetration. The penetration in earth of oblong, compared to round projectiles, when fired with service charges, and at a distance of about 400 yards, is at least one-fourth greater. This difference, however, is less at short and greater at long distances. The penetrations of similar projectiles into a given substance, are proportional to the squares of the velocities of impact and to the diameters and densities of the projectiles.
Penetration in Water.—The penetration of a rifle projectile in water depends much on the direction of its axis with respect to penetration; for instance, penetration rapidly diminishes at long distances, as the axis of the projectile strikes the surface of the water under a diminished angle.
Effect on Masonry.—The effect of a projectile against masonry is to form a truncated conical hole, terminated by another of a cylindrical form. The material in front of and around the projectile is broken and shattered, and the end of the cylindrical hole even reduced to powder. The exterior opening varies from four to five times the diameter of the projectile, and the depth varies with the size and density of the projectile, and its velocity. When a projectile strikes against a surface of oak, as the side of a ship, it will not stick if the angle of incidence be less than 15°, and if it do not penetrate to a depth nearly equal to its diameter. Solid cast-iron shot break against granite, but not against freestone or brick. Shells are broken into small fragments against each of these materials.
Breaching.—Formerly stone projectiles were much used for breaching, but from the want of sufficient hardness in these projectiles, the besiegers were forced to commence battering at the top of the wall where the least resistance was offered, and gradually to lower the shot until the breach reached the wrecks already formed at the base of the wall. Iron projectiles superseded stone, and then more rapid modes of effecting a practicable breach were suggested. The easiest manner of making the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater than a diameter apart, and then to fire a second series of shots, directed at the intervals between the first, and so on, until an opening is made completely through the wall. If the portion of the wall between the vertical cuts should not be overthrown by the pressure of the earth behind, it must be detached by a few volleys of solid shot, fired at its centre.
Breaching with Rifle-cannon.—The foregoing has reference particularly to breaching masonry with smooth-bored guns. The same principle is applicable to rifled guns, the only difference being that, from their superior penetration and accuracy, the latter are effective at much longer distances. The most destructive projectile against masonry is the elongated percussion shell.
Effect of Bullets.—From experiments made in Denmark, the following relations were found between the penetration of a bullet in pine and its effects on the body of a living horse, viz.: 1st. When the force of the bullet is sufficient to penetrate 0.31 inch into pine, it is only sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the skin. 2d. When the force of penetration is equal to 0.63 inch, the wound begins to be dangerous, but does not disable. 3d. When the force of penetration is equal to 1.2 inch, the wound is very dangerous. A plate of wrought iron three-sixteenths of an inch thick, is sufficient to resist a rifle-musket bullet at distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. Iron of thickness, however, will not resist bullets of the present day. That a rope mantlet may give full protection against rifle-musket bullets, it should be composed of five layers (three vertical and two horizontal) of 41⁄2-inch rope.
Projection. In mathematics, the action of giving a projectile its motion. It is also used to signify a scheme, plan, or delineation.
Proking-spit. A large Spanish rapier.
Prolongation. An extension of leave of absence, or a continuation of service.
Prolongation of the Line. Is effected by parallel movements at the right or left of any given number of men on a front division.
Prolonge. See Implements.
Prolonge-hooks. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.
Promotion. This word signifies, in military matters, the elevation of an individual to some appointment of greater rank and trust to the one he holds.
Promulgation. The act of promulgating; publication; open declaration; as, the promulgation of the sentence of a court-martial.
Proof. A term applied to the testing of powder, and also of ordnance, which are always fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, to test their strength and soundness.
Proof. Conclusive evidence.
Proof. Capable of withstanding; as, bomb-proof, shot-proof.
Propel. To drive forward; to urge or press onward by force; to move or cause to move; balls are propelled by the force of gunpowder.
Proper. A term which serves to mark out a thing more especially and formally. Thus, the proper form of a battalion is the usual continuity of line given to the formation of a battalion, and which remains unaltered by the wheelings of its divisions; or if altered, is restored by the same operation. Proper right, is the right of a battalion, company, or subdivision, when it is drawn up according to its natural formation. Proper pivot flank, in column, is that which, when wheeled up to, preserves the division of the line in the natural order, and to their proper front. The other may be called the reverse flank.
Proper. In heraldry, a charge borne of its natural color, is said to be proper. An object whose color varies at different times and in different examples, as a rose which may be white or red cannot be borne proper.
Prosecute. To carry on; to continue; as, to prosecute the war. Also, to accuse of some crime or breach of law, or to pursue for punishment before a legal tribunal; to proceed against judicially.
Prosecutor. In courts-martial the judge-advocate is usually the prosecutor; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the articles of war, except the judge-advocate.—Hough.
Proveditor. One employed to procure supplies for an army; a purveyor.
Proving-ground. Ground used for testing powder or ordnance.
Provision. Properly to victual; to furnish with provisions.
Provost. The temporary prison in which the military police confine prisoners till they are disposed of.
Provost Cells. Also called regimental or garrison cells, in the British service are those certified cells under a provost or acting provost-sergeant, in which court-martial prisoners may be imprisoned up to forty-two days.
Provost-Marshal. In the army, is an officer appointed to superintend the preservation of order, and to be, as it were, the head of the police of any particular camp, town, or district. He has cognizance of all camp-followers, as well as members of the army. His power is summary, and he can punish an offender, taken flagrante delicto, on the spot, according to the articles of war.
Provost-Sergeant. Is a sergeant who is charged with the military police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-commissioned officers as assistants. In the British service he also is charged with the custody of all prisoners in the cells.
Prowess. Valor; bravery in the field; military gallantry.
Prowlers. Are persons who steal within the lines of a hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing; or destroying bridges, roads, mails, or other means of communication. Such persons are not entitled to the privileges usually accorded to prisoners of war.
Prussia. A kingdom of the new German empire. The people of Prussia first appear in history in the 10th century, under the name of Borussi; from these the country derives its name. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, signifying near, and Russia. The Prussians were subjected by Boleslaus of Poland in 1018; they made a successful stand against Boleslaus IV. of Poland in 1161, and for a time maintained a rude and savage kind of independence. The Teutonic Knights were engaged in war for half a century with the people,—winning lands and souls by hard fighting,—until at length, in 1283, they found themselves undisputed masters of the country, having almost exterminated the pagan population. During this period the knights founded many cities and repeopled the country with German colonists. In 1454 the municipal and noble classes, with the co-operation of Poland, rose in open rebellion against the knights, who were forced to cede West Prussia and Ermland to Poland. Albert (or Albrecht) of Brandenburg was acknowledged duke of East Prussia in 1525; his son-in-law, John Sigismund, created elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia in 1608. The reign of John Sigismund’s successor, Georg-Wilhelm (1619-1640), was distracted by the miseries of the Thirty Years’ War, and the country was alternately the prey of Swedish and imperial armies. The electorate was raised by the genius of Frederick William, the great elector, to the rank of a great European power. His successor, Frederick III. (1688-1713), was proclaimed king of Prussia by the title of Frederick I. in 1701. During the reign of Frederick William IV., Prussia co-operated powerfully in putting down the insurrections in Poland and Baden. In the war of the Schleswig-Holstein duchies, the Prussians acted in concert with the disaffected against their sovereign, the king of Denmark, occupying the ducal provinces in the name and on behalf of the diet. A treaty of peace was concluded between Prussia and Denmark, on July 2, 1850. In 1863 the allied Prussian and Austrian armies entered the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and defeated the Danes; the duchies were separated from Denmark. Warm disputes with Austria respecting Schleswig-Holstein arose in the beginning of 1866. The vote of the majority of the diet of the Germanic Confederation supported Austria; Prussia announced her withdrawal from the confederation, and its dissolution; the diet declared itself indissoluble, and continued its functions, June 14, 1866. War was declared by Prussia, June 18, 1866, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague on August 23, 1866. By its articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the Germanic Confederation, and to Prussia’s annexing Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and gave up Holstein and her political influence in North Germany. For further history, see Franco-Prussian War.
Pruth. A river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathian Mountains. It forms a portion of the boundary-line between Russia and Turkey, and by crossing it, in 1853, the Russians gave rise to the war with Turkey and the subsequent Crimean war.
Psiloi. Among the Greeks, were light-armed men who fought with arrows and darts, or stones and slings, but were unfit for close fight. They were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy-armed soldiers.
Publish. To make known. In a garrison orders are published by being read at parade. Orders are also published by circulating written copies.
Puebla, or La Puebla de los Angeles. Capital of the department of Puebla, in Mexico, 80 miles southeast from the city of Mexico. It was taken by the French on May 17, 1863, after a siege of several weeks’ duration, the Mexican general Ortega, with 18,000 men, surrendering to Gen. Forey. This event threw open the road to Mexico, and was the immediate precursor of the overthrow of the government of Juarez.
Pueblo Indians (Sp. pueblo, “village”). An interesting class of semi-civilized Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, so called from their remarkable residences, a description of some of which may be found under Moquis Indians. They are divided into several tribes speaking different languages. Their internal administration is patriarchal, each pueblo or village being ruled by its governor and council of three elders.
Pulk. A tribe; a particular body of men. This word is chiefly used in Russia; as, a pulk of Cossacks.
Pultowa. See Poltava.
Pultusk. A town of Poland in the government of Plock, situated on the Narew, 35 miles north-northeast from Warsaw. Here on December 26, 1806, was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the Russians and the French. The field was most obstinately contested, but the victory, which, however, was claimed by both armies, inclined in favor of the French.
Pummel. The hilt of a sword, the end of a gun, etc.
Puncto. The point in fencing.
Punic Wars. The name of three celebrated contests, in which the Romans and Carthaginians were engaged from the year 264 to 146 B.C., and which finally terminated with the destruction of Carthage. It was in the second war, which began in 218, that the Carthaginian commander Hannibal rendered himself so distinguished by his victories over the Romans. The illustrious Scipio was eventually the conqueror of Hannibal and the victor of Carthage. Punic faith is a reproachful term in frequent use, derived from Punici, or Carthaginians, because they were considered by the Romans a perfidious race.
Punishment, Military. In a military sense, is the execution of a sentence pronounced by a court-martial upon any delinquent. The Romans punished crimes committed by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ringleaders were selected for punishment. Deserters and seditious persons were frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves; and occasionally the offender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. (See Gantlope.) In Russia the knout was extensively used. (See Knout.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judgment. In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon; required to walk or to perform hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, are embodied in the Articles of War. (See Appendix, Articles of War.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen days.
Punitz. A town of Prussia in the province of Posen. A battle was fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the latter were victorious.
Punjab, or Five Rivers. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising the country traversed by the “five great waters,” or rivers, of which the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; and again by Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India.
Punkah. A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India.
Purchasing. Any person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year.—Act of March 16, 1802.
Purpure. In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British heraldry.
Pursuit. The act of following or going after; a following with haste, either for sport or hostility; as, the pursuit of an enemy.
Pursuivant. The third and lowest order of heraldic officers. The office was instituted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through which the offices of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be made per saltum. For the present titles of the several British pursuivants, see Herald. In ancient times any great nobleman might institute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant called Blanch-lyon, from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the dukes of Northumberland was styled Espérance from the Percy motto, and Richard Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called Egle vert.
Purveyor. A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick.
Push. To press against with force; to drive or impel by pressure; as, to push back an enemy.
Push. An assault or attack; a forcible onset; a vigorous effort.
Put to the Sword, To. To kill with the sword; to slay.
Puteoli (the modern Puzzuoli). A celebrated seaport town of Campania, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiæ. A colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cumæ founded it in 521 B.C., under the name of Dicæarchia. In the second Punic war the Romans fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it.
Putteeala. A town of British India, capital of a dependent native state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1023 miles northwest of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain number of troops in case of war to the British government.
Puzzuoli, or Pozzuoli. See Puteoli.
Pydna (now Kitron). A town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16 B.C. It is especially memorable on account of the victory gained under its walls by Æmilius Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 168 B.C.
Pylos, or Pilus. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount Ægaleos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to the Spartans; but after the capture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the Messenians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium, a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern entrance of the harbor (425 B.C.). The attempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the most important events in the whole war.
Pyramids, Battle of the. So called from having taken place close to the large pyramids in the plain of Mummies, at Waardam, within a few miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15, 1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army, commanded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle, called the “battle of the Pyramids,” was fought, when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt.
Pyrenees, Battle of the. The Pyrenees are a chain of mountains which separate Spain from France, and are nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, these mountains were the scene of many severe conflicts between the British troops under the Duke of Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria, Soult took the command of the French armies as lieutenant de l’empereur; and after addressing the beaten soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was “the battles of the Pyrenees.” Pampeluna, Roncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the seats of the principal struggles. For nine days the armies had been in each other’s presence; and in severe operations and desperate fighting these days were unexampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000 men,—and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000.
Pyrgi. Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines.
Pyroboli. Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Romans. They seem to have been the very same as the malleoli.
Pyrometer. An instrument for determining the pressure of fired gunpowder by the registered compression of oil,—invented by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance Department) in experiments at Washington Arsenal, 1854-55. It consists of a small hollow steel cylinder filled with oil and a piston which is pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow screw-plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure is to be taken. This instrument is probably the most accurate and delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are of great importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an instrument which promised so much should have been allowed to fall into disuse, if not almost oblivion.
Pyrotechny. Is the art of preparing ammunition and fireworks for military and ornamental purposes. (See Ammunition.) Military fireworks comprise preparations for the service of cannon ammunition, and for signal, light, incendiary, and defensive and offensive purposes. The term composition is applied to all mechanical mixtures which, by combustion, produce the effects sought to be attained in pyrotechny. The preparations for the service of ammunition are slow-match, quick-match, port-fires, friction-tubes, and fuzes.
Slow-match is used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that the strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour.
Quick-match is made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) saturated with a composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits; after saturation, the yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by inclosing it in a thin paper tube called a leader.
Port-fire is a paper case containing a composition, the flame of which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes.
Friction-tube is at present the principal preparation for firing cannon; it has the advantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and the roughed extremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and is inserted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, sufficient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder which surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long tube. The charge of grained powder has sufficient force to pass through the longest vent, and penetrate several thicknesses of cartridge-cloth.
Fuzes.—See Fuze.
Fireworks for Signals.—The preparations for signals are rockets and blue-lights.
Signal-Rockets.—The principal parts of a signal-rocket are the case, the composition, the pot, the decorations, and the stick. The case is made by rolling stout paper around a former. The vent is formed by choking one end of the case.
Composition.—A variety of compositions are employed for signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2 parts, is frequently used. The pot is formed of a paper cylinder, slipped over and pasted to the top of the case; it is surmounted with a paper cone, filled with tow. The object of the pot is to contain the decorations which are scattered through the air by the explosion which takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory; the explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. The decorations of rockets are stars, serpents, marrons, gold rain, rain of fire, etc.
Stars.—The compositions for stars are, for white: nitre 7 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts; for red: chlorate of potassa 7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12 parts; blue: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammoniacal sulphate of copper 1 part; yellow: chlorate of potassa 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, sulphate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1 part.
Serpents.—The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket; the composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 16 parts, charcoal 1⁄2 part.
Marrons.—Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match.
Stick.—The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the length of the case.
Blue Light.—A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 3.7 parts, realgar 1 part, mealed powder 1 part; the brilliancy depends on the purity and thorough incorporation of the ingredients.
Incendiary Fireworks.—Incendiary preparations are fire-stone, carcasses, incendiary-match, and hot shot.
Fire-stone is a composition that burns slowly, but intensely; it is placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the purpose of setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts, sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts.
Carcass.—A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after burning as a carcass, explodes as a shell. See Carcass.
Incendiary-match.—Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plunging it into melted fire-stone. It is principally used in loaded shells.
Hot Shot.—See Hot Shot.
Fireworks for Light.—The preparations for producing light are fire-balls, light-balls, tarred-links, pitched-fascines, and torches.
Fire-ball.—A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with combustible composition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup called a culob, and the whole is covered and strengthened with a net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of pitch, rosin, etc.
Light-ball.—These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the shell being omitted.
Tarred-links.—Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart, defile, etc., or for incendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow; when dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust.
Pitched-fascines.—Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used for the same purposes as tarred-links.
Torches.—A torch is a ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in the hand.
Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.—The principal preparations of this class, employed in modern warfare, are bags of powder and light-barrels.
Bags of Powder.—Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown aside. The effect of the explosion may be much increased by making three sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest against the object.
Light-barrel.—A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a breach, or the bottom of a ditch.
Fireworks.—Ornamental fireworks are divided into fixed pieces, movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for communicating fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are produced by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the burning composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by introducing substances that give color and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces are lances, petards, gerbes, flames, etc.
Lances.—These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which emits a brilliant light in burning. See Lance a Feu.
Petard.—Petards are small paper cartridges filled with powder.
Gerbe.—Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay. The movable pieces are sky-rockets, tourbillions, Saxons, jets, Roman candles, paper shells, etc.
Sky-rocket.—Sky-rockets are the same as the signal-rockets before described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more brilliant train of fire. Composition: 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings.
Tourbillion.—The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion.
Saxon.—The Saxon is similar to the tourbillion; it has the appearance of a revolving sun.
Jets.—Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; they are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable arm, to set it in motion.
Roman candles.—A Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each star to prevent its taking fire at once.
Paper Shell.—This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory.
Decorative Pieces.—Decorative pieces are stars, serpents, marrons, etc., described under the head of Rockets.
Preparations for communicating fire from one piece to another are quick-match, leaders, ort-fires, and mortar-fuzes. The leader is a thin paper tube containing a strand of quick-match. See Quick-match, etc.
Pyroxyline, or Pyroxyle. Gun-cotton (which see).
Pyrrhic Dance. The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity; is said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic festivals. Julius Cæsar introduced it at Rome, where it became a great favorite.
