Chapter XLVIII · (continued 2)

Before the end of the century the Scotch cotton manufacturers were producing a variety of goods. The production of muslin began in 1780, and in Paisley, shortly after, the manufacture of fancy cotton fabrics began. After the plain muslins came the mulls, nainsooks, ginghams, pullicates, and other varieties were rapidly turned out.

The first steam-engine for spinning cotton in Scotland was erected at Springfield, Glasgow, in January, 1792, by Messrs. Scott, Stevenson & Company Mr. Robert Miller, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for a power-loom in 1796; and Mr. John Monteith, of Glasgow, adopted it, and erected a factory at Pollokshaws with 200 looms; and as the apparatus was improved in efficiency, its working power soon became great.

In 1820, there were 2000 power-looms in Scotland; in 1829, there were 10,000; and in 1833, there were upwards of 14,000. At the latter date there were 134 cotton mills in Scotland, and at this time the cotton manufacture was centred in Glasgow and the district around it. Out of the total number of mills in Scotland nearly 100 belonged to Glasgow. In 1838, there were upwards of 37,000 hand-loom weavers in the west of Scotland directly connected with cotton weaving.

According to a parliamentary return, there were 168 cotton factories in Scotland in 1850, and of these 94 were in Lanarkshire; in Renfrewshire, 51; in Ayrshire, 4; Dumbartonshire, 4; in Stirlingshire, 4; in Buteshire, 4; in Perthshire, 3; in Aberdeenshire, 2; and a few in other places. Thus Lanark and Renfrew had 145 cotton factories, leaving only 23 in all the other cotton manufacturing districts of the kingdom. These two counties had 1,385,238 spindles and 20,788 power-looms. The total number of persons in Scotland then employed in this branch of manufacture was 36,322.

In 1861, the number of cotton factories had decreased to 163, but the number of hands had increased and also the quantity of steam-power. In that year there were 1,915,398 spindles and 30,110 power-looms in operation, and 41,237 persons were employed. The American War, however, between 1861 and 1866 seriously disturbed the cotton trade, and many of those employed in it suffered severely both in England and Scotland, as this country was largely dependent for the supply of raw material upon the Southern States. Some of the cotton factories are very large, and in Glasgow several of them employ from 1500 to nearly 2000 hands.

In 1871, the number of persons employed in the cotton manufacture was about 50,000, and of this number over 30,000 were females. In 1891 the number of hands was about 47,000. The several branches of this manufacture are the following:​—1. Plain cotton goods, of which great quantities are produced. 2. Lace manufacture, in which 1,621 persons were employed, of whom 795 were females. 3. In embroidering muslin, 487 hands were engaged. 4. In the branches of calico printing, dyeing, and bleaching, 10,599 persons were employed, of whom 4,858 were females. 5. The manufacture of thread, which has been greatly developed.

In 1722 the manufacture of thread was introduced into Paisley; but it was on a small scale till the early part of this century, when cotton thread began to be largely manufactured, especially since about the middle of the century. Paisley is the chief centre of the thread manufacture. The thread works of Messrs. J. & P. Coats, Limited, occupy 40 acres of ground, and have been developed with remarkable skill, energy, and enterprise. All the appliances and machinery used in manufacturing the thread are of the most efficient description. There are six large boilers in a row at a short distance from each other, and the furnaces of these are fed with coal by a self-acting contrivance. The engine room is grand, with its powerful and beautiful engines, and the great motive wheel revolving at a surprising velocity. In a large one storey building the wood for making the spools or pirns is stored. The spools are manufactured thus:​—The wood is sawn into suitable pieces of about four feet in length, each of these is put through a number of machines, the first of which rounds the piece of wood, the second advances it another stage, and so on through the other machines till the spools are finished and ready for the thread. The raw cotton requires various preparatory processes, such as cleaning, combing, etc., then the prepared material is taken to a large mill of five or six storeys in height. When the steam is turned on, the material is worked through an elaborate combination of mechanism, the process of manufacture being advanced successively in each storey till the finished thread is turned out​—wound on the pirns and ready for use. A vast quantity of thread is produced in the works. The Company gives employment to over 5,000 hands,​—the greater number of whom are girls. There is a very complete set of fire brigade appliances which can be instantly put into operation in the event of a fire occurring in the works.

Messrs. Clark & Company’s thread works in Paisley are also most extensive, and occupy 50 acres of ground on the banks of the Cart. There are several large mills, and ten engines which represent a total of 6,000 horse power. They employ 500 men and 3,500 girls. In Glasgow 1,100 are employed in the thread manufacture. The total number of hands engaged in this branch of industry in Scotland exceeds 12,000.

IV. The manufacture of silk gauze was commenced at Paisley in 1760, and from that date till about 1785 the silk gauze weaving trade was exceedingly prosperous in Scotland. At the latter date, in Paisley and the surrounding villages, 5000 looms were engaged on silk fabrics, and they produced goods of the annual value of £350,000. Although this branch has passed through many fluctuations, the manufacture of silk goods is still carried on in Paisley and Glasgow. In 1871, the number of persons employed in this industry was 2440, of whom 1256 were females. In 1875, there were four silk factories in Scotland. In 1891 there were nearly 4000 hands employed in it, mostly females.

V. There are many mixed textile fabrics produced, such as cotton and silk, wool and silk, cotton mixed with flax, and cotton with jute, and so on through all the varieties of fancy and coloured goods, down to the varied kinds and qualities of the cheap shoddy and mungo.

VI. Floorcloth is manufactured on a large scale at Kirkcaldy. The manufacture of this class of goods has recently attained a high degree of elaboration in Scotland. Thirty years ago, the firm of Messrs. Nairn had gained a high reputation for their floorcloth. In 1871 about 250 persons were engaged in this manufacture, while in 1891 the number of persons employed was 1266.

In 1871, the entire number of persons employed in textile manufactures was nearly 200,000; and if we add those dependent upon them, the total number of persons directly dependent for their support on this department of factory labour would be about 350,000. In 1891 the number of hands was 205,550, of whom 133,217 were females.

The introduction of machinery and the power-loom, it is well known, entailed great and widespread suffering on the hand-loom weavers and those dependent upon them; and without dwelling upon this sad side of the subject, I may notice a few facts and circumstances connected with it. About the end of the eighteenth century and the early years of this century, the weavers in the west and south of Scotland were the best paid class of workers in the country. They had in general the character of being men of intelligence, and exercised considerable influence upon the public opinion of the country; many of them were keen and able politicians, notwithstanding the sneers of some of the Scotch judges of the period touching their intellectual capacities. They probably did more to advance political reform than has yet been recognised. But owing to the introduction of the power-loom, and various circumstances, from about the year 1816, their wages began and continued to fall; and before the second quarter of the century had run far they had fallen very low. When engaged in weaving certain qualities of cloth they could earn from 30 shillings to 32 shillings a week in 1806; in 1810 they were making 26 shillings a week; but in 1820 they had fallen to 10 shillings a week; and in 1830 to 5 shillings 6 pence a week. To relieve their distress and suffering emigration on a large scale was applied, and many of them were forced to leave the home of their fathers.

“At the present day it can only be said that a remnant of the great wreck continues to ply the ancient calling in the scattered villages of the west, where in early days the sound of the shuttle was heard all day long in almost every cottage. According to a rough census, made in 1872, of the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, and Ayr, there were then about 10,000 hand-loom weavers either at work in their own houses or in shops belonging to manufacturers; but they were a steadily declining remnant. In 1875, working upon Paisley shawls, they could earn from 4 shillings to 5 shillings per day, but at shirting and the common descriptions of work, which, however, are mostly left to women and boys, not more than 8 shillings a week could be earned, and that with the labour of twelve, fourteen, and sometimes even more, hours. Working practically beyond the range of factory inspectors’ supervision, the hand-loom weavers not only labour long and irregular hours, but children of tender years, taken in as apprentices, have to ply the shuttle for equally hurtful and unconscionable periods.”¹

¹ Notices of some of the Principal Manufactures of the West of Scotland, page 190. The above statement was written in 1875.

Thus the industrial revolution was not accomplished without incidentally causing much suffering; but there are a few other points which must be noticed before passing from this class of manufactories. Prior to the year 1834 children of all ages were employed in factories. But in the beginning of that year an act of parliament came into operation, which enacted that no person under eighteen years of age should be permitted to work in the night between half-past eight P.M. and half-past five A.M. in any factory in which steam or water power was used, except in lace factories. That no person under eighteen years of age should be employed more than twelve hours a day, nor more that sixty-nine in one week. That no child under nine years of age should be employed in factories, except in silk mills; and after the 1st of March, 1835, none should be employed under twelve years of age; and after the 1st of March, 1836, none under thirteen years of age. There are other important provisions in the interest of children in this act, such as those requiring that the younger children should be educated. The act, however, seems to have been unsatisfactory. Mr. Baines in his History of the Cotton Manufacture says: “All the inspectors declare that the clauses requiring the education of the younger children, and prohibiting those children from being worked more than 48 hours in the week​—eight hours a-day​—have only the effect of compelling the masters to discharge the children between nine and eleven years of age. If this act should continue in force, all children under twelve years of age would be discharged in March, 1835, and this would make it impossible in many cases to carry on the mills, as children above that age could not be had in sufficient numbers. The inspectors, therefore, state that the act must be amended in these respects, and there can be no doubt that this amendment will take place next session. It is found impossible to compel the education of the children, and the attempt to do it has only produced hardship to them and their parents, from the number who have lost their employment. The Commissioners had hoped that the manufacturers might obtain relays of children, each set working not more than eight hours a-day, whilst those above thirteen years of age worked twelve hours. But neither can the children be obtained, nor will the masters submit to the inconvenience caused by the change of hands.”¹

¹ History of the Cotton Manufacture, pages 479‒480.

By subsequent acts of Parliament the employment of children in factories has been entirely prohibited, and the hours of labour for adults has been shortened more than two hours per day in factories. Concerning the employment of children, the change which the factory acts have introduced was greatly needed, both on the grounds of humanity and considerations of physical vigour and health, as well as moral and mental education; for seventy-eight hours’ labour a-week for a child under ten years of age is nothing short of actual cruelty.

The operatives in textile factories were not highly paid for their labour in Scotland; and, although this is true generally, in the early stages of the cotton manufacture, and in certain branches, there were some exceptions. Glasgow may be taken as representing an average of the highest wages paid to workers in cotton factories. In 1833 the weekly wages of this class were as follows:​—1. Boys under eleven years of age, 1 shillings 11¾ pence; girls under this age, 1 shilling 10½ pence. 2. Boys from eleven years of age to sixteen, 4 shillings 7 pence; girls of the same age, 3 shillings 8¾ pence. 3. The wages of men ranged from 18 shillings to 19 shillings; and those of women about 6 shillings 8 pence, but some of those who worked on piece-work made high wages. Men at wheels, containing from 252 to 300 spindles, earned 4 shillings 6 pence a-day; women engaged as reelers and winders, from 1 shilling 4 pence to 1 shilling 2 pence a-day. Youths and girls from fourteen to seventeen years of age, employed in the preparing room, or as piercers to the spinners, earned 1 shilling 4 pence a-day; boys and girls from ten to fourteen years of age, employed in the same kind of work, made from 10 pence to 8 pence a-day; children under ten years of age earned from 5 pence to 4 pence a-day. Youths and girls at wheels of from 120 to 180 spindles made from 3 shillings to 2 shillings a-day.

In 1867 the weekly wages of the cotton operatives in Glasgow were these:​—Men, overlookers, 45 shillings; warpers, 22 shillings; drawers and twisters, 20 shillings; dressers, 33 shillings; sizers, 35 shillings Women, reelers and winders, 9 shillings to 10 shillings 6 pence; warpers, 14 shillings; weavers, taking charge of two or three looms, 11 shillings; of four looms, 15 shillings 6 pence. Girls, taking charge of one loom, 6 shillings. So much for textile manufactures.

Section VII.

Paper Manufacture.

In a preceding volume an account was given of the attempts made in the seventeenth century to establish the manufacture of paper in Scotland;¹ and I will narrate briefly the establishment and development of this manufacture through the eighteenth century onward to the present time. The appliances used by the early paper-makers were of the simplest kind in preparing the pulp and making the paper by the hand. The application of machinery to this manufacture is of comparatively recent date; and the process of preparing the rags and the pulp was a very slow one. The pulping engine was invented about the middle of the eighteenth century, and its introduction superseded the process of fermenting the rags and bruising them in a mortar.

¹ Mackintosh’s History of Civilisation in Scotland, Volume III., pages 317‒19.

The paper-making machine was invented about the end of the last century, and is one of the most ingenious contrivances employed in the arts. It has been brought to surprising perfection in the present century. Very complete paper-making machines have been made, in Edinburgh, by Mr. George Bertram, Sciennes, and Messrs. James Bertram & Son, Leith Walk. A machine, exhibited by Mr. George Bertram at the Exhibition of 1862 was much admired, as the most perfect paper-making machine which had, up to that time, been produced.

The chief centres of the paper manufacture are in the counties of Edinburgh, Lanark, and Aberdeen. In 1709 Mr. Anderson built a paper mill at Valleyfield, Penicuik, which is still in operation; and by gradual extensions it has become one of the largest in the county of Edinburgh. But the manufacture for a long time made little progress. In 1763 there were three paper mills in the vicinity of Edinburgh, and the quantity of paper then produced was 6400 reams a-year. In 1773 there were twelve paper mills in this district, and the annual production had risen to 100,000 reams. At this time a considerable quantity of printing paper was exported to London; but in the early stages of paper-making in Scotland the business was not very remunerative.

The Messrs. Alexander Cowan & Sons are amongst the oldest paper manufacturers in Scotland. They have three mills at Penicuik, in the county of Edinburgh, which are near each other, and worked as one establishment. The Valleyfield Mill, which is the central and the largest one, was begun, as already observed, by Mr. Anderson in 1709, and in 1779 Mr. Charles Cowan bought this mill. But in the years 1810 to 1814 it was used by the Government as a place of confinement for French prisoners of war. In 1803 this firm purchased a corn mill, which was converted into a paper mill, and it is now known as the Bank Mill; in 1815 they also bought a paper mill belonging to Mr. Nimmo of Edinburgh, in the same neighbourhood, which was called the Low Mill. Before the year 1815, the number of hands employed by the firm was about thirty, who worked by the hand process, and produced from two to three tons of paper a-week. Shortly after the close of the French war, they repurchased the Valleyfield Mill from the Government, fitted it up anew with the most improved appliances, and restarted it in 1821. The operations of the firm have been carried on with marked energy and judgment; and besides their three mills, they have an establishment at Musselburgh, in which the esparto used is reduced to pulp, and another one at Leith, in which the rags are sorted and cut.

The water-wheels and steam-engines employed in these mills are equal to about 200 horse-power. In 1870 they had five machines in operation, and were producing from 2000 to 3000 tons of paper annually, all of which were of the finer kinds of writing and printing papers.

In 1870, about 600 persons were employed in the various departments of the works, and upwards of £1200 a-month was paid in wages, at the following rates:​—Mechanics, 25 shillings a-week; millworkers, men and lads, 18 shillings to 19 shillings; women, from 8 shillings to 10 shillings. The mills were then under the Factory Acts. But in 1841, the following rules were enacted by the heads of the firm:​—“1. No child under thirteen years of age shall be employed. 2. No young persons shall be employed before they are able to read, write, and figure, and, in the case of girls, to sew. 3. Wives shall not be employed, as it is considered that they should be keepers at home, for the sake of their husbands and children.”

The most extensive manufacturers of writing paper in Scotland, and indeed in the world, are the Messrs. Alexander Pirie & Sons, Aberdeen. This great establishment was begun on a small scale about the middle of the eighteenth century; and the works have been gradually extended, chiefly in the present century. The works at Stoneywood now cover upwards of sixteen acres of ground; and the locality where they stand​—the south bank of the river Don​—is well adapted for this department of manufacture, as there is a plentiful supply of water, a prime requisite in the process of paper-making.

In these works there are in all six paper machines of great width; and these, along with the necessary washing and beating engines, as well as all the machinery required for the finishing processes, are driven by water and steam power combined, about 2000 horse-power being constantly required. Here, and in all the works of the firm, the best machinery, the most efficient appliances, and the most refined chemical processes, are brought into full operation. In many instances the proprietors have been the inventors of the most efficient appliances themselves. In short, this large manufactory has been developed with great judgment, energy, and surpassing skill; hence its success and world-wide reputation.

Some idea may be formed of the rapid development of these works from a comparison of the quantity of raw material used annually at different periods. In 1848, the quantity of rags used was from 600 to 700 tons yearly, but at that date the mills were improved, and the premises extended. So in 1859, the raw material annually used had reached 2500 tons; while in 1879, it had risen to 6000 tons annually. At the present time, upwards of 8000 tons of raw material is used annually; and the quantity of paper produced exceeds 6000 tons, or over 750,000 reams per annum.

Besides the extensive works at Stoneywood, the firm since 1857 have had mills at Woodside, in which the rags are sorted, classified, and then stored, and sent to Stoneywood works when required for the boiling process. Upwards of 200 persons are employed in the rag establishment at Woodside.

At the Union Works in Aberdeen, which the firm have long devoted to the manufacture of envelopes, there are over 700 hands employed. The rate of production reaches to about 13,000,000 envelopes per week, or over 2,000,000 a-day.

In consequence of the introduction, especially in recent years, of labour-saving machinery, although the output of the works has been nearly doubled, the amount of hand labour has somewhat decreased. The combined works of the firm still constantly employ upwards of 2500 hands.

The firm produces a great variety of fine writing papers, and also the best classes of printing papers. Besides these leading lines of high-class papers, they make many specialities. Their mills produce the widest range of qualities, from the hardest and best qualities of account book paper to the softest and most absorbent blotting papers. They also make various kinds of card-board, enamelled cards and papers. In a word, the papers of the firm are known and valued throughout the world.

There are other four paper mills in Aberdeenshire. The Muggiemoss Paper Mills, belonging to Messrs. Davidson & Company, which were established in 1796. These works have also been developed from a small beginning; and the firm, aided by its managers, have originated and adopted many improvements in the appliances. At these works various kinds of wrapping papers and paper bags are produced; and they also manufacture a special kind of roofing felt. The firm employs from 500 to 600 hands.

The Culter Paper Works stand on the banks of Culter Burn, in the valley of the Dee. In 1750 Bartholomew Smith erected a mill and commenced the manufacture of paper. He was succeeded by Richard Smith and Lewis Smith. For a long time the works were on a small scale, only six men were employed toward the end of the last century. In 1820 the works were acquired by Alexander Irvine, and carried on under the title of Irvine & Company till 1837, when the mills were purchased by Messrs. Arbuthnot & M‘Combie. In 1840, the machinery was driven by two large water wheels; and sixty hands were employed at the works. The papers then produced in the works were browns, cartridges, and all kinds of wrapping papers. In 1856 the Messrs. Pirie of Stoneywood purchased the mills; but, in 1865 they sold them to the Culter Mills Paper Company. The production was then about 15 tons of paper per week. Since then the works have been greatly extended, new machinery and improved appliances requisite for the various processes of the manufactures have been introduced; the weekly produce of paper is now over 60 tons, or 3,220 tons per annum. The motive power for the machinery is mainly supplied by steam engines, but also partly by water, which make a total of over 1000 horse power, There are two paper-making machines, each 72 inches wide, a number of cutting, burnishing, super-calendering, and folding machines, etc. The electric light is fitted into the principal rooms. The works are built of granite, and occupy a large space of ground. The railway siding runs into and through the mill, round the building, through the grass sheds and dust house, passing close to the steam boilers, and thus coal can be tipped from the trucks. The manufactures produced in the works consist of various styles of the finest writing papers, excellent printing papers, and a variety of other classes of papers. The products of the company have attained a high reputation in the markets of the world. About four hundred hands are employed in the works.

The Inverurie Paper mills were begun about sixty years ago by Mr. Tait, and are now carried on by his sons. They produce various kinds of printing papers, and a considerable quantity of paper-hangings.

Gordon’s Mills, Aberdeen, were commenced in 1888, and were recently acquired by the Donside Paper Company. In these works various qualities of printing papers are produced.

In 1870, there were fifty-seven paper mills in Scotland, of which twenty-two were in the county of Edinburgh, nine in Lanarkshire, and the rest distributed over eleven counties. There were then eighty paper-making machines employed in Scotland, and about 10,000 persons directly engaged in the manufacture. In 1888 there were sixty paper mills in Scotland, worked by fifty-six firms; and the number of paper-making machines employed had increased to 101. In 1891 there were 11,879 hands employed in the manufacture; while the number of paper-making machines had also increased.

In the development of paper manufacture, much difficulty has been experienced in finding the requisite raw material in sufficient quantity, and great ingenuity has been exerted in efforts to find suitable materials and substances to meet the requirements of manufacturers. Although many fibres, such as esparto grass, bamboo, jute, wood, sugar-cane, etc., have been successfully treated so as to suit for papers of an inferior description, nothing has as yet been discovered to supersede the use of linen and cotton rags for making the finer qualities of writing paper.

The manufacture of paper-hangings only commenced in Scotland at a comparatively recent period, and was conducted on a small scale. In 1870, there were six firms engaged in it, but only one of them had a large business; at that date there were about 500 persons employed in this branch of paper manufacture, but since then it has been further developed.

About 1857, Messrs. Wylie & Lochhead, a firm in Glasgow, began paper-staining on a small scale, and limited themselves to block printing; but after the abolition of the paper duty in 1861, they built a large factory at Whiteinch, and introduced cylinder printing machines. About 300 persons were employed, and 80,000 pieces of paper-hangings were produced every week. The more costly papers are produced by the block printing, and the cheaper varieties by the machines.

This firm have devoted special attention to the production of paper-hangings of the highest class, and they have carried the art of making gold, stamped, bronzed, and flocked papers to a high degree of perfection. The designing of paper-hangings affords ample scope for the exercise of artistic skill, and a large staff of designers and engravers are employed by Messrs. Wylie & Lochhead.¹

¹ Industries of Scotland, by D. Bremner.

Section VIII.

Printing, and Bookbinding.

In the preceding volumes, the introduction and progress of printing in Scotland was noticed;¹ and some notice of its modern development seems requisite. The quantity of printing executed in Scotland prior to the eighteenth century was not large, and consisted for the most part of ballads, poetry, pamphlets, sermons, and a few other works. The first work printed in Glasgow was the protestation of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and of the nobility, burghs, ministers, and commons, “subscribers of the Covenant, lately renewed, made in the High Kirk, and at the Market Cross of Glasgow, the 28th of November, 1638. Printed at Glasgow, by George Anderson, in the year of grace 1638.”² But Glasgow was among the first places which attained a reputation for printing in Scotland. The two brothers, Robert and Andrew Foulis, were cultured and accomplished men. Both were educated in the University of Glasgow; and in 1742, Robert commenced business as a printer and bookseller in Glasgow. In 1743, he was appointed printer to the University, and was accommodated with premises within the College buildings. Andrew joined the business; and they printed a series of classical books in a style far superior to any before executed in Scotland. They were not only the foremost printers of their day, but they also did much to promote the culture of painting and art.

¹ Mackintosh’s History of Civilisation in Scotland, Volume II., pages 299‒303; Volume III., page 363.

² Macgregor’s History of Glasgow, page 211.

In 1780, there were twenty-seven printing offices in Edinburgh. Although stereotyping was invented early in the eighteenth century, by William Ged, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, and practised by him in 1730, it was long before this art was brought into use in printing establishments. In the present century the process has been brought to great perfection, and has for many years been universally practised. In short, it may be truly said that the great development of the modern newspaper press, and the incessantly increasing necessity for expeditious work, has tended greatly to the invention of new machinery, and the improvement of the whole apparatus and appliances now in operation in large printing establishments.

It was in connection with newspapers that the printing machines were first actually worked, and steam power applied to printing. After a long series of trials and experiments, and the exercise of much ingenuity, the printing machines were brought to a high degree of efficiency. They began to be used in Britain in the first quarter of this century, and were perfected by degrees. The London Times was first printed by a machine on the 28th of November, 1814. There are now various kinds of machines used for printing newspapers from stereotyped plates placed on revolving cylinders, which can print many thousands of copies per hour. The “Victory” printing machine, used in many large newspaper establishments, is an admirably perfect piece of mechanism. This machine, on being set in motion, feeds itself from a large roll of paper, and throws off the printed copies at a surprisingly rapid rate, neatly folded and ready to be despatched.

The stereotyping process itself has been much improved and perfected during the past forty years. Indeed, it has become so indispensable that the daily newspapers circulated throughout the country could not be produced without its aid. In short, there has been a complete revolution in the modes of printing within the past hundred years.

In all the large printing establishments in Scotland machinery and steam-power are employed. Many kinds of printing machines are now used, each specially adapted for different kinds and classes of work. In some establishments all kinds of printing is executed; others limit themselves chiefly to special lines, such as book-printing; while some carry on both printing and lithography, most of the book-printing firms execute stereotyping. Edinburgh is the chief centre of the book-printing trade in Scotland, though this branch is carried on more or less in all the chief towns of the country.

A large quantity of excellent printing is annually executed in Scotland. In illustrated works ample scope is afforded for the display of taste and artistic skill, and good specimens of this branch of work have been produced in this country.

According to the census of 1871, there were 5609 printers in Scotland. But including all the branches of business directly connected with the printing trade, there were upwards of 16,000 persons employed. In 1891, 12,329 persons were so employed.

In the bookbinding trade machines are used for performing a great number of operations. Many attempts have been made to supersede hand-labour in folding by machines, and in the common kinds of work such machines are used. In every large bookbinding establishment the division of labour is carried out to the minutest particular: for instance, the case-makers are divided into six or eight sections, each performing a special part of the work, and before a book is bound it passes through eighteen or twenty different hands.

This department of work also affords considerable scope for the exercise of taste and skill in selecting the various colours of cloth, forming devices for the boards, and details of ornamental work. The styles of binding are endless, and many beautiful specimens are produced in Scotland. In 1871, there were 3113 persons employed in this branch of industry, of whom 1820 were females. In 1891, there were 4,405 hands employed in it, of whom 2,888 were females.

Section IX.

Leather, India-Rubber, and Shoe Manufactures.

In a preceding volume the tanning of leather was noticed, and the shoemaking trade was frequently mentioned;¹ but the manufactures in india-rubber are a more modern development, nevertheless, it seems requisite to give some account of them.

¹ Mackintosh’s History of Civilisation in Scotland, Volume I., pages 241, 400, Volume II., page 293; Volume III., pages 287, 305.

The manufacture of leather was long subjected to a duty, which was finally repealed in 1830. In the latter half of the last century there was a considerable leather trade in Scotland; and until about twenty-five years ago the manufacture of leather was increasing, but since the trade has not been so prosperous. The best and most durable kinds of boot and shoe leather were not at any time produced in Scotland; the quality of this class of Scotch leather is inferior to both the English and the French. In 1871, there were about 120 tanneries; and at this time there were 2739 persons employed in connection with the leather manufacture in Scotland. In 1891, about 3000 hands were employed in it.

Within a period of forty years the boot and shoe making trade has undergone a complete revolution; before 1859, boots and shoes were made by the hand, and with few exceptions they were all sewed. But since then machinery has been largely applied to the manufacture of boots and shoes, and sewing by the hand has been almost superseded by riveting machines and sewing machines. One result of the application of machinery has been the establishment of large manufactories of boots and shoes. One of these in Glasgow, in 1870, employed 2000 hands; and in other large towns many shoe factories have been started within the last twenty-five years. The articles produced in these factories are much inferior, both in quality of material and in workmanship, to those which were formerly made by the hand; but the factory article has the recommendation of cheapness, and this is what the majority of dealers and customers are always in quest of.

Gutta-percha in its raw state is a substance extracted from certain trees which grow in Asia, and the manufacture of it in this country is of recent date. From about 1858 onward, it was largely used in making boots and shoes in Scotland: the soles were of gutta-percha and the uppers of leather. It has been applied to many other purposes; and as a non-conductor of electricity it has become an invaluable aid in constructing the submarine telegraph.

In 1871, the number of persons employed in making boots and shoes was 37,587, and of this number 13,426 were females, but 12,207 of the latter were shoemakers’ wives who worked at the trade.

The manufactures in india-rubber are of comparatively recent origin, and up till about 1820, it was only used for rubbing out pencil marks. The raw material of caoutchouc, or india-rubber, is a resinous substance, which exudes by incisions from trees that grow in Brazil, in Cayenne, and Quito; and it was first brought to Europe (France) about the year 1734. The first notice of it in Britain occurs in a publication of Dr. Priestley’s in 1770. In 1819, Mr. Hancock began his experiments on india-rubber, and the following year he obtained a patent for india-rubber braces, garters, bands, etc. He continued his operations, and before 1847, he had obtained fourteen patents for his special india-rubber goods.

In 1820, Mr. Macintosh, of Glasgow, began to make experiments with india-rubber; and in 1823, he established a work in Glasgow for waterproof articles. In 1824, he took out a patent for waterproofing cloth, which was afterwards distinguished by his name. This cloth was made by cementing two folds together by the solution, and coats made of it soon became well known. He formed a partnership in Manchester, and commenced to manufacture waterproof goods on a large scale, and the firm became widely known. Mr. Hancock had worked some of his inventions in connection with Mr. Macintosh, and finally entered the firm, which then assumed the title of Messrs. Hancock & Macintosh.

After the manufacture of useful india-rubber goods was demonstrated by the efforts, talents, and enterprise of the two gentlemen mentioned above, there was a wild rush of attempts at india-rubber manufactures. “Mechanicians hailed the rubber as a sort of missing link in their code of materials for machine making; and such was the rage for introducing it, that it was frequently found in most unsuitable positions.” It is now used in connection with many machines; indeed, the purposes to which it is applied, as well as the different kinds of goods and articles manufactured from it, are exceedingly numerous and varied, and a complete detail of them would be out of the question​—only a few can be mentioned.

Boots and shoes of all sizes have long been manufactured from india-rubber. One of the earliest specimens of this class of goods was known under the name of “goloshes,” which were worn as overshoes, and were in great vogue thirty years ago. About that time there was an india-rubber manufactory in Edinburgh which could turn out 7000 pairs of boots and shoes a-day, or over 2,000,000 pairs a-year.¹ Coats, leggings, cushions, bags, and so on were at the same period produced in endless variety. A little later, combs, jewellery, and a long series of miscellaneous articles were produced from india-rubber.

¹ In recent years this class of boots and shoes have fallen out of fashion.

The vulcanite and black jet jewellery was popular twenty years ago, and immense quantities of it were produced. At present a large business is done in india-rubber and vulcanised goods in Scotland.

Section X.

Sugar Refining, Brewing, and Distilling.

I. Sugar works were established in Scotland in 1667.¹ In 1715, the sugar-refining trade was carried on in Glasgow and Leith; and at this date it was put under the English excise laws. Before the end of the eighteenth century Greenock had become the chief seat of the sugar-refining trade in Scotland. The first sugar refinery in Greenock was commenced in 1765, by a company of West Indian merchants; this refinery was in operation in 1870. The second refinery in the town was begun in 1787; it started with two pans, but the number was subsequently increased. The third sugar refinery was built in 1800; the fourth was erected in 1809; the fifth in 1812; and the sixth in 1826. The sugar refining trade continued to increase in Greenock, and more refineries were erected. In 1869, there were fourteen sugar refineries in this enterprising town; and two of the largest of these turned out about 14,000 tons of sugar a week.

¹ Mackintosh’s History of Civilisation, Volume III., page 330.

In 1869, there were twenty sugar refineries in Scotland, eighteen of which were on the Clyde and two at Leith. It thus appears that nearly all the sugar refining in Scotland was centred on the Clyde. A large amount of shipping was employed in the sugar trade. In 1868, 416 vessels arrived in the Clyde, of about 140,000 tons, and 400 of these discharged their cargoes at Greenock. The raw sugar imported into the Clyde in 1858 was 56,769 tons, and 15,000 tons of molasses; in 1861, the raw sugar imported was 88,694 tons, and molasses 18,229 tons; and in 1867, the sugar was 178,000 tons, and 2900 tons of molasses. But, since the duty on sugar was abolished, the annual consumption has increased; a larger quantity of it is used in making preserved fruits of every kind.

In the sugar-refining process very heavy machinery and costly appliances are required, such as blowing-up machinery, filtering apparatus, vacuum pans and vacuum pumps, heaters and stirring apparatus, charcoal kilns, centrifugals, and the like. But the machinery and apparatus which are used in sugar-making in the countries where the sugar-cane itself grows are of a much heavier description; indeed the weight, size, and power of the machinery, pans and batteries, engines and varied appliances, in operation in the sugar mills are very great. In Glasgow there are a number of iron-founding and engineering firms who devote special attention to the production of sugar-making machinery, and very large consignments are annually exported to the sugar plantations. It has been calculated that in the years 1872 to 1876 the machinery of this kind exported direct from the Clyde to the British Colonies and other sugar-growing countries was valued at upwards of £400,000 per annum.

In 1871, there were about 1000 persons employed as sugar refiners in Scotland. In 1891 there were 1187 sugar refiners.

II.​—In the preceding volumes I have shown that brewing was from an early period a staple branch of the domestic economy of the nation, and noticed many of the regulations, both national and local, relating to the making and sale of malt, ale, and whisky; so any lengthy detail is superfluous. It is well known that the increased tax on malt imposed by the Government in the eighteenth century, was with difficulty enforced even among the licensed brewers and malt sellers, and that smuggling and illicit distilling prevailed to a large extent until the first quarter of this century.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century considerable quantities of ale and beer were exported to the Continent; and from then onward the export trade has continued to extend. In the last century brewers were comparatively more numerous than now, and the concentration of production in certain localities, and in large establishments, which is a characteristic of the period, also took place in the brewing and distilling trade. In 1835, there were 640 licensed brewers of beer in Scotland; but in 1863, there were only 225; and in 1866, 217. In 1836, the brewers consumed 1,137,176 bushels of malt; in 1863, 1,780,919 bushels; and in 1866, 2,499,019 bushels. The exports of ale and beer in 1863 amounted to 47,415 barrels, the declared value of which was £172,140; in 1866, the quantity exported was 61,723 barrels, valued at £230,109. Amongst the places to which this beer was sent were​—Queensland, New South Wales, East Indies, West Indies, North America, and other quarters of the globe.

Recently, various kinds of cheap beverages have been brought into use, such as aerated waters, of which very large quantities are consumed.

III.​—Concerning whisky, the Government of Scotland began to legislate about its use and sale in the sixteenth century; and our Governments have continued to legislate upon it as they began​—on inconsistent and often unjust lines, which may be partly accounted for on the ground that for centuries it has been made a source of an enormous revenue. This, however, is not the place to discuss the drink traffic laws, and I proceed to other sides of the subject.

In 1708, 50,844 gallons of spirits were produced in Scotland; and in 1756, there were 433,811 gallons; but at this time the duty was increased, which caused a fall off in the production. Shortly after a demand for Scotch spirits arose in England, and large quantities were sent across the border. An import duty of 2 shillings 6 pence a gallon was imposed in England, which was quickly followed by a system of smuggling; and it was recorded that in 1787 upwards of 300,000 gallons of whisky was conveyed across the border without the cognisance of the Excise. A new mode of charging the duty on spirits was tried in 1786​—a license duty calculated upon the capacity of the stills; but the distillers soon altered the form of the stills, and increased the rate of production. When the Government discovered this, the amount of the license was raised year by year till, in 1798, it amounted to £64 16 shillings 4 pence per gallon of still capacity in the Lowlands, and to £3 per gallon in the Highlands. The mode of charging the duty was again changed, and from the beginning of the year 1799 a duty of 4 shillings 10¼ pence was put on each gallon of spirits produced for home consumption. At this time there were 87 licensed distillers in Scotland; but they did not approve of the change, and many of them gave up business, so the annual amount of the duty fell off for a year or two. In 1802, however, the Government reduced the duty to 3 shillings 10½ pence per gallon; and in 1803, there were 88 distillers who paid a duty of £2,022,409. The next year the duty was raised, and the number of distillers decreased till, in 1813, there was only 24. At this time the duty per gallon was 9 shillings 4¼ pence. In 1823, the duty was lowered to 2 shillings 4¾ pence per gallon; and then the number of distillers greatly increased, and the revenue rose accordingly. In 1833, the rate of duty was 3 shillings 4 pence a gallon, and there were then 243 distillers, who paid duty to the amount of £5,988,556.

In 1840, the duty was 3 shillings 8 pence, the number of distillers 205, and the quantity of whisky produced this year was 9,032,353 gallons. The same year, the quantity of spirits charged with duty as consumed in Scotland was 6,007,631 gallons. In 1855, the quantity of whisky produced was 11,283,636 gallons. In 1867, there were 111 distillers in Scotland, and the quantity of whisky produced was 10,813,996 gallons. The same year the quantity of spirits charged with duty as consumed in Scotland was 4,983,009 gallons.

In 1871, the number of persons employed as brewers, maltmen, and distillers in Scotland was 2869​—a very small number of hands compared with the enormous overturn of capital, plant and stock, employed in the business. In 1891 the number of persons employed was 4343.

Concerning distilling apparatus, it may be of interest to state that, in 1862, Mr. George Russell, of Glasgow, patented an apparatus for distilling fresh water on board ship at sea. This apparatus and others recently constructed have been very effective in producing fresh water at sea, which during long voyages is exceedingly useful.

Section XI.

Miscellaneous Manufactures.

The manufacture of soap was commenced in Scotland about the middle of the seventeenth century, and it has been carried on in Glasgow and other towns for upwards of two centuries; but great improvements have been made in the processes of this manufacture since the later part of the last century. It was shown in a preceding chapter of this volume, that the science of chemistry was ably taught by Cullen and Black, in Glasgow and Edinburgh, from the middle of the last century onward; and the results of this soon began to appear in the improvement of those useful arts and manufactures in which the application of efficient apparatus and appliances to the varied processes so much depends on a thorough knowledge of chemical science. Not only have the processes of the then existing arts and industries been greatly improved, but new arts and manufactures have been created, and numerous varieties of articles and goods have been manufactured in millions, tens of millions, and thousands of millions, from substances, the very names of which were unknown in Britain a hundred years ago, such as india-rubber and gutta-percha. The whole class of what may be termed the chemical arts have been advanced amazingly in the present century.

I.—The alkali works at St. Rollox, in Glasgow, belonging to Messrs. Tennant & Company, were begun about the end of the last century; and at first they only occupied about three acres of ground, but they have been rapidly extended. In 1875, the works covered fifty acres, and eighty acres more were occupied with deposits, etc.; and 1200 men were employed in the establishment. The original leaden chambers were 6 to 8 feet square. The present chambers are 80 to 200 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 21 feet high, with a total capacity of about 1,500,000 cubic feet. The sulphuric acid for sale is rectified in glass retorts, but for the most part in two platinum stills, which are about 3 feet in diameter, and worth £2300 each, and rectify 13 tons per day. The plant, including the branch works of the Company at Hebburn, Newcastle, can produce 20,000 tons of bleaching powder, besides all the collateral and subsidiary products. The total raw material consumed annually at St. Rollox, amounts to about 80,000 tons. In addition to the regular manufactures, there are numerous other operations carried on in the works. Among these there are gas and brick making, and iron casting, the foundry being able of casting 300 tons a-week. Employment is also given to coopers, joiners, cart and waggon wrights, blacksmiths, tinsmiths, plumbers, engineers, and other mechanics. For the different operations 110,000 tons of coal are consumed per annum, and the numerous furnaces are in connection with 22 chimneys, ranging from 60 to 455½ feet high. The chief chimney, both from its magnitude and from its elevated position, is seen for many miles round Glasgow.

The products of the works are soda-ash, soda-crystals, caustic soda, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, bleaching powder, soap, recovered sulphur, and recovered carbonate and peroxide of manganese.¹ In 1891, there were 2,674 persons engaged in alkali manufacture, of whom 429 were females.

¹ Notices of some of the Principal Manufactures of the West of Scotland, pages 222‒224.

There are several soap-works in Glasgow which produce the common kinds of soap, and also a variety of fancy soaps and blue-mottled soap. At the works of Kinning Park, Glasgow, special soaps are made for calico-printers, Turkey-red dyers, tweed and woollen finishers, scourers, bleachers, dyers, and for many other purposes. There are soap-works in other towns throughout the country. Soap is largely manufactured in Aberdeen, in which there are two soap-works. The works of Messrs. Ogston & Sons are extensive, and produce a large quantity of soap.

In 1871, the number of persons employed in the manufacture of soap in Scotland was 434, of whom 32 were females. Down to 1833, a duty was charged on hard soap. In 1891 there were about 600 employed in this manufacture.

II.​—There are extensive alum-works in Glasgow, and in the neighbourhood of Paisley. Near both of these places there is found in connection with the coal a black slaty rock or shale which contains bituminous matter and iron pyrites spread through it; and this shale is largely used in the manufacture of alum. Alum itself is largely used in calico-printing and dyeing, in the tanning of leather, in the finishing of paper, and for many other purposes.

III.​—The manufacture of mineral oils was started in Scotland in 1851, by the late Dr. Young, of Durris, who, in company with Mr. Meldrum and Mr. Binney, erected paraffin oil works near Bathgate. Afterwards a number of mineral oil works were started. Dr. Young formed a new company under the title of Young’s Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Company, which is still carried on. In 1871, there were about 3000 persons employed in the Scotch mineral oil works. In recent years the mineral oil trade has been in a depressed state, and in 1891, the number of hands employed in it were 2,474.

IV.​—The preparation of artificial manures is carried on to a considerable extent in Scotland; and also the manufacture of several kinds of food for animals.

V.​—The manufacture of combs is carried on to a considerable extent. Aberdeen is the chief seat of this industry, in which there are two comb works.

In 1830 Mr. John Stewart and Mr. Joseph Rowell commenced to manufacture combs in Mealmarket Lane, Aberdeen, under the name of Stewart, Rowell & Company. Both men had excellent business abilities, and their united efforts led to signal success. In 1835 the firm removed to larger premises in Hutcheon Street, where the works were admirably managed, and the business developed with rare commercial tact, energy, and enterprise. This firm by the introduction of machinery succeeded in producing an unprecedented quantity of goods at prices which soon commanded the markets of the world. From time to time the works have been extended, and now occupy a large space of ground. Many different appliances and machines are used in preparing the materials, and in the various operations of making and finishing the numerous varieties of goods produced. These operations all proceed on a systematic method, and evince a fine combination of mechanism.

The goods manufactured in the works consist of every variety of combs, of which great quantities are produced; and a number of other useful and fancy articles. The firm employs about 850 hands. John Stewart died on the 25th of January, 1887, and was succeeded by his eldest son, David, the present head of the firm, and ex-Lord Provost of Aberdeen.

In 1871, the number of persons employed in the manufacture of combs in Scotland was 1061, of whom 199 were females. In 1891 there were 1150 hands employed in this industry.

Concerning the important industry of the fisheries, in 1871 there were 26,267 fishermen and 1029 fisherwomen in Scotland. In 1891 there were over 30,000 persons employed in fishing.

In conclusion, the rise and progress of the coal and iron mining were narrated; the erection of ironworks and the development of iron manufactures were explained. An account was then given of the improvement of the means of communication. The progress of shipping and shipbuilding was indicated; the introduction of steam vessels, the change from wood to iron and steel shipbuilding, were explained. The manufacture of glass and the erection of earthenware works were noticed. The development of the several branches of textile manufactures were treated at length. The erection of paper works and the development of paper manufactures were described; and the progress of printing through the introduction of steam-power, machinery, and stereotyping was explained. The leather trade, and the introduction of machinery in boot and shoe making were noticed; the origin and development of several new manufactures were observed. Sugar-refining, brewing, and distilling were treated; and various chemical manufactures were briefly touched on.