T (continued 3)

Turner, Charles Tennyson, an elder brother of Alfred Tennyson; a man of fine nature and delicate susceptibility as a poet, whose friendship and "heart union" with his greater brother is revealed in "Poems by Two Brothers" (1808-1879).

Turner, Joseph Mallord William, great English landscape painter, born probably in London, the son of a hairdresser; had little education, and grew up illiterate, as he remained all his days; took to art from his earliest boyhood; soon became acquainted with the artist class, and came under the notice of Sir Joshua Reynolds; began to exhibit at 15; was elected Associate of the Royal Academy at 24, and made an Academician at 28; he took interest in nothing but art, and led the life of a recluse; was never married, and was wedded solely to his work; travelled much in England and on the Continent, sketching all day long; produced in water-colour and oil scene after scene, and object after object, as they impressed him, and represented them as he saw them; being a man of moderate desires he lived economically, and he died rich, leaving his means to found an asylum for distressed artists; of his works there is no space to take note here; yet these are all we know of the man, and they stamp him as a son of genius, who saw visions and dreamed dreams; he early fascinated the young Ruskin; Ruskin's literary career began with the publication of volume after volume in his praise, and in his enthusiasm he characterised him as the "greatest painter of all time" (1775-1851). See Perugino.

Turner, Sharon, historian, born in London, where he led a busy life as an attorney; devoted his leisure to historical studies, the first of which were "History of Anglo-Saxons" and "History of England from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth," essays, &c. (1768-1847).

Turpin, Dick, a felon executed at York for horse-stealing; celebrated for his ride to York in Ainsworth's "Rookwood."

Tuscany (2,274), a department of Italy, formerly a grand-duchy, lies S. and W. of the Apennines, fronting the Tyrrhenian Sea on the W.; mountainous in the N. and E., but otherwise consisting of fertile dale and plain, in which the vine, olive, and fruits abound; silk is an important manufacture, and the marble quarries of Siena are noted; formed a portion of ancient Etruria (q. v.); was annexed to Sardinia in 1859, and in 1861 was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. Capital, Florence.

Tusculum, a ruined Roman city, 15 m. SE. of Rome; at one time a favourite country resort of wealthy Romans; Brutus, Cæsar, Cicero, and others had villas here; was stormed to ruins in 1191; has many interesting remains.

Tussaud, Madame, foundress of the famous waxwork show in London, born at Berne, and trained in her art in Paris; patronised by the sister of Louis XVI.; was imprisoned during the Revolution, and in 1802 came to London (1760-1850).

Tweed, a famous river of Scotland, rises in the S. of Peeblesshire, and flows for 97 m. in a generally north-eastward direction; enters the German Ocean at Berwick; is a noted salmon river, and inseparably associated with the glories of Scottish literature and history.

Twickenham (16), a town of Middlesex, on the Thames, 11½ m. SW. of London; a fashionable resort in the 18th century; the dwelling-place of Pope, Horace Walpole, Turner, and others.

Twiss, Sir Travers, jurist and economist, born in Westminster; professor of Political Economy at Oxford, and subsequently of Civil Law; drew up in 1884 a constitution for the Congo Free State; his writings include "View of the Progress of Political Economy since the Sixteenth Century," "International Law," "The Law of Nations," all of which rank as standard and authoritative works (1809-1897).

Twist, Oliver, hero of Dickens's novel of the name.

Tyche, the Greek name of the Latin goddess Fortuna, represented with various attributes to symbolise her fickleness, her influence, her generosity, &c.

Tyler, Edward Burnet, a distinguished anthropologist, born at Camberwell; in 1856 he travelled through Mexico in company with Henry Christy, the ethnologist; five years later published "Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans"; in 1883 became keeper of the Oxford University Museum and reader in Anthropology; in 1888 was appointed Gifford Lecturer at Aberdeen, and in 1891 president of the Anthropological Society; his great works are "Researches into the Early History of Mankind" and "Primitive Culture"; b. 1832.

Tyler, John, president of the United States, born in Charles City County, Virginia; became a barrister; elected vice-president of the United States in 1840, and on the death of Harrison succeeded to the presidential office; showed much independence and strength of mind, exercising his veto on several occasions; the Ashburton (q. v.) Treaty and the annexation of Texas were the principal events of his presidency; made strenuous endeavours to secure peace in 1861, but failing sided with the South, and was a member of the Confederate Congress (1790-1862).

Tyler, Wat, a tiler in Dartford, Kent, who roused into rebellion the long-discontented and over-taxed peasantry of England by striking dead in 1381 a tax-gatherer who had offered insult to his young daughter; under Tyler and Jack Straw a peasant army was mustered in Kent and Essex, and a descent made on London; the revolters were disconcerted by the tact of the young king Richard II. (q. v.), and in a scuffle Tyler was killed by Walworth, Mayor of London.

Tyndal, John, physicist, born in co. Carlow, Ireland; succeeded Faraday at the Royal Institution; wrote on electricity, sound, light, and heat, as well as on the "Structure and Motion of the Glaciers," in opposition to Forbes, whose theory was defended in strong terms by Ruskin; wrote also "Lectures on Science for Unscientific People," much praised by Huxley (1820-1893).

Tyne, river of North England, formed by the confluence near Hexham of the N. Tyne from the Cheviots, and the S. Tyne, which rises on Cross Fell, in E. Cumberland; forms the boundary between Durham and Northumberland, and after a course of 32 m. enters the sea between Tynemouth and South Shields.

Tynemouth (28 township, 46 borough), a popular watering-place of Northumberland, at the mouth of the Tyne, 9 m. E. of Newcastle; has a fine sweep of promenaded shore, an aquarium, pier, lighthouse, baths, &c.; North Shields and several villages lie within the borough boundaries.

Typhon, in the Greek mythology a fire-breathing giant, struck by a thunderbolt of Jupiter, and buried under Etna.

Tyrants, in ancient Greece men who usurped or acquired supreme authority in a State at some political crisis, who were despotic in their policy, but not necessarily cruel, often the reverse.

Tyrconnel, Richard Talbot, Earl of, a Catholic politician and soldier, whose career during the reigns of Charles II. and James II. is a record of infamous plotting and treachery in support of the Catholic Stuarts; was created an earl and lord-deputy of Ireland by James II.; fled to France after the battle of the Boyne (1625-1691).

Tyre, a famous city of ancient Phoenicia (q. v.), about 30 m. N. of Acre; comprised two towns, one on the mainland, the other on an island opposite; besieged and captured in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, who connected the towns by a causeway, which, by silting sands, has grown into the present isthmus; its history goes back to the 10th century B.C., when it was held by Hiram, the friend of Solomon, and sustained sieges by Nebuchadnezzar and others; was reduced by Cæsar Augustus, but again rose to be one of the most flourishing cities of the East in the 4th century A.D.; fell into ruins under the Turks, and is now reduced to some 5000 of a population.

Tyrol (929), a crownland of Austria; lies between Bavaria (N.) and Italy (S. and W.); traversed by three ranges of the Alps and by the rivers Inn and Adige; it is famed for the beauty of its scenery; inhabited by Catholic Germans and Italians; sheep-farming, mining, and forest, fruit, and wine cultivation are the chief industries; capital Innsbruck (q. v.).

Tyrone (171), a central county of Ulster, Ireland; is hilly, picturesque, and fertile in the lower districts; a considerable portion is taken up by barren mountain slopes and bogland, and agriculture is backward; coal and marble are wrought; Omagh is the capital, and Strabane and Dungannon are prosperous towns.

Tyrone, Hugh O'Neil, Earl of, a notable Irish rebel; assumed the title of "The O'Neil," and offered open rebellion to Queen Elizabeth's authority, but, despite assistance from Spain, was subdued by Essex and Mountjoy; was permitted to retain his earldom, but in James I.'s reign was again discovered intriguing with Spain; fled the country, and had his lands confiscated; d. 1616.

Tyrrhenian Sea, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching between Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily on the W., and Italy on the E.

Tyrtæus, a lyric poet of ancient Greece, of the 7th century B.C., and whose war-songs greatly heartened the Spartans in their struggle with the Messenians.

Tyrwhitt, Thomas, English scholar, the son of an English Church canon, born in London; was a Fellow of Merton in 1755, and in 1762 became clerk to the House of Commons, a post, however, which proved too arduous for him, and in 1768 he resigned; the remainder of his life was given to literary pursuits; produced the first adequate edition of Chaucer (1775), besides an edition of Aristotle's "Poetics," and books on Chatterton's "Rowley Poems," &c. (1730-1786).

Tytler, Patrick Fraser, historian, son of Alexander Fraser Tytler, a lord of Session under the title of Lord Woodhouselee, author of the "Elements of History" (1747-1813), born in Edinburgh; abandoned the bar for literature, and established his fame by his scholarly "History of Scotland"; wrote biographies of Wycliffe, Raleigh, Henry VIII., &c.; received a Government pension from Sir Robert Peel (1791-1849).