J (continued 2)

Judges, Book of, a book of the Old Testament; gives an account of a series of deliverances achieved on behalf of Israel by ministers of God of the nation so called, when, after their occupation of the land, now this tribe and now that was threatened with extinction by the Canaanites; these deliverers bore the character of heroes rather than judges, but they were rather tribal heroes than national, there being as yet no king in Israel to unite them into one; of these the names of twelve are given, of which only six attained special distinction, and their rule covered a period of 300 years, which extended between the death of Joshua and the birth of Samuel; the story throughout is one: apostasy and consequent judgment, but the return of the Divine favour on repentance insured.

Judgment, Private, assumption of judgment by individual reason on matters which are not amenable to a lower tribunal than the universal reason of the race.

Judith, a wealthy, beautiful, and pious Jewish widow who, as recorded in one of the books of the Apocrypha called after her, entered, with only a single maid as attendant, the camp of the Assyrian army under Holofernes, that lay investing Bethulia, her native place; won the confidence of the chief, persuaded him to drink while alone with him in his tent till he was brutally intoxicated, cut off his head, and making good her escape, suspended it from the walls of the place, with the issue of the utter rout of his army by a sally of the townsfolk.

Judson, Adoniram, Burmese missionary and scholar, born at Maiden, Mass.; sailed for Burma 1812, and for 40 years laboured devotedly, translating the Bible into Burmese, and compiling a Burmese-English dictionary; he died at sea on his way home (1788-1850).

Juggernaut (22) or Puri, a town on the S. coast of Orissa, in Bengal; one of the holy places of India, with a temple dedicated to Vishnu, and containing an idol of him called Jagannâtha (or the Lord of the World), which, in festival times, attracts thousands of pilgrims to worship at its shrine, on one of which occasions the idol is dragged forth in a ponderous car by the pilgrims and back again, under the wheels of which, till prohibited, multitudes would throw themselves to be crushed to death in the hope of thereby attaining a state of eternal beatitude.

Jugurtha, king of Numidia; succeeded by violent measures to the throne, and maintained his ground in defiance of the Romans, who took up arms against him and at last led him captive to Rome to die of hunger in a dungeon.

Jukes, Joseph Beet, geologist, born near Birmingham; graduated at Cambridge; took part in several expeditions, and finally became lecturer in the Royal College of Science, Dublin, where he died; he published among other works a "Student's Manual of Geology" (1811-1869).

Julia, daughter and only child of Augustus Cæsar; celebrated for her beauty and the dissoluteness of her morals, and became the wife in succession of Marcellus, Agrippa, and Tiberius.

Julian the Apostate, Roman emperor for 18 months, from 361 to 363; was born at Constantinople, his father being a half-brother of Constantine the Great, on whose death most of Julian's family were murdered; embittered by this event, Julian threw himself into philosophic studies, and secretly renounced Christianity; as joint emperor with his cousin from 355 he showed himself a capable soldier, a vigorous and wise administrator; on becoming sole emperor he proclaimed his apostasy, and sought to restore paganism, but without persecuting the Church; though painted in blackest colours by the Christian Fathers, he was a lover of truth, chaste, abstinent, just, and affectionate, if somewhat vain and superstitious; he was killed in an expedition against Persia; several writings of his are extant, but a work he wrote against the Christians is lost (331-363).

Jülich, a duchy on the W. bank of the Rhine, its capital a place of the same name, 20 m. W. of Köln.

Julien, Stanislas Aignan, an eminent Sinalogue, born in Orleans, originally eminent in Greek; turned his attention to Chinese, and in 12 months time translated a part of one of the classical works in that language; originally professor of Greek, he became in 1827 professor of Chinese in the College of France in succession to Rémusat; he was not less distinguished as a Sanskrit and Pâli scholar (1797-1873).

Julius, the name of three Popes: St. J. I., Pope from 337 to 332; J. II., Pope from 1502 to 1513; J. III., Pope from 1550 to 1555, of which only J. II. deserves notice. J. II., an Italian by birth, was more of a soldier than a priest, and, during his pontificate, was almost wholly occupied with wars against the Venetians for the recovery of Romagna, and against the French to drive them out of Italy, in which attempt he called to his aid the spiritual artillery at his command, by ex-communicating Louis XII. and putting his kingdom under an interdict in 1542; he sanctioned the marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine of Aragon, commenced to rebuild St. Peter's at Rome, and was the patron of Michael Angelo and Raphael.

Jullien, Louis Antoine, a distinguished musical conductor, born in the Basses-Alpes; did much to popularise music by large bands, but he was unfortunate in his speculations, and died insane and in debt (1812-1860).

July, the seventh month of the year, so called in honour of Julius Cæsar, who reformed the calendar, and was born in this month; it was famous as the month of the outbreak of the second Revolution of France in Paris in 1830.

Jumna, the chief affluent of the Ganges, which it joins at Allahabad, rises in the Punjab, and flows through the North-West Provinces, having Delhi and Agra on its banks; its course is 860 m., and it falls over 10,000 ft.; its waters are used for irrigation by means of canals, being of little use for navigation.

Jumpers, name of a certain religious sect in America, from the dancing associated with its services.

June, the sixth month of the year, so named from the Roman gens or clan Junius, or perhaps from Juno.

Jung Stilling, a German mystic, born in Nassau; first a tailor, then a schoolmaster; went to Strasburg, became intimate with Goethe, studied medicine there, and afterwards practised in Elberfeld; became professor of Political Economy at Marburg and in Heidelberg; is best known by his autobiography: Kant and Lavater were friends of his (1740-1817).

Jungfrau (Maiden), a peak of the Bernese Alps, 13,671 ft. in height; was first ascended by the brothers Meyer in 1811.

Junius, Letters of, seventy letters on public affairs which appeared under that signature in the Public Advertiser 1769 to 1772, and were with others reprinted in book form; were, though severe in tone, the prototype of the modern leading article. Their authorship has never been discovered; but some hold that evidence points to Sir Philip Francis as responsible for them.

Junk, a Chinese boat with a flat bottom, a square prow, a high stern, and a pole for mast.

Junker, a name given in Germany to the younger members of the aristocracy, or of the landed gentry, as representing a reactionary party in modern politics.

Juno, a Roman goddess, the wife of Jupiter, and the queen of heaven, corresponding to the Hera (q. v.) of the Greeks; the impersonation of womanhood, and the special protectress of the rights of women, especially married women, and bore the names of Virginalis and Matrona. She was the patroness of household and even state economy. See Zeus.

Junot, Andoche, Duc d'Abrantes, French general; was Napoleon's aide-de-camp in his first Campaign in Italy; took part in the expedition to Egypt; distinguished himself in the invasion of Portugal, but soon experienced reverse after reverse; in a fit of madness he threw himself one day out of a window, and died from the effect (1771-1813).

Junto, the name given to a Whig faction in the reign of William III., that for 20 years exercised a great influence in the affairs of the nation, of which Russell, Lord-Keeper Somers, and Charles Montague were the leading members.

Jupiter. See Zeus.

Jupiter, one of the exterior planets of the solar system, and the largest; revolves in an orbit outside that of the asteroids, at a mean distance from the sun of 480 millions of miles, completing its revolution round the sun in 4338 days, and taking 10 hours to revolve on its own axis; it is surrounded by belts considered to be openings in the cloudy atmosphere which invests it, and is accompanied by four moons, all nearly of the same size but at different distances, and with different periods of revolution round it; it is in volume 1300 times larger than that of the earth, while its weight is only 300 times that of the earth, is therefore less than one-fourth of the density of the earth.

Jupiter Carlyle, a sobriquet given to the Rev. Alexander Carlyle (q. v.), from his resemblance to the artist's conception of Jupiter, particularly in the head.

Jupiter Scapin, a nickname given by the Abbé de Pradt to Napoleon, after a valet of the name of Scapin in a comedy of Molière's, noted for his knaveries.

Jura, an Argyllshire island NE. of Islay, mountainous (2500 ft.); the eastern slopes yield some crops, but most of the island is deer forest and cattle-grazing land.

Jury, a body of citizens set to try a question of fact, or to assess damages; in England and Ireland a jury numbers 12, and its verdict must be unanimous; in Scotland the verdict is by majority, and the jury numbers 12 in civil and 15 in criminal cases.

Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, celebrated French botanist, born at Lyons; his book, entitled "Genera Plantarum," published in 1789, lays down the principle on which the modern classification of plants is based; he was one of a family of botanists (1748-1836).

Justice, 1, High Court Of, one of the two great sections of the English Supreme Courts; 2, Lord Chief, the chief judge of the Queen's Bench division of it; 3, Lord Justice-General, supreme judge in Scotland, the Lord President of the Court of Session; 4, of the Peace, the title of a petty county or borough magistrate of multifarious duties and jurisdiction; 5, Lords Justices, judges of the English Court of Appeal.

Justice, Bed of, a formal session of Parliament of Paris under the presidency of the king, for the compulsory registration of royal edicts.

Justiciary Court, the highest court for the trial of criminal cases in Scotland.

Justin, surnamed the Martyr, an early Christian apologist, born in Sichem, Samaria; a heathen by birth, who studied philosophy in the Stoic and Platonic schools, and was converted to Christianity from observing the strength of the convictions with which it was embraced; was the author of two "Apologies for the Christians," rather than for Christianity or its dogmas, and a "Dialogue with Trypho the Jew," and suffered martyrdom in 168. Festival, June 12.

Justinian I., Roman emperor and jurist, born in Illyria; became co-emperor with Justin I. in 527; married the infamous Theodora, and for 38 years enjoyed a reign, the most brilliant of the late Empire, but not without dangers from foes outside and factions within; his fame rests on the codification and reform of the laws which he carried out; he improved the status of slaves, revised the laws of divorce and of intestate succession; and in his "Digest," "Institutes," and other sections of the "Corpus Juris Civilis," first gave definiteness to Roman law and laid the basis of the civil law of most modern nations (482-565).

Justinian Pandects, a code of Roman laws compiled under the direction of the Emperor Justinian, with a digest of the commentaries of the jurists thereupon.

Jutland, at the mouth of the Baltic Sea, is the only European peninsula that stretches northward; it comprises the continental portion of the kingdom of Denmark.

Juvenal, a celebrated Latin poet and satirist, born at Aquinum; a friend of Martial and contemporary of Statius and Quintilian; his satires, 16 in number, are written in indignant scorn of the vices of the Romans under the Empire, and in the descriptions of which the historian finds a portrait of the manners and morals of the time (42-120).

Juxon, William, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Chichester; became in succession bishop of Worcester and bishop of London, and attended Charles I. in prison and on the scaffold; lived in privacy till the Restoration, four months after which he was made archbishop, and died about two years after his elevation (1582-1663).