Chapter V · GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

“The child should know no other endeavor but to be at every stage of development wholly what this stage calls for. Then will each successive stage spring like a new shoot from a healthy bud; and at each successive stage he will with the same endeavor again accomplish the requirements of this stage; for only the adequate development of man at each preceding stage can effect and bring about adequate development at each succeeding later stage.”

—F. FROEBEL.

Children do not grow and develop by any haphazard process. Too often parents have had so little, either of first-hand acquaintance with other children, recollection of their own childhood, or knowledge of the literature of child-study, that they have fumbled in the dark, misunderstanding and experimenting on their own children, without either standards for comparison or principles for guidance.

There is a wealth of material, both technical and popular, available in this “century of the child.” The impetus given to the study of the child by Pestalozzi and Froebel a century ago has gained increasing momentum in Europe and America. Some investigators have made laborious studies of large numbers of children to ascertain average rates and factors of growth or development of some part of the body or some phase of spirit. Others have made painstaking, intensive studies of individual children and have reported the characteristics observed at different ages.

The outlines, main features, and basal principles are already defined. A knowledge of these is as essential to the intelligent worker with children as a knowledge of the processes of plant growth and development to the intelligent agriculturist. Many blanks and gaps in our knowledge of child development are yet to be filled. The father, mother, teacher who is sympathetic with child nature, who has the scientific mind for accuracy, definiteness and persistence of observation, has an opportunity to contribute to the common fund of knowledge of child life by making original observations of the child in the home. Hitherto most of the published studies, both of groups and of individuals, have been made by men. Doctor G. Stanley Hall has been the pioneer leader and chief inspirer of the child-study movement in America. Doctor John Dewey’s contributions and inspirations have been both profound and extensive. Madame Montessori is the one woman who has made large contributions.

It should be noted that a science of child-study and development was not possible until the idea of evolution became known and appreciated. Froebel sensed this evolution, as will be noted in reading his “Education of Man”, which was published a quarter of a century before Darwin’s “Origin of Species.”

This phase of psychology—tracing the stages of mental development as an organic process from its simple beginnings in the individual or the race to its maturity in adulthood of the individual or civilization of the race—is the field of genetic psychology.

The intelligent worker with children in the home must be acquainted with what is normal and usual at any stage, in child anatomy, physiology, and psychology. Only with such knowledge is it possible to make intelligent observations of the development of the individual child, and to supply a normal environment and guidance suited to his stage of development. Such knowledge and preparation can be acquired only through study of the literature of child psychology, and through intensive, first-hand acquaintance with children.

It requires about twenty-five years for nature to bring a human individual from birth to physiological maturity. In the nine months before birth the growth and development is very rapid. All the organs are formed, but their development at birth is immature, especially the development of the nervous system. What is accomplished in these years?

From Birth to Maturity

Total weight increases from 16 to 22 fold.

Length of body ” 3 fold

Size of muscles ” 37 ”

Size of lungs ” 18 ”

Size of heart ” 13 ”

Size of brain ” 3 ”

Weight of arm ” 4 ”

Weight of leg ” 5 ”

Note the great differences in increase of different parts of the body.

At Birth At Maturity (25 years)

Stomach undeveloped Complete digestive development

Few digestive juices All

No provision for digesting starch until 8 or 9 months; fats (except cream); protein (except curds of milk); solid food Digestion of all food elements, including solids

No teeth cut Two sets of teeth cut

Sense organs: incomplete development, especially sight and hearing Senses fully developed

Fine sense discrimination

Reproductive system rudimentary Reproductive system mature

Nerve cells undeveloped Nervous system complex and developed

Few association fibers formed

Medullary sheath not formed

Motor ability limited to crying, grasping, reflex movements of arms and legs Motor coördination of all muscles, including accessory eye and finger muscles

Mental ability limited to few vague, unlocated sensations, slight motor memory Concentration, imagination, judgment, speech, all well developed

Language only a cry or instinctive movements of head, arms, legs Fluent use of language

Emotions limited to slight pleasure-pain; no control Wide range of emotions, potentially controlled and expressed

Volition rudimentary Will power to achieve any purpose

Social, moral, religious instincts undeveloped Sense of law and property rights

Social coöperation

Moral standards, judgments, and habits

Religious feeling and action

After twenty-five years there is sometimes a slight increase in height and weight; plasticity is slight; new habits are not readily formed; new ideas not readily accepted. The nervous system is capable of continued development.

There are a few foundation facts and principles that should be summarized before taking up in detail the stages of growth and development.

The child is not a small edition of an adult. His anatomical proportions, his physiological processes, his ways of thought and of thinking, his motives, interests, likes, emotions, methods of expression, are all different from the adult’s; and they are all different at different stages in his development.

The child lives through (recapitulates) in a general way the main stages and order of physical and psychological development that organic life and the race have passed through in the countless ages since life began. Starting as a one-celled creature, he recapitulates in the nine months of embryonic life the processes of evolution that required millions of years, from the amœba to the higher vertebrates, in the evolution of the species.

At birth the baby is less developed and more plastic than the young of any other creature at its birth. This helplessness and plasticity are due to the incompleteness in development of the nervous system. It is because of this incompleteness that the physical, mental, and spiritual life can be shaped in great measure by environment. It is this incompleteness that provides both the opportunity and the responsibility of parents and guardians.

For normal development there must be both the growth principle and power within the individual, and the growth stimulus and materials supplied by the environment.

The rate and nature of growth and development are influenced by two factors: (1) heredity (race, family); (2) environment (climate, social status, economic resources, city or country, materialistic or idealistic atmosphere, commonplace or cultured, ugly or beautiful, expressive or repressive, guiding or neglectful).

Growth and development are two different processes. Growth is increase in size; development is increase in power of function. This principle holds true for every muscle, every nerve, every special organ, every brain center.

Growth is a vegetative process, dependent upon intake of nutrition and elimination of waste. Development is dependent upon use, which involves the exercise of the organ or system and of the related brain center, and this leads to both (a) the initial use of mind and (b) mental development.

Each organ, each physiological system or process, each mental process, is controlled by its own definite nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain. By exercise of the specific organ or system, the corresponding nerve center is developed; and the development of the nerve center makes possible a more adequate and perfect use of the specific organ or system.

During the growth stage of any part, exercise of the part is not normal but injurious. When sufficient growth has been attained for development to begin, there is an instinctive desire or hunger for exercise of the part. This desire is manifested by the natural, spontaneous activity or interest of the child. For example, during some ten or twelve months the muscles of the legs and back, and corresponding nerve centers in the spinal cord and the brain, are growing. When their growth is attained, these muscles and nerve centers begin to function in the process of standing and walking, and the child makes every effort to walk. To put him on his feet and attempt to teach him before this stage, is to strain unprepared organs, bones, muscles, and nerves. To keep him lying in a vehicle so he cannot exercise when he spontaneously attempts to walk, is to retard or prevent this natural development.

The process of growth and development is not uniform during childhood; neither do all the parts grow and develop at the same time. Growth is periodic and by parts; it is variable for each part or system. There are periods of slow or rapid growth and development at different ages.

Development begins first for the oldest (racially) muscles and parts, and for those that are being used reflexly, that is, arms, legs, trunk, hands, which are known as the fundamental muscles. The finer, accessory muscles and their brain centers do not develop completely until several years after birth.

There are no average children. Every child is somewhat different. In rate of growth, children may normally vary one to two years from the average. In individual children, some factors at any stage will normally be more marked than others. Distinction must therefore be made between (1) chronological age, (2) physiological age, and (3) psychological age. The standards for (2) and (3) are at present the subject of special researches. Physiological age refers to such factors as dentition, development of bones, height, weight, sex maturity. Psychological age refers to mental ability and maturity.

In some children the hereditary force of a specific characteristic is stronger than in other children. Or the environment of one child gives greater stimulus to an instinct at its nascent (beginning) period, and greater opportunity for its use.

The individual who lives most completely in each stage the life normal to that stage, is best prepared for the succeeding stages of life.

To attempt to hurry a child through this process or to permit an arrest of development in any stage or at any point, is to seriously handicap the child’s normal and complete development. Infant prodigies and infantile youths are both abnormal.

In each stage there are some instincts to be especially fostered, some that need encouragement or stimulation, some that require careful direction into useful channels, some to be ignored as only transitory, and a few that may need inhibiting.

The following group of stages has been prepared as possibly most helpful for guidance of parents and teachers in the home. The transition from one stage to another is gradual.

In so brief a summary as the following, only a few of the most significant items can be presented, and these typical of the average. This is not a form into which every child must be expected to fit. Rather it is a suggestion of the usual, which the individual normal child will approximate in general. It presents a method for recording the development of the individual child.

Infancy

Birth to 2-3 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Rapid growth, especially of brain First dentition Nervous system rapidly developing Association fibers developing between spinal centers and brain centers Bones, nervous system plastic Rapid heat radiation Rapid pulse, respiration Tissues flabby Low vitality Motor and sensory development rapid Motor coördinations developing rapidly Speech develops Interest in pure motor activity, and sensory experiences Thinking exceeds power of expression All mental processes developing Curiosity about everything seen, handled, heard Perceptions crude, few Unconsciously imitative Activity an end in itself Imagination crude, vague Reasons by association of circumstances Emotions crude, uncontrolled Fear of noises and strange objects Humor in surprise Social dependence Little self-control Obedience Trust

Early Childhood

2-3 to 6-7 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Rapid growth Nervous system rapidly developing Rapid growth of brain until 7 yrs. Fundamental muscles utilized Accessory muscles immature Activity its own end Experiments in motor control Greatest sensory development and efficiency Curiosity, analysis, investigation, experimentation strong Interest in simple construction Constructs for use Thought concrete Suggestibility Continued plasticity Attention flitting Asks “What?” “Why?” Memory for words Æsthetic tastes crude Frankness Crude experience and association of ideas Vivid, concrete imagination; images distorted Imitation at its strongest Imitative dramatic play Humor in incongruity Curiosity regarding sex biology Sex feeling undeveloped Emotions strong, slight control Imaginary fears Self-control weak Selfish, thoughtless Respect for parents Wonder at universe Obedience Personification of nature Conscience begins

Infancy and Early Childhood

Birth to 6 Years

Foster:

Sensory and motor activity Trustfulness Curiosity Investigation Acquaintance with world of realities Initiative Wide range of interests Fanciful imagination Formation of permanent habits Sense of wonder

Cultivate:

Regularity Respect for authority Concentration Thoughtfulness for others Courtesy Emotional control Permanent moral prejudices Thrift

Inhibit, or Overcome:

Social dependence Fear Selfishness

Reckon with:

Slow mental adjustment

Motor awkwardness

Misunderstanding of instructions

Mischief, which is the result of an abundance of vitality, initiative, sense of humor, investigating spirit; it is not something to condemn, but for which to provide natural environment.

Rudeness, which is due to childish frankness, democracy, thoughtlessness, examples of discourtesy.

Curiosity regarding biology of sex, to be answered honestly but poetically under three years and biologically after three.

Telling of falsehoods, from 3 to 7 years of age, frequently due to the vivid, imaginative life that the child is living, his relative inexperience with the world of realities, and the difficulty, therefore, of keeping the distinction clear between the two.

Later Childhood

6-7 to 9-10 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Growth progressing Differences in growth rate of boys and girls Second dentition Sensory and motor activities prominent Heart and lungs relatively small Brain growing slowly, attains adult size Eye development still incomplete: near sight Finger movements stronger, more precise Rapid increase in motor control Forearm and finger control develops Manual skill easily acquired Interest in workmanship Ideals exceed ability Plasticity to habit Receptivity Routine easy Experimentation, exploration strong Interest in variety Actions not well coördinated Lack of perseverance Easily discouraged Adjustment to realities Images truer to reality Memory strong for concrete Period of imaginative activity Less direct imitation Imitative and imaginative dramatic play Emotions becoming controlled Fears strong Self-control vacillating Humor in puns, riddles Appreciation of rules in game Beginning of social sense in group play Slight sense of property rights Slight conscience Interest in religious forms (imitative)

Foster:

Exploration Experimentation Moral habits Imaginative play Variety of interests Doll interest Motor coördinations—skating, dancing, swimming

Cultivate:

Power of voluntary attention Self-control Initiative Modesty Conventional courtesies Respect for property rights

Inhibit:

Cruelty Fears

Reckon with:

Fatigue, due to bodily conditions Discouragement, from greater increase in ideals than in technical ability

Youth

Girls, 9 to 12-14 Years

Boys, 9 to 14-16 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Slower growth Period of transition Practical adjustment Reproductive organs maturing Period of low morbidity Heart and lungs relatively small Great motor activity Reactions vigorous Resistance to fatigue Immunity to exposure, danger, temptation Senses acute New adjustments and coördinations readily made Routine and rote enjoyed Motor skill easily acquired Keen interest in workmanship and motor skill Constructs for concrete purposes or use Mental action better controlled, more connected, orderly Memory quick, sure, lasting More critical Sex consciousness develops Emotions weaker Fear increases Teasing other children Less submissive to elders Competitive sense increases Conscience weak Reverence weaker Religious indifference

Foster:

Muscular activity Motor and manual skill Drill, memorizing Routine, discipline Three R’s. Responsibility

Cultivate:

Fine handwork Thoroughness Reserve (in girls) Chivalry (in boys) Confidence in parents

Inhibit:

Athletic competition (too great strain on heart) Fear

Reckon with:

Less confidence in adults Group interest Secretiveness

Adolescence

Girls, 12 to 18 Years

Boys, 13 to 21 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Rapid growth and development Proportions changing Lungs, heart increase in size and function Blood pressure increases Muscular strength increases Voice changes Awkwardness Senses keen Craving for larger experience Routine irksome Power of concentration Abstract thought Independent thought Mental speculation Larger mental perspective Memory strong, includes abstract Abstract reasoning Debating Imagination strong, comprehensive Original thought and action Organized dramatics Individuality increases Works for remote ends Restive of restraint Sex feelings increase Romantic interest strong Social sympathy increases Social coöperation Subject to moods Shyness and bashfulness Conscience keener or very callous Sense of duty develops Spirit of social service or rowdyism Religious feeling Conversion period Criminal period Idealism Hero-worship

Foster:

Idealism Hero-worship Altruism Religious feeling Group interest; team work Leadership, individuality Reasoning, debating Constructive imagination Athletics; physical activity

Cultivate:

Sense of reality Emotional poise Responsibility Strength of will Mutual sympathy (parent and youth) Variety of interests Vocational choice Outdoor life

Inhibit:

Depression and pessimism Finicalness Recklessness

Reckon with:

Emotional upheaval Philosophical speculation Sex interest Awkwardness, bashfulness Self-consciousness Reserve with family

Development of Language

Children vary naturally, and according to their environment, in the rate of development in use of language. Any effort to hasten the process of talking or vocabulary during the first four or five years is an artificial forcing that is more likely to retard development. The following represents all that should be expected of a normal child.

First six months: crying, gesture language

Second six months: babbling, imitation of sounds, gesture language

One year: three to ten words

One to two years: vocabulary of 100 to 500 words; two-word sentences

Two to three years: 500 to 1500 new words; begins use of pronouns

Three to four years: 500 new words; complete sentences

Four to five years: articulation nearly perfect; interest in rhyming

Five to six years: articulation perfect; inflection of nouns and verbs nearly perfect; interest in nonsense words; use of drawing

Six to nine years: grammar usually correct; interest in puns and in secret language; use of drawing as language expression; imitative interest in symbols of language (alphabet, reading, writing)

Nine to twelve years: genuine interest in language symbols; easily learns reading and writing; with limited vocabulary, slang develops

Physical and Mental Growth and Development

Physical Characteristics Birth First Six Months Second Six Months

Organs rapidly growing Muscles, bones, brain, viscera As first 6 months, and teeth

Organs proportionately large Head, surface, intestines, liver Head, intestines, liver, surface ”

Organs proportionately small Stomach, lung capacity, legs Stomach, lungs, heart, legs ”

Organs proportionately strong in function Anti-bodies, kidneys ”

Organs proportionately weak in function Digestive and respiratory systems; tissues flabby Digestive, respiratory, nervous systems; leucocytes, hemoglobin ”

Dentition No teeth (rudiments of both sets in jaw) 2 teeth 6-8 teeth

Nerves Total number of cells but development incomplete Easily exhausted; peripheral nerves sensitive; sensory and motor centers developing As first six months; spinal and brain associations connecting

Sense development No hearing; sight only for light and darkness; touch vague; sensitiveness to temperature Hearing begins; eyes begin to converge and work together Color sense, sound, rhythm developing

Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise Lungs Muscles of arms, legs, trunk, hand; lungs As first 6 months; muscles of creeping, hand, speech organs

Defects easily acquired Eyestrain; blindness Bones misshaped; eyestrain; nerves; disposition As first six months

Defects easily overcome Phimosis temperament; Bones; phimosis; tongue-tie, harelip ”

Illness most susceptible Cold, pneumonia, jaundice, inflammation of navel Digestive, pulmonary; rickets; nervous disorders, erysipelas ”

Most common immediate causes of death[2] Congenital debility; syphilis; prematurity, accidents Congenital debility, digestive disturbances, pneumonia, whooping cough, bronchitis, convulsions, measles, meningitis ”

Nature and rate of mentality Vague, indefinite, slow, groping Slow, vague, diffused More definite, alert, quickened

Motor activities Chiefly reflex Grasping, waving arms, hands; kicking; few vocal sounds Sitting, creeping standing, prattle

Sense activity Slight, vague Touch, sight, hearing becoming active Sight, touch, hearing, active

Attention None Begins in staring, handling Listening, examining

Perception ” Dimly begins Vague

Curiosity ” Begins, vague Objects in reach, opening doors, pulling; exploring cupboards

Imitation ” Of moods and vocal sounds of adults Mechanical, of vocal sounds, moods, facial expression

Memory Slight Faint, vague; motor For familiar acts and faces, responses to his crying

Imagination None Glimmerings Glimmerings

Reasoning ” Dawning, by association By association, increasing

Social instincts ” Egoistic, strong; trustful, responsive to care Trust, desire for companionship of adults

Sense of law ” Vaguely sensed, as association of cause and effect; and in rhythm of regular regimen Developed through regular regimen and beginnings of obedience, especially to direct commands

Emotions Slight, vague Fear, sympathy, confidence, satisfaction, anger Control weak but susceptible to training

Sense of humor None None; smiling begins Shown in surprise, plays, laughing

Will ” Temperamental expression Persistent; shown in temper

Religion ” Begins in trust, dependence Human sympathy, confidence, obedience

Physical Characteristics Second Year Third Year Fourth Year

Organs rapidly growing Brain, teeth, muscles, bones, viscera Trunk, brain, teeth Upper arm, thigh; brain still increasing; bones

Organs proportionately large Intestines, liver, kidneys, arteries, head, surface As second year As second year

Organs proportionately small Legs, lungs, heart ” Lungs, legs, heart

Organs proportionately strong in function Heart, fundamental muscles As third year

Organs proportionately weak in function As first year Eyes, hands, fingers, legs, nerves, digestive, respiratory As third year

Dentition 6 teeth cut Completion of first set

Nerves Motor coördinations developing, association centers developing Sensory-motor coördinations forming Sensory keen, motor coördinations rapidly developing (fundamental)

Sense development Hearing discriminate; touch becoming keen, sight definite, focused Touch, muscular, sight, sound; increasing discrimination Increasing keenness, discrimination

Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise Muscles of walking, forearm, hand; speech, sight, touch, hearing; teeth Trunk, back, arms, legs, hands, speech, senses, teeth, respiratory Arms, legs, trunk; sensory-motor coördinations; sensory nerves; teeth; lungs

Defects easily acquired Bones; teeth, speech, nerves, disposition Bones, teeth, speech, nerves Eyes, bones, speech, nerves, teeth

Defects easily overcome Bones; cleft palate, temperament Bones, teeth, speech, eyes Eyes, bones, speech, teeth

Illness most susceptible to Digestive, respiratory; ears, throat, nerves; scurvy, rickets Digestive, respiratory; ears, throat, infectious fevers Digestive, respiratory; measles, scarlet fever, whooping cough, colds

Most common immediate causes of death Digestive disturbances, croup, pneumonia, diptheria, bronchitis, tuberculosis, measles, meningitis Period of low death rate; pneumonia, tuberculosis, croup, diptheria, meningitis, scarlet fever Low death rate; Pneumonia, diptheria, croup, tuberculosis, meningitis

Nature and rate of mentality Gaining in definiteness, slow Impulsive, flitting, slow Active, slow

Motor activities Alertness, but inefficient Runs, throws Increasing coördination of legs, arms, eye, and hand Quiet games preferred to active; dawdling; spontaneous

Sense activity Keen, especially touch. Acquiring discrimination Handling, listening; sight, touch, sound discrimination At best, most active

Attention Increasing Flitting, concentration increased in doing Voluntary—weak Involuntary—strong

Perception Gaining clearness, definiteness Still vague, but becoming definite Still vague, improving

Curiosity Insatiable; objects in environment Varied; names; animals; mechanical processes Insatiable

Imitation Constant, of adult actions, voice Adult actions, speech, moods Chiefly adult occupations, less impulsive; literal

Memory For names of things; emotions, simple movements Verbal and motor good; emotions Verbal, motor and emotional strong

Imagination Slightly increasing Concrete, vivid Auditory and motor images more distinct than visual; concrete

Construction Building Persistent, for motor activity For activity, immediate use

Reasoning By association of experiences By association of experiences By association; ludicrous inferences; guessing period

Social instincts Increasing sense of ownership Social dependence on an adult; slight play with other children Self-assertive; selfish; quarrels over property

Sense of law Discerned in regularity of régime: in commands, rewards, punishments Dim: susceptible to training; sense of ownership developing Disorderliness; imaginative tales taken for lying

Emotions Trust, fear, anger Love, fear, anger easily stirred; little control Easily aroused, keen; pity begins; imaginary fears

Sense of humor In surprises, in tumbles In grotesque situations, being caught, hiding Persistent; crude; in grotesque

Will Vacillating, temperamental Little control Unreasonable; persistent

Religion Respect for parents, trust. Obedience to parents Obedience, trust, respect for authority Animistic; invests inanimate things with life

Physical Characteristics Fifth Year Sixth Year Later Childhood 6-9 years

Organs rapidly growing See 4th year Legs, arms, chest girth Motor cells in brain. Period of slower physical growth; cessation of rapid brain growth

Organs proportionately large Surface, intestines, kidneys, arteries As 5th year Digestive system, liver, kidneys, surface, legs

Organs proportionally small As 4th year As 4th year Trunk, heart, lungs

Organs proportionately strong in function Digestive and respiratory ability increasing Digestive and respiratory ability increasing Leg muscles

Organs proportionally weak in function Accessory muscles and nerves; eyes, fingers, throat As 5th year Heart; low blood pressure; teeth

Dentition Sheds some first teeth 2nd dentition

Nerves Association fibres rapidly developing; see 4th year As 5th year Rapid growth of association fibres in brain; easily fatigued in 8th year

Sense Development Keen development Senses correlated; finer discrimination Eyes developed for finer work

Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise As 4th year As 4th year Muscles of arms, legs, trunk Muscles of forearm, 8 years. Muscles of fingers, 9-10 years

Defects easily acquired ” ” Spinal curvature, defective teeth speech disorders, eyestrain

Defects easily overcome ” ” Speech disorders

Illness most susceptible Digestive, respiratory, ears, diphtheria, rheumatism, measles, scarlet fever As fifth year Infectious diseases, rheumatism, nervousness, anemia, digestive disturbances; illness increases 8th year

Most common immediate causes of death Period of low death rate As 4th year Period of low death rate As 4th year Low mortality; pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria, croup, measles, kidney and heart disease

Nature and rate of mentality Steadier, quicker, more alert More definite, alert, quicker Hesitating, impulsive, restless

Motor activities Increasing coördinations, rhythmic movements, skipping Increasing correlation. Steadier action, marching, dancing Finger movements stronger, more precise; actions not well coördinated

Sense activity Finer discriminations; notices sound, color Improvising on piano; eagerness to color; tasting Senses become practically perfected; sensory interest weaker

Attention Voluntary—weak; involuntary-strong Purposive inattention; keener concentration in play Flitting; lack of endurance, application

Perception Clearer, many groups Clearer Truer to realities, more distinct; differentiates between real and imagined

Curiosity Intense (see 4th year) Physical properties; processes; causes; birth Asks “What is it for?” Wider range of interests

Imitation Dramatic, of adult activities, animals; literal Dramatic; adults’ activities, animals; less literal Decreasing, imitates idea rather than action

Memory Verbal, strong; learns nonsense, poetry Verbal, strong; poetry, stories; motor, emotional, strong Literal, increasing in ability

Imagination Strong visual, lives in imagination; invents stories As 5th year; fanciful tales of personal experience Less fanciful; related more to facts and needs of life

Construction Follows idea; for activity, use, æsthetic interest Things for use; æsthetic interest Begins to be creative; interest begins in finish, workmanship

Reasoning See 4th year, reasons by analogy; attempts arguing As 5th year Little use for explanations or logic

Social instincts Prefers child to adult; love of emulation; selfish; ownership Self-sufficiency; homesickness; begins group play Group play, circle games; slight respect for property rights

Sense of law No sense of property rights; disobedience increases As 5th year. Increasing; rigid, literal Expects to be held to law and consequences; respects power that requires obedience

Emotions See 4th year; jealousy; fears animals; imaginary fears Degree of control Increasing control, reserve

Sense of humor See 4th year. Drawings, practical jokes As 5th year. Silliness Incongruities of action; play on words; disasters

Will Increasing force As 5th year Vacillating

Religion Wonder in nature; reverence; prayer; obedience As 5th year; imitative interest in formal worship Period of ceremony, forms, rites Animistic tendency weakening

Physical Characteristics Youth Girls, 9-12 years Boys, 9-13 years Early Adolescence Girls 12-16 years Boys 13-18 years

Height Slow growth; girls more rapid than boys Rapid increase (Girls, 11-14) (Boys, 13-17)

Weight Slow growth Rapid increase ” ”

Organs rapidly growing Legs, arms Trunk, legs, arms, lungs, reproductive organs, heart, liver, kidneys; proportions changing

Organs proportionately large Arteries Hands, feet, arms, legs

Organs proportionately small Heart, trunk arteries Trunk, internal organs,

Organs proportionately strong in function Muscles, legs, eyes Heart, lungs; blood pressure high; muscles, fundamental and accessory

Organs proportionately weak in function Heart, lungs; blood pressure; elimination Nerves; internal organs, elimination; motor coördinations because of change in bodily proportions

Dentition Complete (except wisdom teeth)

Nerves Reactions vigorous Under strain; easily unbalanced

Sense development Complete, including eyes Senses keen

Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise Muscles of trunk, forearm, fingers; motor adjustments; lungs Muscles of trunk, arms, legs, fingers; lungs

Defects easily acquired Spinal curvature, eyestrain; precocious sex development Of reproductive system; shallow breathing

Defects easily overcome Bones, teeth Bones, lung capacity

Illness most susceptible Anemia, rheumatism, heart weakness, nervousness; period of low morbidity Anemia, nervousness, malnutrition; tuberculosis (girls); increased morbidity

Most common immediate causes of death Period of low mortality. Pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria and croup, heart and kidney diseases, accidental drownings Pneumonia, tuberculosis, kidney and heart disease, accidental drownings

Nature and rate of mentality Direct, alert; more orderly, controlled Well coördinated, more abstract, logical, comprehensive; routine irksome

Motor activities Well coördinated; need much exercise; new adjustments readily made Muscular awkwardness during growth

Sense activity Sure, acute, subordinate to thought Acute; all senses

Attention Voluntary increasing Potential voluntary attention strong

Perception Clearer Clear

Curiosity Less keen Wide range; persistent; craving for larger experience

Imitation Less marked; of idea rather than action Of ideals, strong; originality marked; individuality

Memory Quick, sure, lasting; period of rote learning At best; logical

Imagination Clear, creative Vivid, comprehensive, creative; works for remote ends

Construction Constructs for purpose; interest in workmanship, skill Interest in technique, use, æsthetic qualities

Reasoning Immature; by analogy or suggestion; logic premature Logical, abstract; mental speculation

Social instincts Less sympathy with adults, more with companions; competition increases Strong sympathies; group loyalty; altruism; sex instincts developing

Sense of law Increasing through games; contempt for artificial laws, customs; less submissive to authority Conscience keen; marked lawlessness or law abiding; restive of restraint

Emotions Weaker; fears increase; sex consciousness developing Keen, subjective, whimsical; shyness and bashfulness; romantic love develops

Sense of humor Keen, expressed in teasing, practical jokes, puns Strong; riddles, puns

Will Self-will increasing; tendency to vacillation, inertia Self-will strong; potential will power

Religion Conscience weak; reverence weak; religious indifference; formal interest in religious ceremonies, forms Deep religious feeling or irreverence Idealism; mysticism; altruism. Conversion period

The tables of physical characteristics are based upon the work of Vierordt, Uffelmann, Schmid-Monnard, Pfaundler and Schlossmann. Holt, Kerley; the tables of mental characteristics upon the studies of G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Earl Barnes, and their disciples, and the summaries of Kirkpatrick, Tanner, Taylor, Tracy. The author’s personal experience with children, as a medium for developing these data into a composite grouping, has been supplemented by the criticisms and suggestions of individual physicians, biologists, and psychologists. The subject deserves much additional research in the comparative study of children.

FOOTNOTES: