R (continued 2)

Richardson, Charles, lexicographer; was trained for the bar, but took to literature and education; pensioned in 1852; his chief works are "Illustrations of English Philology" and the "New Dictionary of the English Language" (1837), according to Trench the best dictionary of his day (1775-1865).

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., naturalist and Arctic explorer, born at Dumfries; graduated at Edinburgh; for some time a navy surgeon; accompanied Franklin on the expeditions in 1819-22 and 1825-27, and later commanded one of the Franklin search expeditions (1848); held government appointments, and was knighted in 1846 (1787-1865).

Richardson, Samuel, novelist, born in Derbyshire, the son of a joiner; was apprenticed to a printer in London, whose daughter he married; set up in the business for himself, and from his success in it became Master of the Stationers Company in 1754, and King's Printer in 1761; was 50 before he came out as a novelist; published his "Pamela" in 1740, his masterpiece "Clarissa," written in the form of letters, in 1748, and "Sir Charles Grandison" in 1753; they are all three novels of sentiment, are instinct with a spirit of moral purity, and are more praised than read (1689-1761).

Richelieu, Armand-Jean Duplessis, Cardinal de, born in Paris, of a noble family; was minister of Louis XIII., and one of the greatest statesmen France ever had; from his installation as Prime Minister in 1624 he set himself to the achievement of a threefold purpose, and rested not till he accomplished it—the ruin of the Protestants as a political party, the curtailment of the power of the nobles, and the humiliation of the House of Austria in the councils of Europe; his administration was signalised by reforms in finance, in the army, and in legislation; as the historian Thierry has said of him, "He left nothing undone that could be done by statesmanship for the social amelioration of the country; he had a mind of the most comprehensive grasp, and a genius for the minutest details of administration"; he was a patron of letters, and the founder of the French Academy (1585-1642).

Richmond, 1, an interesting old borough (4) in Yorkshire, on the Swale, 49 m. N.W. of York; has a fine 11th-century castle, now partly utilised as barracks, remains of a Franciscan friary, a racecourse, &c. 2, A town (23) in Surrey, 9 m. W. of London; picturesquely situated on the summit and slope of Richmond Hill, and the right bank of the Thames; has remains of the royal palace of Sheen, a magnificent deer park, a handsome river bridge, &c.; supplies London with fruit and vegetables; has many literary and historical associations. 3, Capital (85) of Virginia, U.S.; has a hilly and picturesque site on the James River, 116 m. S. of Washington; possesses large docks, and is a busy port, a manufacturing town (tobacco, iron-works, flour and paper mills), and a railway centre; as the Confederate capital it was the scene of a memorable, year-long siege during the Civil War, ultimately falling into the hands of Grant and Sheridan in 1865.

Richmond, Legh, an evangelical clergyman of the Church of England, born in Liverpool, famed for a tract "The Dairyman's Daughter" (1772-1827).

Richter, Jean Paul Friedrich, usually called Jean Paul simply, the greatest of German humourists, born at Wunsiedel, near Baireuth, in Bavaria, the son of a poor German pastor; had a scanty education, but his fine faculties and unwearied diligence supplied every defect; was an insatiable and universal reader; meant for the Church, took to poetry and philosophy, became an author, putting forth the strangest books with the strangest titles; considered for a time a strange, crack-brained mixture of enthusiast and buffoon; was recognised at last as a man of infinite humour, sensibility, force, and penetration; his writings procured him friends and fame, and at length a wife and a settled pension; settled in Baireuth, where he lived thenceforth diligent and celebrated in many departments of literature, and where he died, loved as well as admired by all his countrymen, and more by those who had known him most intimately ... his works are numerous, and the chief are novels, "'Hesperus' and 'Titan' being the longest and the best, the former of which first (in 1795) introduced him into decisive and universal estimation with his countrymen, and the latter of which he himself, as well as the most judicious of his critics, regarded as his masterpiece" (1763-1825).

Richthofen, Baron von, traveller and geographer, born in Carlsruhe, Silesia; accompanied in 1861 the Prussian expedition to Eastern Asia, travelled in 1862-68 in California, and in 1869-72 in China; has since been professor of Geography successively at Bonn, Leipzig, and Berlin; has written a great work on China; b. 1833.

Ricord, Philippe, a famous French physician, born at Baltimore, U.S.; came to Paris, was a specialist in a department of surgery, and surgeon-in-chief to the hospital for venereal diseases (1800-1889).

Ridley, Nicolas, martyred bishop, born in Northumberland, Fellow and ultimately Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge; on a three years' visit to the Continent fell in with certain of the Reformers and returned convinced of and confirmed in the Protestant faith; became king's chaplain, bishop of Rochester, and finally of London; favoured the cause of Lady Jane Grey against Mary, who committed him to the Tower, and being condemned as a heretic was at Oxford burnt at the stake along with Latimer (1500-1555).

Riehm, Edward, Protestant theologian, born at Diersburg, Baden, was professor at Halle; wrote many theological works, among them "Handwörterbuch des biblischen Alterthums" (1830-1888).

Rienzi, Cola di, Roman tribune, born at Rome, of humble origin; gave himself to the study of the ancient history of the city, became inspired with a noble ambition to restore its ancient glory, and being endowed with an eloquent tongue, persuaded, with sanction of Pope Clement VI., who was then at Avignon, his fellow-citizens to rise against the tyranny to which they were subjected at the hands of the nobles, in which he at length was successful; but his own rule became intolerable, and he was assassinated in an émeute just seven years after the commencement of his political career (1313-1354).

Riesengebirge (i. e. Giant Mountains), a range dividing Bohemia from Silesia; Schneekoppe (5260 ft.) is the highest peak; is a famous summer resort for Germans.

Rifacimento, a literary work recast to adapt it to a change in the circumstances of the time.

Riff, the name given to the N. coast-lands of Morocco from Tangiers to Algeria; is a mountainous and woody region, with a rugged foreshore, inhabited by lawless Berbers.

Riga (182), the third seaport of Russia and capital of Livonia, on the Dwina, 7 m. from its entrance into the Gulf of Riga (a spacious inlet on the E. side of the Baltic); has some fine mediæval buildings; is the seat of an archbishop, and is a busy and growing commercial and manufacturing town, exporting grain, timber, flax, linseed, wool, &c.

Rigdum Funnidos, Scott's nickname for John Ballantyne (q. v.).

Rights, Declaration of, a declaration of the fundamental principles of the constitution drawn up by the Parliament of England and submitted to William and Mary on their being called to the throne, and afterwards enacted in Parliament when they became king and queen. It secures to the people their rights as free-born citizens and to the Commons as their representatives, while it binds the sovereign to respect these rights as sacred.

Rigi, an isolated mountain, 5900 ft. high, in the Swiss canton of Schwyz, with a superb view from the summit, on which hotels have been built for the convenience of the many who visit it; is reached by two toothed railways with a gradient of 1 ft. in 4.

Rigveda, the first of the four sections into which the Vedas (q. v.) are divided, and which includes the body of the hymns or verses of invocation and praises; believed to have issued from a narrow circle of priests, and subsequently recast many of them.

Rimini (11, with suburbs 20), a walled city of N. Italy, of much historic interest both in ancient and mediæval times, on the small river Marecchia, spanned by a fine Roman bridge close to its entrance into the Adriatic, 69 m. SE. of Bologna; has a 15th-century Renaissance cathedral, an ancient castle, and other mediæval buildings, a Roman triumphal arch, &c.; manufactures silks and sail-cloth.

Rimmon, name of a Syrian god who had a temple at Damascus called the house of Rimmon, a symbol of the sun, or of the fertilising power of nature.

Rinaldo, one of Charlemagne's paladins, of a violent, headstrong, and unscrupulous character, who fell into disgrace, but after adventures in the Holy Land was reconciled to the Emperor; Angelica, an infidel princess, fell violently in love with him, but he turned a deaf ear to her addresses, while others would have given kingdoms for her hand.

Rinderpest or Cattle Plague, a fever of a malignant and contagious type; the occurrence of it in Britain is due to the importation of infected cattle from the Asiatic steppes.

Ring and the Book, a poem by Browning of 20,000 lines, giving different versions of a story agreeably to and as an exhibition of the personalities of the different narrators.

Rio de Janeiro (423), capital and chief seaport of Brazil, charmingly situated on the E. coast of Brazil, on the W. shore of a spacious and beautiful bay, 15 m. long, which forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world; stretches some 10 m. along the seaside, and is hemmed in by richly clad hills; streets are narrow and ill kept; possesses a large hospital, public library (180,000 vols.), botanical gardens, arsenal, school of medicine, electric tramways, &c.; has extensive docks, and transacts half the commerce of Brazil; coffee is the chief export; manufactures cotton, jute, silk, tobacco, &c. Great heat prevails in the summer, and yellow fever is common.

Rio Grande (known also as Rio Bravo del Norte), an important river of North America, rises in the San Juan Mountains in Colorado; flows SE., dividing Texas from Mexico, and enters the Gulf of Mexico after a course of 1800 m.; is navigable for steamboats some 500 m.; chief tributary, Rio Pecos; also the name given to the head-stream of the river Paraná in Brazil and Argentina.

Rio Grande do Norte (310), a maritime State in the NE. corner of Brazil, called after the Rio Grande, which flows NE. and enters the Atlantic at Natal, the capital of the State.

Rio Grande do Sul (645), the southmost state in Brazil, lies N. of Uruguay, fronting the Atlantic; capital, Rio Grande (18).

Rio Negro, 1, One of the larger tributaries of the Amazon, rises as the Guainia in SE. Columbia; crosses Venezuela and Brazil in a more or less SE. direction, and joins the Amazon (the Marañon here) near Manaos after a course of 1350 m.; some of its tributaries connect the Orinoco with the Amazon. 2, Has its source in a small lake in the Chilian Andes, flows NE. and E. to the Atlantic, is some 500 m. long, and easily navigated.

Rioja (80), a province of W. Argentina, embraces some of the most fruitful valleys of the Andes which grow cereals, vines, cotton, &c.; some mining in copper, silver, and gold is done. The capital, Rioja (6), is prettily planted in a vine and orange district at the base of the Sierra Velasco 350 m. NW. of Cordoba.

Riom (10), a pretty little French town in the dep. of Puy-de-Dôme, noted for its many quaint old houses of the Renaissance period; does a good trade in tobacco, linen, &c.

Rip Van Winkle, a Dutch colonist of New York who, driven from home by a termagant wife strolls into a ravine of the Katskill Mountains, falls in with a strange man whom he assists in carrying a keg, and comes upon a company of odd-looking creatures playing at ninepins, but never uttering a word, when, seizing an opportunity that offered, he took up one of the kegs he had carried, fell into a stupor, and slept 20 years, to find his beard and all the world about him quite changed.

Ripley, 1, a manufacturing town (7) of Derbyshire, situated 10 m. NE. of Derby, in a busy coal and iron district; manufactures silk lace. 2. A Yorkshire village on the Nidd, 3½ m. NW. of Harrowgate; has an interesting castle, old church, &c.

Ripley, George, American transcendentalist, born in Massachusetts; a friend of Emerson's and founder of Brook Farm (q. v.); took to Carlyle as Carlyle to him, though he was "grieved to see him" taken up with the "Progress of Species" set, and "confusing himself" thereby (1802-1880).

Ripon, Frederick John Robinson, Earl of, statesman, younger son of Lord Grantham, entered Parliament in 1806 as a Tory; rose to be Chancellor of the Exchequer, and was for a few months in 1827 Prime Minister; was subsequently in different Cabinets Colonial Secretary, Lord Privy Seal, and President of the Board of Trade; created an Earl In 1833 (1782-1859).

Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Marquis of, statesman, born in London, son of preceding; entered House of Commons in 1852 as a Liberal; became Secretary for War (1863), and three years later for India; was President of the Council in 1868, a popular Viceroy of India (1880-84), First Lord of the Admiralty in 1886, and Colonial Secretary in 1892-95; was created Marquis in 1871; went over to the Catholic Church in 1874, resigning in consequence the Grand-Mastership of the Freemasons; b. 1827.

Rishanger, William ("Chronigraphus"), an annalist and monk of St. Albans; wrote what is in effect a continuation of Matthew Paris's (q. v.) "Chronicle," and practically a history of his own times from 1259 to 1307, which is both a spirited and trustworthy account, albeit in parts not original; b. 1250.

Rishis (i. e. seers), a name given by the Hindus to seven wise men whose eyes had been opened by the study of the sacred texts of their religion, the souls of whom are fabled to be incarnated in the seven stars of the Great Bear.

Ristori, Adelaide, distinguished Italian tragédienne; was one of a family of strolling players; her career on the stage was a continuous triumph; the rôle in which she specially shone was that of Lady Macbeth; she was married in 1847 to the Marquis del Grillo, and is known as Marquise; b. 1821.

Ritschl, Albrecht, Protestant theologian, born at Berlin; studied at Rome, where in 1853 he became professor extraordinarius of theology, and in 1860 ordinary professor; after which he was in 1864 transferred to Göttingen, where he spent the rest of his life, gathering year after year around him a large circle of students, and enriching theological literature by his writings; the work which defines his position as a German theologian is entitled "The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation," in which he seeks to draw the line between Christianity as exhibited respectively in the theology of the Reformation and that of modern Pietism; by his lectures and his writings he became the founder of what is called the Göttingen School of Theology, and exercised an influence on the religious philosophy of the time, such as has not been witnessed in Germany since the days of Schleiermacher; his teaching is distinguished by the prominence it gives to the ethical side of Christianity, and that it is only as exhibited on the ethical side that it becomes the exponent and medium of God's grace to mankind (1822-1889).

Ritschl, Friedrich Wilhelm, German philologist, born near Erfurt; became professor of Philology successively at Breslau, Bonn, and Leipzig; his influence on philological study was great, and his greatest work was an edition of Plautus (1806-1876).

Ritson, Joseph, a whimsical and crabbed antiquary; his industry was great, his works numerous, among them one entitled "Ancient English Metrical Romances," containing a long and still valuable dissertation (1752-1803).

Ritter, Heinrich, German philosopher, born in Anhalt; professor successively at Berlin, Kiel, and Göttingen; is distinguished as the author of an able "History of Philosophy" (1791-1860).

Ritter, Karl, celebrated geographer, born at Quedlinburg; the founder of comparative geography; professor of geography at Berlin; his chief works "Geography in its Relation to Nature," and the "History of Man" (1779-1859).

Ritualism, respect for forms in the conduct of religious worship, particularly in connection with the administration of the sacraments of the Church, under the impression or on the plea that they minister, as they were ordained in certain cases to minister, to the quickening and maintenance of the religious life.

Rivarol, a French writer, born at Bagnols, in the department of Var; famed for his caustic wit; was a Royalist emigrant at the time of the Revolution, and aided the cause by his pamphlets; he was styled by Burke "The Tacitus of the Revolution" (1753-1801).

Rive-de-Gier (13), a flourishing town in the department of Loire, France, on the Gier, 13 m. NE. of St. Étienne; is favourably situated in the heart of a rich coal district; has manufactures of silk, glass, machinery, steel, &c.

Rivers, Richard Woodville, Earl, a prominent figure in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV.; was knighted in 1425; espoused the cause of the Lancastrians in the Wars of the Roses, but changed sides on the marriage of his daughter with Edward IV., who created him an earl in 1460; fell out of jealousy into disfavour with the nobility, and was beheaded in 1469; his son Anthony, who succeeded to the title, after acting on the Council of Regency during Edward V.'s reign, was put to death by Richard (III.), Duke of Gloucester, in 1483.

Riviera, an Italian term for coast-land flanked by mountains, especially applied to the strip of land lying around the Gulf of Genoa from Nice to Leghorn, which is divided by Genoa into the Western and Eastern Riviera, the former the more popular as a health resort; but the whole coast enjoys an exceptionally mild climate, and is replete with beautiful scenery. Nice, Monaco, Mentone, and San Remo are among its most popular towns.

Rivière, Briton, celebrated painter of animals, born in London; among his pictures, which are numerous, are "Daniel in the Lions' Den," "Ruins of Persepolis," "Giants at Play," and "Væ Victis"; b. 1840.

Rivoli, 1, town (5) in North Italy, 8 m. W. of Turin; has two royal castles, and manufactures silks, woollens, &c. 2, An Italian village, 12 m. NW. of Verona; scene of Napoleon's crushing victory over the Austrians in 1797.

Rixdollar, a silver coin current on the Continent, of varying value.

Rizzio, David, favourite of Mary, Queen of Scots, born in Turin; the son of a dancing-master; was employed by the queen as her secretary, and being offensive to the nobles, was by a body of them dragged from the queen's presence and stabbed to death, 9th March 1566.

Roanne (31), an old French town in the department of Loire, on the river Loire, 49 m. NW of St. Étienne; has interesting ruins, a college flourishing cotton and hat factories, dye-works, tanneries, &c.

Roanoke (16), a flourishing city of Virginia, U.S., on the Roanoke River; has rapidly sprung into a busy centre of steel, iron, machinery, tobacco, and other factories.

Roaring Forties, a sailor's term for the Atlantic lying between 40° and 50°N. latitude, so called from the storms often encountered there.

Rob Roy, a Highland freebooter, second son of Macgregor of Glengyle; assumed the name of Campbell on account of the outlawry of the Macgregor clan; traded in cattle, took part in the rebellion of 1715, had his estates confiscated, and indemnified himself by raiding (1671-1734).

Robben Island, a small island at the entrance of Table Bay, 10 m. NW. of Cape Town; has a lunatic asylum and a leper colony.

Robbia, Luca Delia, Italian sculptor, born in Florence, where he lived and worked all his days; executed a series of bas-reliefs for the cathedral, but is known chiefly for his works in enamelled terra-cotta, the like of which is named after him, "Robbia-ware" (1400-1482).

Robert I. See Bruce.

Robert II., king of Scotland from 1371 to 1390, son of Walter Stewart and Marjory, only daughter of Robert the Bruce; succeeded David II., and became the founder of the Stuart dynasty; was a peaceable man, but his nobles were turbulent, and provoked invasions on the part of England by their forays on the Borders (1316-1390).

Robert III., king of Scotland from 1390 to 1406, son of Robert II.; was a quite incompetent ruler, and during his reign the barons acquired an ascendency and displayed a disloyalty which greatly diminished the power of the Crown both in his and succeeding reigns; the government fell largely into the hands of the king's brother, the turbulent and ambitious Robert, Duke of Albany; an invasion (1400) by Henry IV. of England and a retaliatory expedition under Archibald Douglas, which ended in the crushing defeat of Homildon Hill (1402), are the chief events of the reign (1340-1406).

Robert the Devil, the hero of an old French romance identified with Robert, first Duke of Normandy, who, after a career of cruelty and crime, repented and became a Christian, but had to expiate his guilt by wandering as a ghost over the earth till the day of judgment; he is the subject of an opera composed by Meyerbeer.

Roberts, David, painter, born in Edinburgh; began as a house-painter; became a scene-painter; studied artistic drawing, and devoted himself to architectural painting, his first pictures being of Rouen and Amiens cathedrals; visiting Spain he published a collection of Spanish sketches, and after a tour in the East published in 1842 a magnificently-illustrated volume entitled the "Holy Land, Syria, Idumæa, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia;" a great number of his pictures are ecclesiastical interiors (1796-1864).

Roberts, Lord, born at Cawnpore, educated in England; entered the Bengal Artillery in 1851; served throughout the Indian Mutiny, commanded in the Afghan War, and achieved a brilliant series of successes, which were rewarded with honours on his return to England; was made commander-in-chief of the Madras army in 1881, commander-in-chief in India in 1885, and commander of the forces in Ireland in 1895; b. 1832.

Robertson, Frederick William, distinguished preacher, born in London; a graduate of Brasenose College, Oxford, entered the Church in 1840, was curate first at Winchester, next at Cheltenham, and finally settled in Brighton; is known far and wide by his printed sermons for his insight into, and his earnestness in behalf of, Christian truth (1816-1853).

Robertson, Joseph, antiquary, born and educated at Aberdeen; apprenticed to a lawyer, but soon took to journalism, and became editor of the Aberdeen Constitutional, and afterwards of the Glasgow Constitutional; in 1849 was editor of the Edinburgh Evening Courant, and four years later received the post of curator of the historical department of the Edinburgh Register House; author of various historical, antiquarian, and topographical works (1810-1866).

Robertson, Thomas William, a popular dramatist, the son of an actor, born at Newark-on-Trent; brought up amongst actors, he naturally took to the stage, but without success; always ready with his pen, he at last made his mark with "David Garrick," and followed it up with the equally successful "Ours," "Caste," "School," &c. (1829-1871).

Robertson, William, historian, born in Borthwick, Midlothian; was educated in Edinburgh; entered the Church; became minister of Gladsmuir; distinguished himself in the General Assembly of the Church; became leader of the Moderate party; one of the ministers of Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh, and Principal of the University, having previously written his "History of Scotland," which brought him other honours, and which was followed by a "History of Charles V." and a "History of America," all of which contributed to awaken an interest in historical studies; he was what is called a "Moderate" to the backbone, and his cronies were men more of a sceptical than a religious turn of mind, David Hume being one of the number; while his history of Scotland, however well it may be written, as Carlyle testifies, is no history of Scotland at all (1721-1793)

Robespierre, Maximilien, leader of the Jacobins in the French Revolution, born in Arras, of Irish origin; bred to the bar; became an advocate and a judge; he resigned because he could not brook to sentence a man to death; inspired by the gospel of Rousseau, became a red-hot Republican and an "Incorruptible" (q. v.); carried things with a high hand; was opposed by the Girondists, and accused, but threw back the charge on them; carried the mob along with him, and with them at his back procured sentence of death against the king; head of the Committee of Public Safety, he laid violent hands first on the queen and then on all who opposed or dissented from the extreme course he was pursuing; had the worship of reason established in June 1794, and was at the end of the month following beheaded by the guillotine, amid the curses of women and men (1758-1794).

Robin Hood, a famous outlaw who, with his companions, held court in Sherwood Forest, Nottingham, and whose exploits form the subject of many an old English ballad and tale. He was a robber, but it was the rich he plundered and not the poor, and he was as zealous in the protection of the weak as any Knight of the Round Table; he was an expert in the use of the bow and the quarter-staff (q. v.), and he and his men led a merry life together.

Robins, Benjamin, father of the modern science of artillery, born, the son of a Quaker, at Bath; established himself in London as a teacher of mathematics, as also his reputation by several mathematical treatises; turned his attention to the theoretical study of artillery and fortification; upheld Newton's principle of ultimate ratios against Berkeley, and in 1742 published his celebrated work, the "New Principles of Gunnery," which revolutionised the art of gunnery; was appointed engineer-in-general to the East India Company (1749), and planned the defences of Madras (1707-1751).

Robinson, Edward, Biblical scholar, born in Connecticut; author of "Biblical Researches in Palestine"; a professor in New York (1794-1863).

Robinson, Henry Crabb, literary dilettante, born at Bury St. Edmunds; lived some years at Weimar, and got acquainted with Goethe and his circle; called to the English bar, and on quitting practice at it with a pension, became acquainted with the literary notabilities in London, and left a diary full of interesting reminiscences (1775-1807).

Robinson, Hercules George Robert, Lord Rosmead, born, son of an admiral, in 1824; withdrew from the army shortly after his first commission, and gave himself to Government Colonial service; received a knighthood, and held Governorship of Hong-Kong in 1859; was successively governor of Ceylon, New South Wales, New Zealand, Cape of Good Hope, &c.; created Lord Rosmead in 1896 (1824-1898).

Robinson, Mary, poetess, born at Leamington; author of various poetical works, a translation of Euripides' "Hippolytus," a Life of Emily Brontë, &c.; married in 1886 to M. Darmesteter, a noted French Orientalist; b. 1857.

Robson, Frederick (stage name of F. R. Brownhill), a noted comedian, born at Margate; took to the stage in 1844 after serving some time as an apprentice to a London engraver; his greatest triumphs were won after 1853 on the boards of the Olympic Theatre, London; he combined in a high degree all the gifts of a low comedian with a rare power of rising to the grave and the pathetic (1821-1864).

Rochambeau, Comte de, marshal of France, born at Vendôme; commanded the troops sent out by France to assist the American colonies in their rebellion against the mother-country (1725-1807).

Rochdale (72), a flourishing town and cotton centre in Lancashire, prettily situated on the Roche, 11 m. NE. Of Manchester; its woollen and cotton trade (flannels and calicoes) dates back to Elizabeth's time; has an interesting 12th century parish church.

Roche, St., the Patron saint of the plague-stricken; being plague-smitten himself, and overtaken with it in a desert place, he was discovered by a dog, who brought him a supply of bread daily from his master's table till he recovered.

Rochefort, Comte de, commonly known as Henri Rochefort, French journalist and violent revolutionary, who was deported for his share in the Commune in 1871, but escaped and was amnestied, and went back to Paris under eclipse; b. 1830.

Rochelle, La (23), a fortified seaport of France, on an inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 95 m. NW. of Bordeaux; capital of the department of Charente-Inférieure; has a commodious harbour, noteworthy public buildings, a fine promenade and gardens; shipbuilding, glass-works, sugar-refineries, &c., are among its chief industries.

Rochester, 1, an interesting old city (26), of Kent, 29 m. SE. of London, on the Medway, lying between and practically forming one town with Strood and Chatham; the seat of a bishop since 604; has a fine cathedral, which combines in its structure examples of Norman, Early English, and Decorated architecture; a hospital for lepers founded in 1078; a celebrated Charity House, and a strongly posted Norman castle. 2, Capital (163), of Monroe County, New York, on the Genesee River, near Lake Ontario, 67 m. NE. of Buffalo; is a spacious and well-appointed city, with a university, theological seminary, &c.; has varied and flourishing manufactures.

Rochester, John Wilmot, Earl of, a witty profligate of the court of Charles II.; wrote poems, many of them licentious, among them, however, some exquisite songs; killed himself with his debauchery; died penitent; he was the author of the epitaph, accounted the best epigram in the English language, "Here lies our sovereign Lord the king," &c. (1648-1680).

Rochet, a linen vestment worn by bishops, abbots, and other dignitaries, in the form of a surplice, but shorter and open at the sides.

Rock Island (14), capital of Rock Island county, Illinois, on the Mississippi; a busy centre of railway and river traffic; derives its name from an island in the river, where there is an extensive Government arsenal; a fine bridge spans the river.

Rock Temples, temples hewn out of solid rock, found in Western India especially, such as those at Ellora (q. v.) and Elephanta (q. v.).

Rockall, a remarkable peak of granite rock, rising some 70 ft. above the sea-level from the bed of an extensive sandbank in the Atlantic, 184 m. W. of St. Kilda; a home and haunt for sea-birds.

Rock-butter, a soft mineral substance found oozing from alum slates, and consisting of alum, alumina, and oxide of iron.

Rockford (24), a busy manufacturing town, capital of Winnebago County, Illinois, on the Rock River, 86 m. NW. of Chicago.

Rockhampton (12), the chief port of Central Queensland, Australia, on the Fitzroy, 35 m. from its mouth; in the vicinity are rich gold-fields, also copper and silver; engaged in tanning, meat-preserving, &c.; is connected by a handsome bridge with its suburb North Rockhampton.

Rocking Stones or Logans, large stones, numerous in Cornwall, Wales, Yorkshire, &c., so finely poised as to rock to and fro under the slightest force.

Rockingham, Charles Watson Wentworth, Marquis of, statesman, of no great ability; succeeded to the title in 1750; opposed the policy of Bute, and headed the Whig opposition; in 1762 became Prime Minister, and acted leniently with the American colonies, repealing the Stamp Act; was a bitter opponent of North's American policy of repression; held the Premiership again for a few months in 1782 (1730-1782).

Rocky Mountains, an extensive and lofty chain of mountains in North America, belonging to the Cordillera system, and forming the eastern buttress of the great Pacific Highlands, of which the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains form the western buttress, stretching in rugged lines of almost naked rock, interspersed with fertile valleys, from New Mexico through Canada to the Arctic Ocean, broken only by a wonderfully beautiful tract of elevated plateau in southern Wyoming, over which passes the Union Pacific Railroad; reaches its greatest height in Colorado (Gray's Peak, 14,341 ft.); gold, silver, &c., are found abundantly.

Rococo, name given to a debased style of architecture, overlaid with a tasteless, senseless profusion of fantastic ornamentation, without unity of design or purpose, which prevailed in France and elsewhere in the 18th century.

Rocroi (2), a small fortified town of France, about 3 m. from the Belgian frontier, in the dep. of Ardennes; memorable for a great victory of the French under Condé over the Spaniards in 1643.

Rodbertus, Johann Karl, Socialist, born in Greifswald; believed in a Socialism that would in course of time realise itself with the gradual elevation of the people up to the Socialistic ideal (1815-1875).

Roderic, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was slain in battle with the Moors, who had invaded Spain during a civil war, and his army put to flight in 711.

Roderick Random, the hero of a novel of Smollett's, a young Scotch scapegrace, rough and reckless, and bold enough.

Rodez (15), a town of France, in the dep. of Aveyron; crowns an eminence at the foot of which flows the Aveyron, 80 m. NE. of Toulouse; has a beautiful Gothic cathedral, interesting Roman remains; manufactures textiles, leather, paper, &c.

Rodin, Auguste, eminent French sculptor, born in Paris, distinguished for his statues and busts; b. 1840-1917.

Rodney, Lord, English admiral, born at Walton-on-Thames; entered the navy at the age of 12, and obtained the command of a ship in 1742; did good service in Newfoundland; was made Admiral of the Blue in 1759, and in that year destroyed the stores at Havre de Grace collected for the invasion of England; in 1780 defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent; in 1782 defeated the French fleet under Count de Grasse by breaking the enemy's line; was first made a baronet and then a peer, with a pension of £2000, for his services to the country (1718-1792).

Rodosto (19), a Turkish town on the N. coast of the Sea of Marmora, 60 m. W. of Constantinople; is the seat of an archbishop of the Greek Church, has many mosques; fruitful vineyards in the vicinity produce excellent wine.

Rodriguez (2), an interesting volcanic island lying far out in the Indian Ocean, 380 m. NE. of Mauritius, of which it is a dependency; agriculture is the chief employment; has a good climate, but is subject to severe hurricanes.

Roe, Edward Payson, American novelist, born in New Windsor, New York; studied for the ministry and served as a chaplain during the Civil War; settled down as a pastor of a Presbyterian church at Highland Fells; made his mark as a novelist in 1872 with "Barriers Burned Away"; took to literature and fruit-gardening, and won a wide popularity with such novels as "From Jest to Earnest," "Near to Nature's Heart," &c. (1838-1888).

Roebuck, John Arthur, English Radical politician, born at Madras; represented first Bath and then Sheffield in Parliament, contributed to the downfall of the Aberdeen Government, and played in general an independent part; his vigorous procedure as a politician earned for him the nickname of "Tear 'em" (1802-1879).

Roermond (12), an old Dutch town in Limburg, at the confluence of the Roer and the Meuse, 29 m. N. by E. of Maestricht; has a splendid 13th-century cathedral; manufactures cottons, woollens, &c.

Roeskilde, an interesting old Danish city, situated on a fjord, 20 m. W. by S. of Copenhagen, dates back to the 10th century; has a fine 13th-century cathedral, the burying-place of most of the Danish kings.

Rogation Days, the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday preceding Ascension Day, on which special litanies are sung or recited by the Roman Catholic clergy and people in public procession; has its origin in an old custom dating from the 6th century. In England the practice ceased after the Reformation.

Roger I., the youngest of the 12 sons of Tancred of Hauteville; conquered Sicily from the Saracens after a war of 30 years, and governed it under the title of count in part from 1071 and wholly from 1089 to 1101.

Roger II., son and successor of the preceding, was crowned king of the two Sicilies by the Pope; waged war advantageously against the Emperor of the East and the Saracens of North Africa; ruled the country well and promoted industry (1097-1154).

Roger of Wendover, an early English chronicler, lived in the 13th century; was a monk of St. Albans and subsequently prior of Belvoir; wrote a history of the world down to Henry III.'s reign, the only valuable portion of it being that which deals with his own times.

Rogers, Henry, English essayist; contributed for years to the Edinburgh Review; author of the "Eclipse of Faith" (1806-1877).

Rogers, James E. Thorwold, political economist, born in Hampshire; became professor of Political Economy at Oxford; author of a "History of Agriculture and Prices in England" and "Six Centuries of Work and Wages," an abridgment of it (1823-1890).

Rogers, John, the first of the Marian martyrs, born at Birmingham; prepared a revised edition of the English Bible, preached at Paul's Cross against Romanism the Sunday after Mary's entrance into London, and was after a long imprisonment tried for heresy, and condemned to be burned at Smithfield (1505-1555).

Rogers, Samuel, English poet, born in London, son of a banker, bred to banking, and all his life a banker—took to literature, produced a succession of poems: "The Pleasures of Memory" in 1792, "Human Life" in 1819, and "Italy," the chief, in 1822; he was a good conversationalist, and told lots of good stories, of which his "Table-Talk," published in 1856, is full; he issued at great expense a fine edition of "Italy" and early poems, which were illustrated by Turner and Stothard, and are much prized for the illustrations (1763-1855).

Roget, Peter Mark, physician, born in London; was professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution; wrote on physiology in relation to natural theology; was author of a "Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases" (1779-1869).

Rohan, Prince Louis de, a profligate ecclesiastic of France who attained to the highest honours in the Church; became archbishop and cardinal, but who had fallen out with royalty; was debarred from court, tried every means to regain the favour of Marie Antoinette, which he had forfeited, was inveigled into buying a necklace for her in hope of thereby winning it back, found himself involved in the scandal connected with it, and was sent to the Bastille (1783-1803). See "Diamond Necklace" in Carlyle's "Miscellanies."

Rohilkhand (5,343), a northern division of the North-West Provinces, British India; is a flat, well-watered, fertile district, crossed by various railways; takes its name from the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, who had possession of it in the 18th century.

Rohillas (i. e. hillmen), a tribe of Afghans who settled in a district N. of Oudh, called Rohilkhand after them, and rose to power in the 18th century, till their strength was broken by the British in 1774.

Rohlfs, F. Gerard, German traveller, born near Bremen, travelled in various directions through North Africa; undertook missions to Abyssinia, and has written accounts of his several journeys; b. 1832.

Rokitansky, Baron, eminent physician, born at Königgrätz, professor of Pathological Anatomy at Vienna, and founder of that department of medicine (1804-1878).

Roland, one of the famous paladins of Charlemagne, and distinguished for his feats of valour, who, being inveigled into the pass of Roncesvalles, was set upon by the Gascons and slain, along with the flower of the Frankish chivalry, the whole body of which happened to be in his train.

Roland, Madame, a brave, pure-souled, queen-like woman with "a strong Minerva face," the noblest of all living Frenchwomen, took enthusiastically to the French Revolution, but when things went too far supported the Moderate or Girondist party; was accused, but cleared herself before the Convention, into whose presence she had been summoned, and released; but two days after was arrested, imprisoned in Charlotte Corday's apartments, and condemned; on the scaffold she asked for pen and paper "to write the strange thoughts that were rising in her," which was refused; looking at the statue of Liberty which stood there, she exclaimed bitterly before she laid her head on the block, "O Liberty, what crimes are done in thy name!" (1754-1793).

Roland de la Platière, Jean Marie, husband of Madame Roland, was Inspector of Manufactures at Lyons; represented Lyons in the Constituent Assembly; acted with the Girondists; fled when the Girondist party fled, and on hearing of his wife's fate at Rouen bade farewell to his friends who had sheltered him, and was found next morning "sitting leant against a tree, stiff in the rigour of death, a cane-sword run through his heart" (1732-1793).

Rollin, Charles, French historian, born in Paris; rector of the University; wrote "Ancient History" in 13 vols., and "Roman History" in 16 vols., once extremely popular, but now discredited and no longer in request (1661-1741).

Rollo, a Norwegian, who became the chief of a band of Norse pirates who one day sailed up the Seine to Rouen and took it, and so ravaged the country that Charles the Simple was glad to come to terms with them by surrendering to them part of Neustria, which thereafter bore from them the name of Normandy; after this Rollo embraced Christianity, was baptized by the Bishop of Rouen, and was the first Duke of Normandy (860-932).

Romagna, the former name of a district in Italy which comprised the NE. portion of the Papal States, embracing the modern provinces of Ferrara, Bologna, Ravenna, and Forli.

Romaine, William, evangelical divine of the English Church, born at Hartlepool, author of works once held in much favour by the evangelicals, entitled severally "The Life, the Walk, and the Triumph of Faith" (1714-1795).

Roman Empire, Holy, or the Reich, the name of the old German Empire which, under sanction of the Pope, was established by Otho the Great in 962, and dissolved in 1806 by the resignation of Francis II., Emperor of Austria, and was called "Holy" as being Christian in contrast with the old pagan empire of the name.

Romance Languages, the name given to the languages that sprung from the Latin, and were spoken in the districts of South Europe that had been provinces of Rome.

Romanes, George John, naturalist, born at Kingston, Canada; took an honours degree in science at Cambridge; came under the influence of Darwin, whose theory of evolution he advocated and developed in lectures and various works, e. g. "Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution," "Mental Evolution in Animals," "Mental Evolution in Man"; his posthumous "Thoughts on Religion" reveal a marked advance from his early agnosticism towards a belief in Christianity; founded the Romanes Lectures at Oxford (1848-1894).

Romanoff, the name of an old Russian family from which sprung the reigning dynasty of Russia, and the first Czar of which was Michael Fedorovitch (1613-1645).

Romans (17), a town in the dep. Drôme, France, on the Isère, 12 m. NE. of Valence; a 9th-century bridge spans the river to the opposite town Péage; has a 9th-century abbey; manufactures silk, &c.

Romans, Epistle to the, an epistle written from Corinth, in the year 59, by St. Paul to the Church at Rome to correct particularly two errors which he had learned the Church there had fallen into, on the part, on the one hand, of the Jewish Christians, that the Gentiles as such were not entitled to the same privileges as themselves, and, on the other hand, of the Gentile Christians, that the Jews by their rejection of Christ had excluded themselves from God's kingdom; and he wrote this epistle to show that the one had no more right to the grace of God than the other, and that this grace contemplates the final conversion of the Jews as well as the Gentiles. The great theme of this epistle is that faith in Christ is the one way of salvation for all mankind, Jew as well as Gentile, and its significance is this, that it contains if not the whole teaching of Paul, that essential part of it which presents and emphasises the all-sufficiency of this faith.

Romanticism, the name of the reactionary movement in literature and art at the close of last century and at the beginning of this against the cold and spiritless formalism and pseudo-classicism that then prevailed, and was more regardful of correctness of expression than truth of feeling and the claims of the emotional nature; has been defined as the "reproduction in modern art and literature of the life and thought of the Middle Ages."

Rome (423), since 1871 capital of the modern kingdom of Italy (q. v.), on the Tiber, 16 m. from its entrance into the Tyrrhenian Sea; legend ascribes its foundation to Romulus in 753 B.C., and the story of its progress, first as the chief city of a little Italian kingdom, then of a powerful and expanding republic (510 B.C. to 30 B.C.), and finally of a vast empire, together with its decline and fall in the 5th century (476 A.D.), before the advancing barbarian hordes, forms the most impressive chapter in the history of nations; as the mother-city of Christendom in the Middle Ages, and the later capital of the Papal States (q. v.) and seat of the Popes, it acquired fresh glory; it remains the most interesting city in the world; is filled with the sublime ruins and monuments of its pagan greatness and the priceless art-treasures of its mediæval period; of ruined buildings the most imposing are the Colosseum (a vast amphitheatre for gladiatorial shows) and the Baths of Caracalla (accommodated 1600 bathers); the great aqueducts of its Pre-Christian period still supply the city with water from the Apennines and the Alban Hills; the Aurelian Wall (12 m.) still surrounds the city, enclosing the "seven hills," the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, &c., but suburbs have spread beyond; St. Peter's is yet the finest church in the world; the Popes have their residence in the Vatican; its manufactures are inconsiderable, and consist chiefly of small mosaics, bronze and plaster casts, prints, trinkets, &c.; depends for its prosperity chiefly on the large influx of visitors, and the court expenditure of the Quirinal and Vatican, and of the civil and military officials.

Romford (8), an old market-town of Essex, on the Bourne or Rom, 12 m. NE. of London; noted for its cattle and corn markets; industries include brewing, market-gardening, foundries, &c.

Romilly, Sir Samuel, English lawyer, born in London, of a Huguenot family; was a Whig in politics, and was Solicitor-General for a time; devoted himself to the amendment of the criminal law of the country, and was a zealous advocate against slavery and the spy system (1751-1818).

Romney, George, English portrait-painter, born in Lancashire; married at Kendal, left his wife and two children there, and painted portraits in London for 35 years in rivalry with Reynolds and Gainsborough, and retired at the end of that time to Kendal to die, his wife nursing him tenderly, though in the whole course of the term referred to, he had visited her only twice (1734-1862).

Romney, New (1), one of the old Cinque Ports (q. v.), in S. Kent, 8 m. SW. of Hythe; the sea has receded from its shores, leaving it no longer a port; as centre of a fine pastoral district it has an important sheep fair; the little village of Old Romney lies 1½ m. inland.

Romola, a novel by George Eliot, deemed her greatest by many, being "a deep study of life in the city of Florence from an intellectual, artistic, religious, and social point of view."

Romsay (4), a town in Hampshire, on the Test, 8 m. NW. of Southampton; has a remarkably fine old Norman church and a corn exchange; birthplace of Lord Palmerston.

Romulus, legendary founder of Rome, reputed son of Mars and Rhea Silvia (q. v.), daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa; exposed at his birth, along with Remus, his twin-brother (q. v.); was suckled by a she-wolf and brought up by Faustulus, a shepherd; opened an asylum for fugitives on one of the hills of Rome, and founded the city in 753 B.C., peopling it by a rape of Sabine women, and afterwards forming a league with the Sabines (q. v.); he was translated to heaven during a thunderstorm, and afterwards worshipped as Quirinus, leaving Rome behind him as his mark.

Ronaldshay, North and South, two of the Orkney Islands; North Ronaldshay is the most northerly of the Orkney group; South Ronaldshay (2) lies 6¼ m. NE. of Duncansby Head; both have a fertile soil, and the coast fisheries are valuable.

Roncesvalles, a valley of the Pyrenees, 23 m. NE. of Pampeluna, where in 775 the rear of the army of Charlemagne was cut in pieces by the Basques, and Roland (q. v.) with the other Paladins was slain.

Ronda (19), one of the old Moorish towns of Spain, built amid grand scenery on both sides of a great ravine (bridged in two places), down which rushes the Guadiaro, 43 m. W. of Malaga; is a favourite summer resort.

Rondeau, a form of short poem (originally French) which, as in the 15th century, usually consists of 13 lines, eight of which have one rhyme and five another; is divided into three stanzas, the first line of the rondeau forming the concluding line of the last two stanzas; Swinburne has popularised it in modern times.

Rondo, a form of musical composition which corresponds to the rondeau (q. v.) in poetry; consists of two or more (usually three) strains, the first being repeated at the end of each of the other two, but it admits of considerable variation.

Ronsard, Pierre, celebrated French poet, born near Vendôme; was for a time attached to the Court; was for three years of the household of James V. of Scotland in connection with it, and afterwards in the service of the Duke of Orleans, but having lost his hearing gave himself up to literature, writing odes and sonnets; he was of the Pléiade school of poets (q. v.), and contributed to introduce important changes in the idiom of the French language, as well as in the rhythm of French poetry (1521-1585).

Röntgen, Wilhelm Konrad von, discoverer of the Röntgen rays, born at Lennep, in Rhenish Prussia; since 1885 has been professor of Physics at Würzburg; his discovery of the X-rays was made in 1898, and has won him a wide celebrity; b. 1845.

Röntgen Rays, described by Dr. Knott as "rays of light that pass with ease through many substances that are optically opaque, but are absorbed by others." "For example," he says, "the bony structures of the body are much less transparent than the fleshy parts; hence by placing the hand between a fluorescent screen and the source of these rays we see the shadow of the skeleton of the hand with a much fainter shadow of the flesh and skin bordering it." See Dr. Knott's "Physics."

Rooke, Sir George, British admiral, born at Canterbury; distinguished himself at the battle of Cape La Hogue in 1692; in an expedition against Cadiz destroyed the Plate-fleet in the harbour of Vigo in 1702; assisted in the capture of Gibraltar from the Spaniards in 1704, and fought a battle which lasted a whole day with a superior French force off Malaga the same year (1650-1709).

Roon, Count von, Prussian general, born in Pomerania; was Minister of War in 1859 and of Marine in 1861; was distinguished for the important reforms he effected in the organisation of the Prussian army, conspicuous in the campaigns of 1866 and 1871-72 (1803-1879).

Root, George Frederick, a popular American song-writer, born at Sheffield, Massachusetts; was for some time a music teacher in Boston and New York; took to song writing, and during the Civil War leaped into fame as the composer of "Tramp, tramp, tramp the Boys are Marching," "Just before the Battle, Mother," "The Battle Cry of Freedom," and other songs; was made a Musical Doctor by Chicago University in 1872 (1820-1895).

Root and Branch Men, name of a party in the Commons who in 1641 supported a petition for the abolition of Episcopacy in England, and even carried a bill through two readings, to be finally thrown out.

Ropemaker, The Beautiful. See Labé, Louise.

Rorke's Drift, a station on the Tugela River, Zululand, the defence of which was on the night of the 24th January 1879 successfully maintained by 80 men of the 24th Regiment against 4000 Zulu warriors.

Rosa, Carl, father of English opera, born at Hamburg; introduced on the English stage the standard Italian, French, and German operas with an English text (1842-1889).

Rosa, Salvator, Italian painter, born near Naples, a man of versatile ability; could write verse and compose music, as well as paint and engrave; his paintings of landscape were of a sombre character, and generally representative of wild and savage scenes; he lived chiefly in Rome, but took part in the insurrection of Masaniello at Naples in 1647 (1615-1673).

Rosamond, Fair, a daughter of Lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II., who occupied a bower near Woodstock, the access to which was by a labyrinth, the windings of which only the king could thread. Her retreat was discovered by Queen Eleanor, who poisoned her.

Rosario (51), an important city of the Argentine Republic, on the Paraná, 190 m. NW. of Buenos Ayres; does a large trade with Europe, exporting wool, hides, maize, wheat, &c.

Rosary, a string of beads used by Hindus, Buddhists, Mohammedans, and Roman Catholics as an aid to the memory during devotional exercises; the rosary of the Roman Catholics consists of beads of two sizes, the larger ones mark the number of Paternosters and the smaller the number of Ave Marias repeated; of the former there are usually five, of the latter fifty.

Rosas, Jean Manuel, Argentine statesman, born at Buenos Ayres; organised the confederation, became dictator, failed to force the Plate River States into the confederation, and took refuge in England, where he died (1793-1877).

Roscher, Wilhelm, distinguished political economist, born at Hanover, professor at Göttingen and Leipzig, the head of the historical school of political economy; his chief work a "System of Political Economy" (1817-1894).

Roscius, Quintus, famous Roman comic actor, born near Lanuvium, in the Sabine territory; was a friend of Cicero, and much patronised by the Roman nobles; was thought to have reached perfection in his art, so that his name became a synonym for perfection in any profession or art.

Roscoe, Sir Henry, chemist, born in London, grandson of succeeding, professor at Owens College, Manchester; author of treatises on chemistry; b. 1834.

Roscoe, William, historian, born in Liverpool; distinguished as the author of the "Life of Lorenzo de' Medici" and of "Leo X.," as well as of "Handbooks of the Italian Renaissance" and a collection of poems (1753-1831).

Roscommon (114), an inland county of Connaught, SW. Ireland; is poorly developed; one-half is in grass, and a sixth mere waste land; crops of hay, potatoes, and oats are raised, but the rearing of sheep and cattle is the chief industry; the rivers Shannon and Suck lie on its E. and W. borders respectively; there is some pretty lake-scenery, interesting Celtic remains, castle, and abbey ruins, &c. The county town, 96 m. NW. of Dublin, has a good cattle-market, and remains of a 13th-century Dominican abbey and castle.

Roscrea (3), an old market-town of Tipperary, 77 m. SW. of Dublin; its history reaches back to the 7th century, and it has interesting ruins of a castle, round tower, and two abbeys.

Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, Earl of, born in London; educated at Eton and Christ's Church, Oxford; succeeded to the earldom in 1868; was twice over Secretary for Foreign Affairs under Mr. Gladstone, in 1885 and 1892; was first Chairman of London County Council; became Prime Minister on March 1894 on Mr. Gladstone's retirement, and resigned in June 1895; he is one of the most popular statesmen and orators of the day, and held in deservedly high esteem by all classes; b. 1847.

Rosecrans, William Starke, American general, born at Kingston, Ohio; trained as an engineer, he had settled down to coal-mining when the Civil War broke out; joined the army in 1861, and rapidly came to the front; highly distinguished himself during the campaigns of 1862-63, winning battles at Iuka, Corinth, and Stone River; but defeated at Chickamauga he lost his command; reinstated in 1864 he drove Price out of Missouri; has been minister to Mexico, a member of Congress, and since 1885 Registrar of the U.S. Treasury; b. 1819.

Rosenkranz, Karl, philosopher of the Hegelian school, born at Magdeburg; professor of Philosophy at Königsberg; wrote an exposition of the Hegelian system, a "Life of Hegel," on "Goethe and his Works," &c. (1805-1879).

Roses, Wars of the, the most protracted and sanguinary civil war in English history, fought out during the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III. between the adherents of the noble houses of York and Lancaster—rival claimants for the throne of England—whose badges were the white and the red rose respectively; began with the first battle of St. Albans (1455), in which Richard, Duke of York, defeated Henry VI.'s forces under the Duke of Somerset; but not till after the decisive victory at Towton (1461) did the Yorkists make good their claim, when Edward (IV.), Duke of York, became king. Four times the Lancastrians were defeated during his reign. The war closed with the defeat and death of the Yorkist Richard III. at Bosworth, 1485, and an end was put to the rivalry of the two houses by the marriage of Henry VII. of Lancaster with Elizabeth of York, 1486.

Rosetta (18), a town on the left branch of the delta of the Nile, 44 m. NE. of Alexandria, famous for the discovery near it by M. Boussard, in 1799, of the Rosetta stone with inscriptions in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek, and by the help of which archæologists have been able to interpret the hieroglyphics of Egypt.

Rosicrucians, a fraternity who, in the beginning of the 15th century, affected an intimate acquaintance with the secrets of nature, and pretended by the study of alchemy and other occult sciences to be possessed of sundry wonder-working powers.

Rosinante, the celebrated steed of Don Quixote, reckoned by him superior to the Bucephalus of Alexander and the Bavieca of the Cid.

Roslin, a pretty little village of Midlothian, by the wooded side of the North Esk, 6½ m. S. of Edinburgh; has ruins of a 14th-century castle, and a small chapel of rare architectural beauty, built in the 16th century as the choir of a projected collegiate church.

Rosmini, Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, distinguished Italian philosopher, born at Rovereto, entered the priesthood, devoted himself to the study of philosophy, founded a system and an institute called the "Institute of the Brethren of Charity" at Stresa, W. of Lake Maggiore, on a pietistic religious basis, which, though sanctioned by the Pope, has encountered much opposition at the hands of the obscurantist party in the Church (1797-1865).

Ross, Sir John, Arctic explorer, born in Wigtownshire; made three voyages, the first in 1811 under Parry; the second in 1829, which he commanded; and a third in 1850, in an unsuccessful search for Franklin, publishing on his return from them accounts of the first two, in both of which he made important discoveries (1777-1856).

Rossano (19), a town of Southern Italy, in Calabria, 2 m. from the SW. shore of the Gulf of Taranto; has a fine cathedral and castle; valuable quarries of marble and alabaster are wrought in the vicinity.

Rossbach, a village in Prussian Saxony, 9 m. SW. of Merseburg, where Frederick the Great gained in 1767 a brilliant victory with 22,000 men over the combined arms of France and Austria with 60,000.

Rosse, William Parsons, third Earl of, born in York; devoted to the study of astronomy; constructed reflecting telescopes, and a monster one at the cost of £30,000 at Parsonstown, his seat in Ireland, by means of which important discoveries were made, specially in the resolution of nebulæ (1800-1867).

Rossetti, Charles Dante Gabriel, poet and painter, born in London, the son of Gabriele Rossetti; was as a painter one of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (q. v.), and is characterised by Ruskin as "the chief intellectual force in the establishment of the modern romantic school in England,... as regarding the external world as a singer of the Romaunts would have regarded it in the Middle Ages, and as Scott, Burns, Byron, and Tennyson have regarded it in modern times," and as a poet was leader of the romantic school of poetry, which, as Stopford Brooke remarks, "found their chief subjects in ancient Rome and Greece, in stories and lyrics of passion, in mediæval romance, in Norse legends, in the old English of Chaucer, and in Italy" (1828-1882).

Rossetti, Christina Georgina, poetess, born in London, sister of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and of kindred temper with her brother, but with distinct qualities of her own; her first volume, called the "Goblin-Market," contains a number of very beautiful short poems; she exhibits, along with a sense of humour, a rare pathos, which, as Professor Saintsbury remarks, often "blends with or passes into the utterance of religious awe, unstained and unweakened by any craven fear" (1830-1894).

Rossetti, Gabriele, Italian poet and orator, born at Vasto; had for his patriotic effusions to leave Italy, took refuge in London, and became professor of Italian in King's College, London; was a man of strong character, and student of literature as well as man of letters himself; was the father of Dante Gabriel and Christina (1783-1854).

Rossi, Pellegrino, an Italian jurist and politician, born at Carrara, educated at Bologna, where he became professor of Law in 1812; four years later was appointed to a chair in Geneva, where he also busied himself with politics as a member of the Council and deputy in the Diet; settled in Paris in 1833, became professor at the Collège de France, was naturalised and created a peer, returned to Rome, broke off his connection with France, won the friendship of Pius IX., and rose to be head of the ministry; was assassinated (1787-1848).

Rossini, Gioacchino, celebrated Italian composer of operatic music, born at Pesaro; his operas were numerous, of a high order, and received with unbounded applause, beginning with "Tancred," followed by "Barber of Seville," "La Gazza Ladra," "Semiramis," "William Tell," &c.; he composed a "Stabat Mater," and a "Mass" which was given at his grave (1792-1868).

Rostock (44), a busy German port in Mecklenburg, on the Warnow, 7 m. from its entrance into the Baltic; exports large quantities of grain, wool, flax, &c., has important wool and cattle markets; shipbuilding is the chief of many varied industries, owns a flourishing university, a beautiful Gothic church, a ducal palace, &c.

Rostoff, 1, a flourishing town (67) of South Russia, on the Don, 34 m. E. of Taganrog; manufactures embrace tobacco, ropes, leather, shipbuilding, &c. 2, One of the oldest of Russian market-towns (12), on the Lake of Rostoff, 34 m. SW. of Jaroslav, seat of an archbishop; manufactures linens, silks, &c.

Rostopchine, Count, Russian general, governor of Moscow; was charged with having set fire to the city against the entrance of the French in 1812; in his defence all he admitted was that he had set fire to his own mansion, and threw the blame of the general conflagration on the citizens and the French themselves (1763-1826).

Rostrum (lit. a beak), a pulpit in the forum of Rome where the orators delivered harangues to the people, so called as originally constructed of the prows of war-vessels taken at the first naval battle in which Rome was engaged.

Rothe, Richard, eminent German theologian, born at Posen, professor eventually at Heidelberg; regarded the Church as a temporary institution which would decease as soon as it had fulfilled its function by leavening society with the Christian spirit; he wrote several works, but the greatest is entitled "Theological Ethics" (1799-1867).

Rotherham (42), a flourishing town in Yorkshire, situated on the Don, 5 m. NE. of Sheffield; its cruciform church is a splendid specimen of Perpendicular architecture; manufactures iron-ware, chemicals, pottery, &c.

Rothesay (9), popular watering-place on the W. coast of Scotland, capital of Buteshire, charmingly situated at the head of a fine hill-girt bay on the NE. side of the island of Bute, 19 m. SW. of Greenock; has an excellent harbour, esplanade, &c.; Rothesay Castle is an interesting ruin; is a great health and holiday resort.

Rothschild, Meyer Amschel, the founder of the celebrated banking business, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, a Jew by birth; began his career as a money-lender and made a large fortune (1743-1812); left five sons, who were all made barons of the Austrian empire—Amselm von R., eldest, head of the house at Frankfort (1773-1855); Solomon von R., the second, head of the Vienna house (1774-1855); Nathan von R., the third, head of the London house (1777-1836); Karl von R., the fourth, head of the house at Naples (1755-1855); and Jacob von R., the fifth, head of the Paris house (1792-1868).

Rotrou, Jean de, French poet, born at Dreux; was a contemporary of Corneille and a rival, wrote a number of plays, almost all tragedies, on romantic and classical subjects, some of which have kept the stage till now (1609-1650).

Rotterdam (223), the chief port and second city of Holland, situated at the junction of the Rotte with the Maas, 19 m. from the North Sea and 45 m. SW. of Amsterdam; the town is cut in many parts by handsome canals, which communicate with the river and serve to facilitate the enormous foreign commerce; the quaint old houses, the stately public buildings, broad tree-lined streets, canals alive with fleets of trim barges, combine to give the town a picturesque and animated appearance. Boymans' Museum has a fine collection of Dutch and modern paintings, and the Groote Kerk is a Gothic church of imposing appearance; there is also a large zoological garden; shipbuilding, distilling, sugar-refining, machine and tobacco factories are the chief industries.

Rotti (60), a fertile hilly island in the Indian Archipelago, SW. of Timor, a Dutch possession.

Roubaix (115), a busy town in the department of Nord, N. of France; situated on a canal 6 m. NE. of Lille; is of modern growth; actively engaged in the manufacture of all kinds of textiles, in brewing, &c.

Roubilliac, Louis François, sculptor, born at Lyons; studied in Paris, came to London; executed there statues of Shakespeare in the British Museum, Sir Isaac Newton at Cambridge, and Händel at London (1693-1762).

Rouble, a silver coin of the value of 3s. 2d.; the unit of the Russian monetary system; a much depreciated paper rouble is also in circulation; the rouble is divided into 100 copecks.

Rouen (112), the ancient capital of Normandy, a busy manufacturing town on the Seine, 87 m. NW of Paris; a good portion of the old, crowded, picturesque town has given place to more spacious streets and dwellings; the old ramparts have been converted into handsome boulevards; has several Gothic churches unrivalled in beauty, a cathedral (the seat of an archbishop), &c.; the river affords an excellent waterway to the sea, and as a port Rouen ranks fourth in France; is famed for its cotton and other textiles; Joan of Arc was burned here in 1431.

Rouget de Lisle, officer of the Engineers, born at Lons-le-Saulnier; immortalised himself as the author of the "Marseillaise" (q. v.); was thrown into prison by the extreme party at the Revolution, but was released on the fall of Robespierre; fell into straitened circumstances, but was pensioned by Louis Philippe (1760-1836).

Rouge-et-Noir (i. e. red and black), a gambling game of chance with cards, so called because it is played on a table marked with two red and two black diamond-shaped spots, and arranged alternately in four different sections of the table.

Rouher, Eugène, French Bonapartist statesman, born at Riom, where he became a barrister; entered the Constituent Assembly in 1848, and in the following year became Minister of Justice; was more or less in office during the next 20 years; he became President of the Senate in 1869; fled to England on the fall of the Empire; later on re-entered the National Assembly, and vigorously defended the ex-emperor Napoleon III. (1814-1884).

Roulers (20), a manufacturing town in West Flanders, 19 m. SW. of Bruges; engaged in manufacturing cottons, lace, &c.; scene of a French victory over the Austrians in 1794.

Roulette, a game of chance, very popular in France last century, now at Monaco; played with a revolving disc and a ball.

Roumania (5,800), a kingdom of SE. Europe, wedged in between Russia (N.) and Bulgaria (S.), with an eastern shore on the Black Sea; the Carpathians on the W. divide it from Austro-Hungary; comprises the old principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which, long subject to Turkey, united under one ruler in 1859, and received their independence in 1878, in which year the province of Dobrudja was ceded by Russia; in 1881 the combined provinces were recognised as a kingdom; forms a fertile and well-watered plain sloping N. to S., which grows immense quantities of grain, the chief export; salt-mining and petroleum-making are also important industries; the bulk of the people belong to the Greek Church; peasant proprietorship on a large scale is a feature of the national life; government is vested in a hereditary limited monarch, a council of ministers, a senate, and a chamber of deputies; Bucharest (q. v.) is the capital, and Galatz (q. v.) the chief port.

Roumelia, a former name for a district which embraced ancient Thrace and a portion of Macedonia; the territory known as East Roumelia was incorporated with Bulgaria in 1885.

Round Table, The, the name given to the knighthood of King Arthur: a larger, from including as many as 150 knights; and a smaller, from including only 12 of the highest order.

Round Towers, ancient towers, found chiefly in Ireland, of a tall, round, more or less tapering structure, divided into storeys, and with a conical top, erected in the neighbourhood of some church or monastery, and presumably of Christian origin, and probably used as strongholds in times of danger; of these there are 118 in Ireland, and three in Scotland—at Abernethy, Brechin, and Eglishay (Orkney).

Roundheads, the name of contempt given by the Cavaliers to the Puritans or Parliamentary party during the Civil War, on account of their wearing their hair close crept.

Rous, Francis, provost of Eton, born in Cornwall; sat in the Westminster Assembly, and was the author of the metrical version of the Psalms, as used in Presbyterian churches (1579-1659).

Rousseau, Jean Baptiste, French lyric poet, born in Paris, the son of a shoemaker; gave offence by certain lampoons ascribed to him which to the last he protested were forgeries, and was banished; his satires were certainly superior to his lyrics, which were cold and formal; died at Brussels in exile (1670-1741).

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, a celebrated French philosopher, and one or the great prose writers of French literature, born in Geneva, the son of a watchmaker and dancing-master; was apprenticed to an engraver, whose inhuman treatment drove him at the age of 16 into running away; for three years led a vagrant life, acting as footman, lackey, secretary, &c.; during this period was converted to Catholicism largely through the efforts of Madame de Warens, a spritely married lady living apart from her husband; in 1731 he took up residence in his patroness's house, where he lived for nine years a life of ease and sentiment in the ambiguous capacity of general factotum, and subsequently of lover; supplanted in the affections of his mistress, he took himself off, and landed in Paris in 1741; supported himself by music-copying, an occupation which was his steadiest means of livelihood throughout his troubled career; formed a liaison with an illiterate dull servant-girl by whom he had five children, all of whom he callously handed over to the foundling hospital; acquaintance with Diderot brought him work on the famous Encyclopédie, but the true foundation of his literary fame was laid in 1749 by "A Discourse on Arts and Sciences," in which he audaciously negatives the theory that morality has been favoured by the progress of science and the arts; followed this up in 1753 by a "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality," in which he makes a wholesale attack upon the cherished institutions and ideals of society; morosely rejected the flattering advances of society, and from his retreat at Montlouis issued "The New Héloïse" (1760), "The Social Contract" (1762), and "Émile" (1762); these lifted him into the widest fame, but precipitated upon him the enmity and persecution of Church (for his Deism) and State; fled to Switzerland, where after his aggressive "Letters from the Mountains," he wandered about, the victim of his own suspicious, hypochondriacal nature; found for some time a retreat in Staffordshire under the patronage of Hume; returned to France, where his only persecutors were his own morbid hallucinations; died, not without suspicion of suicide, at Ermenonville; his "Confessions" and other autobiographical writings, although unreliable in facts, reflect his strange and wayward personality with wonderful truth; was one of the precursive influences which brought on the revolutionary movement (1712-1778).

Rousseau, Pierre Étienne Théodore, an eminent French artist, born in Paris; at 19 exhibited in the Salon; slowly won his way to the front as the greatest French landscape painter; in 1848 settled down in Barbizon, in the Forest of Fontainebleau, his favourite sketching ground; his pictures (e. g. "The Alley of Chestnut Trees," "Early Summer Morning") fetch immense prices now (1812-1867).

Roveredo (10), an Austrian town in the Tyrol, pleasantly situated on the Leno, in the Lägerthal; is the centre of the Tyrolese silk trade.

Row, John, a Scottish reformer; graduated LL.D. in Padua; came over from the Catholic Church in 1558, and two years later helped to compile the "First Book of Discipline"; settled as a minister in Perth, and was four times Moderator of the General Assembly (1525-1580). His son, John Row, was minister of Carnock, near Dunfermline, and author of an authoritative "History of the Kirk of Scotland" (1568-1646).

Rowe, Nicholas, dramatist and poet-laureate, born at Barford, Bedfordshire; was trained for the law, but took to literature, and made his mark as a dramatist, "The Fair Penitent," "Jane Shore," &c., long maintaining their popularity; translated Lucan's "Pharsalia," which won Dr. Johnson's commendation; edited Shakespeare; became poet-laureate in 1715; held some government posts; was buried at Westminster Abbey (1674-1718).

Rowlandson, Thomas, caricaturist, born in London; studied art in Paris; gambled and lived extravagantly; led a roving life in England and Wales; displayed great versatility and strength in his artistic work, e. g. in "Imitations of Modern Drawings," illustrations to Sterne's "Sentimental Journey," "Munchausen's Travels," &c.; ridiculed Napoleon in many cartoons (1756-1827).

Rowley Regis (31), a flourishing town of Staffordshire, 3 m. SE. of Dudley; has large iron-works, potteries, &c.

Rowton Heath, in the vicinity of Chester, scene of a great Parliamentary victory over the forces of Charles I. in September 1645.

Roxburghshire (54), in Border pastoral county of Scotland, between Berwick (NE.) and Dumfries (SW.); the Cheviots form its southern boundary; lies almost wholly within the basin of the Tweed, which winds along its northern border, receiving the Teviot, Jed, &c.; includes the fine pastoral districts of Teviotdale and Liddesdale, where vast flocks of sheep are reared; agriculture and woollen manufactures are important industries; Hawick is the largest town, and Jedburgh the county town; near Kelso stood the royal castle and town of Roxburgh, which gave its name to the county, destroyed in 1460.

Royal Academy of Arts, in London; was instituted in 1768 by George III. as a result of a memorial presented to him by 29 members who had seceded from "The Incorporated Society of Artists of Great Britain" (founded 1765); for some years received grants from the privy purse, and was provided with rooms in Somerset House; removed to Trafalgar Square in 1836, and to its present quarters at Burlington House in 1869; receives now no public grant; holds yearly exhibitions, and supports an art school; membership comprises 42 Royal Academicians, besides Associates. The present President is Sir Edward John Poynter. The Royal Hibernian Academy (founded 1823) and the Scottish Academy (1826) are similar institutions.

Royal Society of Edinburgh, The, was incorporated by royal charter in 1783 through the efforts of Robertson the historian, and superseded the old Philosophical Society; held fortnightly meetings (December till June) in the Royal Institution; receives a grant of £300; publishes Transactions; has a membership of some 550, including foreign and British Fellows.

Royal Society of London, incorporated by royal charter in 1662, but owing its origin to the informal meetings about 1645 of a group of scientific men headed by Theodore Haak, a German, Dr. Wilkins, and others; in 1665 the first number of their Philosophical Transactions was published which, with the supplementary publication, Proceedings of the Royal Society, begun in 1800, constitute an invaluable record of the progress of science to the present day; encouragement is given to scientific investigation by awards of medals (Copley, Davy, Darwin, &c.), the equipping of scientific expeditions (e. g. the Challenger), &c.; weekly meetings are held at Burlington House (quarters since 1857) during the session (November till June); membership comprises some 500 Fellows, including 40 foreigners; receives a parliamentary grant of £4000 a year, and acts in an informal way as scientific adviser to Government.

Royan (6), a pretty seaside town of France, on the estuary of the Gironde, 60 m. NW. of Bordeaux; trebles its population in the summer.

Royer-Collard, Pierre Paul, politician and philosopher, born at Sompuis; called to the Paris bar at 20; supported the Revolution, but refused to follow the Jacobins, and during the Reign of Terror sought shelter in his native town; was elected to the Council of the Five Hundred in 1797, retired in 1804, and betook himself to philosophic studies; became professor of Philosophy in Paris 1811, and exercised great influence; re-entered political life in 1815, and was actively engaged in administrative work till his retirement in 1842; was all through his life a doctrinaire and rather unpractical (1763-1842).

Royton (13), a busy cotton town in Lancashire, 2 m. NW. of Oldham.

Ruabon (18), a mining town in Denbighshire, 4½ m. SW. of Wrexham; has collieries and iron-works.

Rubens, Peter Paul, the greatest of the Flemish painters, born at Siegen, in Westphalia; came with his widowed mother in 1587 to Antwerp, where he sedulously cultivated the painter's art, and early revealed his masterly gift of colouring; went to Italy, and for a number of years was in the service of the Duke of Mantua, who encouraged him in his art, and employed him on a diplomatic mission to Philip III. of Spain; executed at Madrid some of his finest portraits; returned to Antwerp in 1609; completed in 1614 his masterpiece, "The Descent from the Cross," in Antwerp Cathedral; with the aid of assistants he painted the series of 21 pictures, now in the Louvre, illustrating the principal events in the life of Maria de' Medici during 1628-1629; diplomatic missions engaged him at the Spanish and English Courts, where his superabundant energy enabled him to execute many paintings for Charles I.—e. g. "War and Peace," in the National Gallery—and Philip IV.; was knighted by both; in all that pertains to chiaroscuro, colouring, and general technical skill Rubens is unsurpassed, and in expressing particularly the "tumult and energy of human action," but he falls below the great Italian artists in the presentation of the deeper and sublimer human emotions; was a scholarly, refined man, an excellent linguist, and a successful diplomatist; was twice married; died at Antwerp, and was buried in the Church of St. Jacques; his tercentenary was celebrated in 1877 (1577-1640).

Rubicon, a famous river of Italy, associated with Julius Cæsar, now identified with the modern Fiumecino, a mountain torrent which springs out of the eastern flank of the Apennines and enters the Adriatic N. of Ariminum; marked the boundary line between Roman Italy and Cisalpine Gaul, a province administered by Cæsar; when he crossed it in 49 B.C. it was tantamount to a declaration of war against the Republic, hence the expression "to cross the Rubicon" is applied to the decisive step in any adventurous undertaking.

Rubinstein, Anton, a famous Russian pianist and composer, born, of Jewish parents, near Jassy, in Moldavia; studied at Moscow, under Liszt in Paris, and afterwards at Berlin and Vienna; established himself at St. Petersburg in 1848 as a music-teacher; became director of the Conservatoire there; toured for many years through Europe and the United States, achieving phenomenal success; resumed his directorship at St. Petersburg in 1887; composed operas (e. g. "The Maccabees," "The Demon"), symphonies (e. g. "Ocean"), sacred operas (e. g. "Paradise Lost"), chamber music, and many exquisite songs; as a pianist he was a master of technique and expression; was ennobled by the Czar in 1869; published an autobiography; his works as well as his performances display both vigour and sensibility (1829-1894).

Rubrics, a name, as printed originally in red ink, applied to the rules and instructions given in the liturgy of the Prayer-Book for regulating the conduct of divine service, hence applied in a wider significance to any fixed ecclesiastical or other injunction or order; was used to designate the headings or title of chapters of certain old law-books and MSS., formerly but not now necessarily printed in red characters.

Ruby, a gem which in value and hardness ranks next to the diamond; is dichroic, of greater specific gravity than any other gem, and belongs to the hexagonal system of crystals; is a pellucid, ruddy-tinted stone, and, like the sapphire, a variety of corundum, also found (but rarely) in violet, pink, and purple tints; the finest specimens come from Upper Burmah; these are the true Oriental rubies, and when above 5 carats exceed in value, weight for weight, diamonds; the Spinel ruby is the commoner jeweller's stone; is of much less value, specific gravity and hardness, non-dichroic, and forms a cubical crystal.

Rückert, Friedrich, German poet, born at Schweinfurt, in Bavaria; at Würzburg University showed his talent for languages, and early devoted himself to philology and poetry; was for 15 years professor of Oriental Languages at Erlangen; introduced German readers, by excellent translations, to Eastern poetry; filled for some time the chair of Oriental Languages in Berlin; takes rank as a lyrist of no mean powers; essayed unsuccessfully dramatic composition (1788-1866).

Ruddiman, Thomas, author of a well-known Latin grammar, a Banffshire man, and graduate of Aberdeen University; was school-mastering at Laurencekirk, where his scholarly attainments won him an assistantship in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; spent a busy life in that; city in scholarly occupation, editing many learned works, the most notable being Buchanan's works and the "immaculate" edition of Livy; his famous Latin grammar was completed in 1732; in 1730 became principal keeper of the Advocates' Library (1674-1757).

Rudolf I., of the House of Hapsburg, founder of the Austrian dynasty; born, the son of a count, at Schloss Limburg (Breisgau); greatly increased his father's domain by marriage, inheritance, and conquest, becoming the most powerful prince in S. Germany; acquired a remarkable ascendency among the German princes, and was elevated to the imperial throne in 1273, and by friendly concessions to the Pope, Gregory IX., terminated the long struggle between the Church and the empire; shattered the opposition of Ottocar, king of Bohemia, and brought peace and order to Germany (1218-1291).

Rudolf II., German Emperor, son of Maximilian II., born at Vienna; became king of Hungary in 1573, and of Bohemia three years later; ascended the imperial throne in 1576; indolent and incapable, he left the empire to the care of worthless ministers; disorder and foreign invasion speedily followed; persecution inflamed the Protestants; by 1611 his brother Matthias, supported by other kinsmen, had wrested Hungary and Bohemia from him; had a taste for astrology and alchemy, and patronised Kepler and Tycho Brahé (1552-1612).

Rudolf Lake, in British East Africa, close to the highlands of S. Ethiopia, practically an inland sea, being 160 m. long and 20 broad, and brackish in taste; discovered in 1888.

Rudra, in the Hindu mythology the old deity of the storm, and father of the Marutz.

Rugby (11), a town in Warwickshire, at the junction of the Swift and the Avon, 83 m. NW. of London; an important railway centre and seat of a famous public school founded in 1567, of which Dr. Arnold (q. v.), and Archbishops Tait and Temple were famous head-masters, is one of the first public schools in England, and scholars number about 450.

Ruge, Arnold, a German philosophical and political writer, born at Bergen (Rügen); showed a philosophic bent at Jena; was implicated in the political schemes of the Burschenschaft (q. v.), and was imprisoned for six years; taught for some years in Halle University, but got into trouble through the radical tone of his writings in the Halle Review (founded by himself and another), and went to Paris; was prominent during the political agitation of 1848, and subsequently sought refuge in London, where for a short time he acted in consort with Mazzini and others; retired to Brighton, and ultimately received a pension from the Prussian Government; his numerous plays, novels, translations, &c., including a lengthy autobiography, reveal a mind scarcely gifted enough to grasp firmly and deeply the complicated problems of sociology and politics; is characterised by Dr. Stirling as the "bold and brilliant Ruge"; began, he says, as an expounder of Hegel, and "finished off as translator into German of that 'hollow make-believe of windy conceit,' he calls it, Buckle's 'Civilisation in England'" (1802-1880).

Rügen (45), a deeply-indented island of Germany, in the Baltic, separated from the Pomeranian coast by a channel (Strela Sund) about a mile broad; the soil is fertile, and fishing is actively engaged in. Bergen (4) is the capital.

Ruhr, an affluent of the Rhine, which joins it at Ruhrort after a course of 142 m.; navigable to craft conveying the product of the coal-mines to the Rhine.

Rule of Faith, the name given to the ultimate authority or standard in religious belief, such as the Bible alone, as among Protestants; the Bible and the Church, as among Romanists; reason alone, as among rationalists; the inner light of the spirit, as among mystics.

Rum, a mountainous, forest-clad island in one of the Inner Hebrides, lies 15 m. off Ardnamurchan Point; a handful of inhabitants cultivate a very small portion of it; the rest is mountain, wood, and moorland; forms a deer-forest.

Rumford, Count, Benjamin Thompson, soldier, philanthropist, and physicist, born at Woburn, Massachusetts; a fortunate marriage lifted him into affluence, relieving him from the necessity of teaching; fought on the British side during the American War; became a lieutenant-colonel, and for important services was knighted in 1782 on his return to England; entered the Bavarian service, and carried through a series of remarkable reforms, such as the suppression of mendicity, the amelioration of the poorer classes by the spread of useful knowledge, culinary, agricultural, &c.; was made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire, and placed in charge of the War Department of Bavaria; was a generous patron of science in England and elsewhere; retired from the Bavarian service in 1799, and five years later married the widow of Lavoisier the chemist; his later years were spent in retirement in a village near Paris, where he devoted himself to physical research, especially as regards heat (1753-1814).

Rump, The, name of contempt given to the remnant of the Long Parliament in 1659.

Runcorn (20), a flourishing river-port of Cheshire, on the Mersey, 12 m. SE. of Liverpool, at the terminus of the Bridgewater Canal; is an old place dating back to the 10th century; has excellent docks; industries embrace shipbuilding, iron-founding, &c.

Runeberg, Johan Ludwig, the national poet of Finland, born at Jacobstad; educated at, and afterwards lectured in, the university of Abo; published his first volume, "Lyric Poems," in 1830; edited a bi-weekly paper; for forty years (till his death) was Reader of Roman Literature in the College of Borga; his epic idylls, "The Elk Hunters," "Christmas Eve," his epic "King Fjalar," &c., are the finest poems in the Swedish language; are characterised by a repose, simplicity, and artistic finish, yet have withal the warmth of national life in them (1804-1877).

Runes, a name given to the letters of the alphabet by heathen Teutonic tribes prior to their coming under the influence of Roman civilisation; are formed almost invariably of straight lines, and scarcely exist except in inscriptions dating back to A.D. 1; found chiefly in Scandinavia, also in Britain. There are three runic alphabets (much alike), the oldest being the Gothic of 24 letters or runes. They are now believed to have first come into use among the Goths in the 6th century B.C., and to be a modified form of the old Greek alphabet introduced by traders.

Runnimede, a meadow on the right bank of the Thames, 36 m. SW. of London, where King John signed the Magna Charta, 15th June 1215.

Rupee, a silver coin, the monetary unit of India, whose face value is 2s., but which, owing to the depreciation of silver, is now valued in outside markets at about 1s. 2½d.; a lac of rupees equals 100,000.

Rupert, Prince, son of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, and grandson of James I. of England; received an excellent education; took part in the Thirty Years' War, and suffered three years' imprisonment at Linz; in England, at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, he was entrusted with a command by Charles I., and by his dash and daring greatly heartened the Royalist cause, taking an active part in all the great battles; finally surrendered to Fairfax at Oxford in 1646; but two years later took command of the Royalist ships and kept up a gallant struggle till his defeat by Blake in 1651; escaped to the West Indies, where he kept up a privateering attack upon English merchantmen; came in for many honours after the Restoration, and distinguished himself in the Dutch War; the closing years of his life were quietly spent in scientific research (physical, chemical, mechanical), for which he had a distinct aptitude (1619-1682).

Rupert's Land, a name given by Prince Rupert to territory the drainage of which flows into Hudson Bay or Strait.

Rush, Benjamin, a noted American physician and professor, born at Byberry, near Philadelphia; studied medicine at Princeton and Edinburgh; became professor of chemistry at Philadelphia in 1769; sat in Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence (1776); held important medical posts in the army; resigned, and assumed medical professorship in Philadelphia; won a European reputation as a lecturer, philanthropist, and medical investigator; published several treatises, and from 1799 acted as treasurer of the U.S. Mint (1745-1813).

Rushworth, John, historian and politician, born at Warkworth, Northumberland; although a barrister he never practised, but set himself to compile elaborate notes of proceedings at the Star Chamber and other courts, which grew into an invaluable work of 7 vols., entitled "Historical Collections"; acted as assistant-clerk to the Long Parliament; sat as a member in several Parliaments, and was for some years secretary to Fairfax and the Lord-Keeper; fell into disfavour after the Restoration, and in 1684 was arrested for debt and died in prison; is an authority whom Carlyle abuses as a Dry-as-dust (1607-1690).

Ruskin, John, art-critic and social reformer, born in London, son of an honourable and a successful wine-merchant; educated with some severity at home under the eye of his parents, and particularly his mother, who trained him well into familiarity with the Bible, and did not object to his study of "Robinson Crusoe" along with the "Pilgrim's Progress" on Sundays, while, left to his own choice he read Homer, Scott, and Byron on week days; entered Christ's Church, Oxford, as a gentleman Commoner in 1837, gained the Newdigate Prize in 1839, produced in 1843, under the name of "A Graduate of Oxford," the first volume of "Modern Painters," mainly in defence of the painter Turner and his art, which soon extended to five considerable volumes, and in 1849 "The Seven Lamps of Architecture," in definition of the qualities of good art in that line, under the heads of the Lamps of Sacrifice, of Truth, of Power, of Beauty, of Life, of Memory, and Obedience, pleading in particular for the Gothic style; these were followed in 1851 by "Pre-Raphaelitism" (q. v.), and 1851-53 by the "Stones of Venice," in further exposition of his views in the "Seven Lamps," and others on the same and kindred arts. Not till 1862 did he appear in the rôle of social reformer, and that was by the publication of "Unto this Last," in the Cornhill Magazine, on the first principles of political economy, the doctrines in which were further expounded in "Munera Pulveris," "Time and Tide," and "Fors Clavigera" (q. v.), the principles in which he endeavoured to give practical effect to by the Institution of St. George's Guild, with the view of commending "the rational organisation of country life independent of that of cities." His writings are numerous, several of them originally lectures, and nearly all on matters of vital account, besides many others on subjects equally so which he began, but has had, to the grief of his admirers, to leave unfinished from failing health, among these his "Præterita," or memories from his past life. The most popular of his recent writings is "Sesame and Lilies," with perhaps the "Crown of Wild Olive," and the most useful that of the series beginning with "Unto this Last," and culminating in "Time and Tide." He began his career as an admirer of Turner, and finished as a disciple of Thomas Carlyle, but neither slavishly nor with the surrender of his own sense of justice and truth; Justice is the goddess he worships, and except in her return to the earth as sovereign he bodes nothing but disaster to the fortunes of the race; his despair of seeing this seems to have unhinged him, and he is now in a state of fatal collapse; his contemporaries praised his style of writing, but to his disgust they did not believe a word he said; he sits sadly in these days at Brantwood, in utter apathy to everything of passing interest, and if he thinks or speaks at all it would seem his sense of the injustice in things, and the doom it is under, is not yet utterly dead—his sun has not even yet gone down upon his wrath; the keynote of his wrath was, Men do the work of this world and rogues take the pay, selling for money what God has given for nothing, or what others have purchased by their life's blood; b. 1819. He died 20th January 1900.

Russell, John, Earl, known best as Lord John Russell, statesman, youngest son of the Earl of Bedford; travelled in Spain, studied at Edinburgh, entered Parliament in 1813, took up vigorously the cause of parliamentary reform and Catholic Emancipation, joined Earl Grey's ministry in 1830 as Paymaster of the Forces, framed and zealously advocated the Reform Bill (1832), drove Peel from office in 1835, and became, under Lord Melbourne, Home Secretary and leader of the Commons; four years later he was appointed Colonial Secretary, warmly espoused the cause of repeal of the Corn Laws, formed a Ministry on the downfall of Peel in 1846, and dealt with Irish difficulties and Chartism; resigned in 1852, and in the same year became Foreign Secretary under Aberdeen, became unpopular on account of his management of the Crimean War (1855) and conduct at the Vienna Conference; again Foreign Secretary in Palmerston's ministry of 1859, an earl in 1861, and premier a second time in 1865-66; author of various pamphlets, biographies, memoirs, &c.; was twice married; was nicknamed "Finality John" from his regarding his Reform Bill of 1832 as a final measure (1792-1878).