Part 9 — INDEX

Abgeordnetenhaus. See Prussia and Austria. Administration, development in Great Britain, 176-179; present system, 180-191; development of Prussian system, 265-273; in France under Old Régime, 341-342; during Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, 342-343; present system, 345-351; in Italy, 383-385; in Austria, 485-488; in Hungary, 506-507; in Holland, 532-533; in Belgium, 550-551; in Denmark, 569; in Norway, 588; in Sweden, 601; in Spain, 627-628; in Portugal, 638-639, 646. Alsace-Lorraine, original organization, 282; the Landesausschuss, 283; movement for autonomy, 284; bill of 1910, 285; present governmental system, 286-287. Ausgleich. See Austria-Hungary. Austria:— —Abgeordnetenhaus, composition, 466; electoral system to 1873, 466-467; Taaffe bill of 1893, 467-468; electoral law of 1896, 468; electoral law of 1907, 469-471; electoral qualifications and procedure, 471-472; sessions and procedure, 472-473; powers, 473-474. —Administration, of province, 485-487; of commune, 487-488. —Amendment, of constitution, 461. —Ausgleich, established, 458-459; and political parties, 475-476; nature, 509. —Babenbergs, 442. —Badeni, electoral bill, 468; ministry, 479. —Beck, carries electoral reform, 469-470. —Bienerth, ministry, 482. —Bohemia, language question in, 480. —Charles V., 443. —Christian Socialist Party, 483. —Citizens, rights of, 462. —Civil list, 464. —Commune, organization, 487-488. —Constitution, promulgated in 1848, 454; abrogated, 455; experiments of 1860-1861, 456-457; texts, 460; style of government, 460-461; amendment, 461. —Courts, ordinary, 483-484; administrative, 484-485. —Crown. See Emperor. —Diet, provision for in constitution of 1848, 454. —Diploma of 1860, 456. —Elections, original system, 466; law of 1873, 467; Taaffe bill of 1893, 467-468; law of 1896, 468; law of 1907, 469-471; qualifications and procedure, 471-472; of 1901, 481; of 1907, 481-482; of 1911, 482-483. —Emperor, status, 463; powers, 464; relation with ministries, 464. —Franchise, law of 1873, 467; Taaffe bill of 1893, 467-468; law of 1896, 468; law of 1907, 469-471; present system, 471-472. —Francis I., proclaimed emperor of Austria, 445. —Francis Joseph I., accession, 455; constitutional projects, 456-457; and Compromise of 1867, 459; encourages electoral reform, 469. —Gautsch, promises electoral reform, 469; ministries, 480-481. —German Liberal Party, rise, 476; rule, 476-477; in the opposition, 477-478; return to power, 478-479. —Germans, in Empire, 475. —Hapsburgs, 442. —Herrenhaus, composition, 465; organization and powers, 466; sessions and procedure, 472-473. —House of Lords. See Herrenhaus. —House of Representatives. See Abgeordnetenhaus. —Hungary, establishment of power in, 443; encroachment in, 449-450; suppression of revolution in, 455-456; constitutional experiments with, 457-458; Ausgleich established, 458-459. —Italians, in Empire, 475. —Joseph II., reforms, 444. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Karlowitz, Peace of, 443, 448. —Körber, ministry, 480-481. —Landesausschuss, 485. —Landtag, of province, 485-487. —Maria Theresa, development of autocracy under, 444. —Metternich, policies, 450-451; combats liberalism, 452; fall, 453. —Ministry, composition, 464; responsibility, 464-465. —Parliament, composition, 465-466; electoral system, 466-472; sessions and procedure, 472-473; powers, 473-474. —Parliamentarism, nature of, 464-465; nadir of, 480-481. —Parties, centralism and federalism, 475-476; rule of German Liberals, 476-477; during Taaffe ministry, 477-478; return of German Liberals to power, 478-479; and parliamentary deadlock, 480-481; and elections of 1907 and 1911, 481-483. —Patent of 1861, 457. —Plural Vote, under law of 1896, 468. —Pragmatic Sanction, promulgated, 499. —Province, executive officials, 485; Landtag, 485-487. —Race, political significance of, 470, 474-475, 479-480. —Reichsgericht, 484. —Reichsrath. See Herrenhaus and Abgeordnetenhaus. —Revolution of 1848, constitutionalism established, 454; reaction, 455-456. —Russia, intervenes in Austria, 455. —Slavs, in Empire, 475. —Social Democratic Party, demands for electoral reform, 469-470; victory in 1911, 483. —Succession, rules of, 449, 463. —Taaffe, electoral bill of 1893, 467-468; ministry, 477-478. —Universal Suffrage Law, adoption, 469-470; racial and geographical distribution of seats, 470; electoral qualifications and procedure, 471-472. —Vienna, Congress of, rôle of Austria in, 450. —Vorsteher, 487. Austria-Hungary (see also Austria and Hungary):— —Ausgleich established, 458-459; nature, 509. —Bosnia, annexation, 514; constitution, 515; governmental system, 515-516; electoral arrangements, 516. —Contributions. See Finances. —Delegations, composition and sessions, 513; powers, 513-514. —Emperor, status, 510. —Finance, ministry of, 511; arrangements concerning, 512. —Foreign Affairs, ministry of, 510. —Herzegovina, annexation, 514; constitution, 515; government and electoral system, 515-516. —King. See Emperor. —Ministry, of foreign affairs, 510; of war, 511; of finance, 511. —War, ministry of, 511.

Baden, granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 279. Bavaria, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 275-276. Belgium:— —Administration, organization of province, 550-551; organization of commune, 551. —Amendment, process, 535. —Arrondissement, electoral unit, 543-545; judicial unit, 549. —Austrian Netherlands, annexed to France, 517-518; incorporated in United Netherlands, 519. —Catholic Party, and electoral reform, 540-541; and proportional representation, 542-543; and elections of 1906-1910, 545-546; triumph in 1912, 546-547. —Commune, organization, 551. —Conservative Party, and electoral reform, 540-541. —Constitution, of 1815, 519-520; of 1831 promulgated, 534; democratic character, 534-535; amendment, 535. —Council, of province, 550. —Court of Cassation, 549. —Courts, organization and functions, 549-550. —Crown, status and privileges, 536; relation with ministry, 536-537; powers, 537-538. —Elections, earlier arrangements, 539-540; law of 1893, 540-541; franchise to-day, 541-542; adoption of proportional representation, 543-545; of 1906-1910, 545-546; of 1912, 546-547. —Franchise, prior to 1893, 539-540; law of 1893, 540-541; system to-day, 541-542; demand for further reform, 547-548. —Holland, separation from, 520-521. —House of Representatives, composition, 539; earlier electoral arrangements, 539-540; electoral law of 1893, 540-541; franchise to-day, 541-542; organization and procedure, 548-549. —Independence, declared, 520; recognized, 521. —Jury, use of, 550. —Leopold I., crowned king, 521. —Liberal Party, and electoral reform, 540-541; favors proportional representation, 543; opposition to plural vote, 547. —Ministry, composition, 536; responsibility, 536-537. —Parliament, composition and election of senators, 538-539; composition of House of Representatives, 539; electoral system, 539-542; proportional representation, 543-545; organization and procedure of chambers, 548-549. —Parliamentarism, 536-537. —Plural Vote, 541-542; opposition of Liberals and Socialists, 547-548; in province, 551. —Proportional Representation, adopted, 543; operation, 543-545. —Province, organization, 550-551. —Revolution of 1830, 520-521. —Senate, composition and election, 538; qualifications, 539; organization, and procedure, 548-549. —Socialists, lead movement for electoral reform, 540-541; favor proportional representation, 543; opposition to plural vote, 547-548. Bismark, Otto von, and establishment of German Empire, 199-201; attitude toward socialism, 231; reform of Prussian local government, 266-267. Bosnia. See Austria-Hungary. Bundesrath. See Germany and Switzerland.

Cabinet. See England. Canton, of France, 343, 348; of Switzerland, 409-422. Chamber of Deputies. See France, Italy, Hungary. Civil List, in Great Britain, 51-52; of king of Prussia, 253; of king of Italy, 368. Committees, in English Parliament, 123-137; in Bundesrath, 220; in Reichstag, 226; in Prussian Landtag, 264; in French Parliament, 325-327. Commune, in Prussia, 272-273; antiquity in France, 348; organization, 344-351; in Italy, 385; in Switzerland, 422; in Austria, 487-488; in Holland, 533; in Belgium, 551; in Norway, 588; in Spain, 627; in Portugal, 638-639. Congress. See Portugal. Congress of Deputies. See Spain. Constitution, development of English, 2-41; nature of English, 41-47; of German Confederation of 1815, 194-196; of German Empire, 202-204; of Prussia, 250-252; succession in France from 1791, 290-300; of Third Republic, 304-306; succession in Italy, 354-361; of Italy to-day, 360-367; of Switzerland, 410-416, 431-432; of Austria, 456-461; of Hungary, 446-448, 489-490; of Holland, 519-523; of Belgium, 534-535; of Denmark, 557-559; of Norway, 574, 578-579; of Sweden, 589; succession in Spain, 604-608; of Spain to-day, 611-612; of Portuguese republic, 642-643. Cortes. See Spain and Portugal. County, English, 171-184. Courts, in England, 171-175; in Germany, 243-244; in France, 337-341; in Italy, 381-383; in Austria, 483-485; in Holland, 531-532; in Belgium, 549-550; in Denmark, 568-569; in Norway, 587-588; in Spain, 626-627; in Portugal, 638, 646. Croatia, government, 507-508. Crown, in Great Britain, 48-59; in German Empire, 210-214; in Prussia, 252; in Italy, 368-370; in Austria, 463-464; in Hungary, 491; in Holland, 523-525; in Denmark, 554-561; in Norway, 578-585; in Sweden, 570-571, 590-591; in Spain, 613-615; in Portugal, 635-636.

Delegations. See Austria-Hungary. Denmark:— —Administration, 569. —Christensen, ministry, 566-567. —Christian VIII., and reform, 556-567. —Christian IX., yields to parliamentary principle, 562. —Conservative Party, resists parliamentary principle, 560-562; dominance, 565-566. —Constitution, of 1848, 557; of 1849 promulgated, 557; revised in 1866, 558-559; process of amendment, 559. —Courts, general principles, 568; organization, 568-569; act of 1908, 569. —Crown, development, 554-555; opposition to reform, 556; status, 559; powers, 560; relations with ministry, 560-561. —Diet, of provinces, 556. —Elections, present system, 563; projected reform, 564; of 1906, 567; of 1910, 567-568. —Estrup, ministry, 561-562, 565-566. —Franchise, present system, 563; movement for reform, 564. —Frederick VI., creates diets, 556. —Folkething, composition, 563; elections, 563-564; sessions and powers, 564-565. —Höjesteret, 568. —Holstein, 558. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Kalmar, union of, 553. —Kiel, treaty of, 554. —King. See Crown. —Kongelov, 555, 557. —Landsthing, composition, 562; qualifications, 563; sessions and powers, 564-565. —Lauenburg, 558. —Liberal Party, pressure for parliamentary system, 560-562; advent to power, 566. —Malmö, treaty of, 553. —Ministry, composition, 560-561; responsibility, 561-562; of Estrup, 561-562, 565-566; recent instability, 567-568. —Norway, united with, 553; separated from, 554. —Parliament. See Rigsdag. —Parliamentarism, 560-562. —Parties, rise, 565; during Estrup's ministry, 565-566; advent of Liberals to power, 566; since 1903, 566-568. —Proportional Representation, in election of senators, 563. —Radical Party, 567-568. —Revolution of 1660, 554-555. —Rigsdag, composition, 562-563; electoral system, 563-564; sessions and power, 564-565. —Rigsrad, 554. —Schleswig, 558. —Social Democratic Party, 567-568.

Elections, of British House of Commons, 92-96; of Reichstag, 224-225; of Prussian Abgeordnetenhaus, 258-263; under Revolutionary and Napoleonic constitutions, 293-294; present system in France, 318-322; in Italy, 376-378, 400-402; in Switzerland, 423, 426-428, 435-437; in Austria, 466-483; in Holland, 526-530; in Belgium, 539-547; in Denmark, 563-568; in Norway, 581-582, 587; in Sweden, 592-596, 600; in Spain, 617-618, 624-625; in Portugal, 633-642. England:— —Act of Settlement (1701), 49. —Administration. See Local Government. —Admiralty Board, 62. —Asquith, H., resolutions for reform of Lords, 108. —Attainder, 130. —Bill of Rights, 32. —Borough, in fifteenth century, 23; franchise before 1832, 79; franchise extended in 1832 and 1867, 82-84; redistribution of parliamentary seats, 85; organization before 1832, 177-178; reform by Municipal Corporations Act, 178; kinds, 187; authorities, 188; council and its functions, 189. —Budget, preparation, 136. —Cabinet, origins, 37-38; relations with Privy Council, 60; relations with ministry, 61; composition, 64; size, 65; selection of premier, 66; selection of other members, 67-68; political solidarity, 69; responsibility, 70; proceedings, 71-73; central position, 74. —Campbell-Bannerman, Liberal leader, 154; premier, 157. —Chamberlain, Joseph, and the Liberal Unionists, 151; tariff reform programme, 155. —Chancery, Court of, 17, 174. —Charles I., parliaments of, 28. —Charles II., restoration, 31; rise of cabinet, 37. —Chartists, 82-83. —Civil List, 51-52. —Committees, kinds, 123; of whole, 123; select and sessional, 124; standing, 124-125; procedure on public bills, 133-134; on money bills, 135-136; on private bills, 137. —Common Law, 167-168. —Common Pleas, Court of, 17, 174. —Commonwealth, 29. —Commune Concilium, 7. —Conservative Party, origin of name, 147; mid-century ministries, 148-150; Salisbury ministries, 151-153; defeat in 1906, 157; signification of nomenclature, 162; present-day issues, 163; composition, 164. —Constitution, Anglo-Saxon foundations, 2-5; influenced by Norman Conquest, 6-8; in the Tudor period, 18-26; in the Stuart period, 26-33; elements of stability and change, 34; development since seventeenth century, 34-41; elusiveness, 41; law and conventions, 42-43; flexibility and amendment, 44-47. —Conventions, in English constitution, 43. —Corn Laws, repeal, 147. —Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act, 95-96. —County, franchise before 1832, 79; franchise broadened in 1832, 82; franchise liberalized in 1867 and 1884, 84; court of, 171; organization before 1832, 176-177; reform by Local Government Act of 1888, 180; present administrative organization, 183; council and its functions, 183-184. —Court of Appeals, 174. —Courts, beginnings of great tribunals, 17; county, 171; justices of the peace, 171-172; High Court, 173; Court of Appeals, 174; House of Lords, 130; Judicial Committee of Privy Council, 175. —Cromwell, Oliver, 29-30. —Crown, in Anglo-Saxon times, 3; effects of Norman Conquest on, 6; independence under the Tudors, 21; character under early Stuarts, 26; abolished in 1640, 30; restoration, 30; regulated by Bill of Rights, 32-33; decreased powers since seventeenth century, 35; theoretical position, 48; rules of succession, 49; regencies, 50; privileges, 50-52; the prerogative, 52; executive powers, 53-55; legislative powers, 55; veto, 56; relations with ministry, 56-57; actual service, 58; reasons for survival, 59. —Disraeli, Benjamin, prime minister, 150. —District, rural, 184; urban, 186. —District and Parish Councils Act of 1894, 180. —Edward I., and rise of Parliament, 12-13. —Edward II., statute concerning Parliament, 15. —Elections, writs, 92; time regulations, 92-93; polling, 93; the campaign, 94; expenditures, 95-96. —Elizabeth, strong government, 21; development of Parliament under, 24-25. —Equity, rules of, 169. —Exchequer, Court of, 17, 62, 174. —Franchise, in fifteenth century, 23; in early nineteenth century, 79; extended by Reform Act of 1832, 82; demands of the Chartists, 82-83; modified in 1867, 83-84; liberalized in 1884, 84-85; the system to-day, 86-88; question of the plural vote, 89-90; Franchise Bill of 1912, 90; woman's suffrage, 91. —Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, 118. —George III., attempted revival of royal power, 35. —Gladstone, William E., leadership of Liberals, 148; first ministry, 149; second and third ministries, 151; fourth ministry, 152. —Great Council, 7. —Henry I., charter, 7. —Henry II., judicial measures, 8. —Henry III., and beginnings of Parliament, 12. —Henry VIII., strong government, 19. —High Court of Justice, 173-174. —House of Commons, origins, 13; composition in 1485, 23; changes in Tudor period, 24; Apology of 1604, 27; ascendancy over House of Lords, 36; present composition, 77; undemocratic character at opening of nineteenth century, 77-79; electoral corruption, 80; early demands for reform, 80; Reform Act of 1832, 81-82; Chartist agitation, 82-83; Representation of the People Act of 1867, 83-84; Representation of the People Act of 1884, 84-85; Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, 85; franchise and franchise questions to-day, 86-92; electoral procedure and regulations, 92-96; sessions, 117; opening ceremonies, 117-118; meeting place described, 118-120; hours of sittings, 120; officers, 121; Speaker, 121-123; quorum, 123; committees, 123-125; privileges, 126; payment of members, 127; procedure on public bills, 133-134; on money bills, 135-136; on private bills, 137-138; provisional orders, 138; rules, 139-141; closure, 139; the guillotine, 140; votes and divisions, 140-141. —House of Lords, origins, 13, 47; composition in 1485, 22-23; changes in Tudor period, 24; abolished in 1640, 29; restored in 1660, 31; loss of priority to House of Commons, 36, 102; composition, 97-101; qualifications of members, 101; number of members, 101; question of reform, 102-103; early reform proposals, 103-104; conflicts with the Liberals, 104; powers relating to money bills, 106; rejection of Finance Bill of 1909, 107; Liberal project of reform, 108; Unionist proposals, 109; adoption of Parliament Act of 1911, 110-111; effects of the Act, 112-114; sessions, 117; opening ceremonies, 117-118; sittings and attendance, 125; officers, 125-126; privileges, 127; judicial functions, 130-132; procedure, 141-142. —Humble Petition and Advice, 30. —Hundred, 4. —Impeachment, 130. —Independent Labor Party, 165. —Instrument of Government, 29. —Ireland, union of 1801, 40-41; allotment of parliamentary seats, 85; over-representation, 89; representative peers, 98-99; question of Home Rule, 150-152. —James I., conception of monarchy, 26; parliaments of, 28. —James II., overthrown, 32. —John, signs Magna Carta, 9; holds council at Oxford, 12. —Jury, use of, 171, 172. —Justice of the Peace, functions, 171-172. —King. See Crown. —King's Bench, Court of, 17, 174. —Labor Party, 165-167. —Lansdowne Reconstruction Bill, 100. —Law, origins, 167; form, 168-169. —Legislation, powers acquired by Parliament, 14-15. —Liberal Party, conflict with House of Lords, 104; and reform, 147; regeneration under Gladstone, 148-149; and Home Rule, 150; secession of Unionists, 151; rehabilitation, 156; electoral triumph in 1906, 157; mandate and performance, 158-159; conflict with House of Lords, 159; triumph in elections of 1910, 160; carry Parliament Act of 1911, 110, 160; signification of nomenclature, 162; present-day issues, 163; composition, 164. —Liberal Unionists, origins, 151. —Local Government Act of 1888, 180. —Local Government Board, 180, 182. —Local Government, periods in history, 176; before 1835, 176-178; mid-century confusion of areas, 179; relations with central government, 181-182; organization of administrative county, 183-184; the rural district, 184; rural and urban parish, 185; urban district, 186; boroughs and cities, 187-189; London, 190-191. —London, government, 190-191. —Lord High Chancellor, 63. —Lord Lieutenant, 172. —Lords of Appeal, 99. —Magna Carta, character and importance, 9. —Ministry, appointment, 57, 66-69; relation with Privy Council and Cabinet, 60-61; Treasury, 62; Admiralty Board, 62; Lord High Chancellorship, 63; the secretaries of state, 63-64; the administrative boards, 64; responsibility, 70, 128-130; proceedings, 71-73. —Money Bills, the Lords and, 106; Liberal proposals concerning, 108; disposition under Parliament Act of 1911, 112; procedure upon, 135-136. —Montfort, Simon de, parliaments of 1264 and 1265, 12. —Municipal Corporation Act, 178. —Newcastle Programme, 152. —Parish, rural and urban, 185. —Parliament, origins, 11; Simon de Montfort's leadership, 12; Model Parliament, 12-13; bicameral principle established, 13; fiscal and legislative powers, 14; development of legislative process, 15; composition in 1485, 23; growth under Tudors, 24; in Stuart period, 28-29; experiments during Commonwealth and Protectorate, 29-30; restoration in 1660, 31; constituent powers, 45; relations with crown, 55; undemocratic character in early nineteenth century, 77-80; Reform Act of 1832, 81-82; Representation of the People Act of 1867, 83-84; Representation of the People Act of 1884, 84-85; Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, 85; franchise and franchise questions to-day, 86-92; electoral procedure and regulations, 92-96; composition of Lords, 97-101; question of Lords reform, 102-109; the Parliament Act of 1911, 110-114; sessions, 117; how opened, 117-118; meeting place and sittings, 118-120; officers and committees of Commons, 121-125; organization of Lords, 125-126; privileges of members, 126-127; function of criticism, 128-130; judicial functions, 130-132; procedure on public bills, 133-134; on money bills, 135-136; on private bills, 137-138; rules of Commons, 139-141; procedure in Lords, 141-142. —Parliament Act, origins, 106-110; adoption, 110-111; provisions, 112-113; significance, 113-115. —Parliamentarism, and parties, 143. —Parties, beginnings, 38-39; relation to parliamentary government, 143; Tory ascendancy from 1783 to 1830, 145-146; Liberals and reform, 147; mid-century regeneration, 148-150; rise of Liberal Unionists, 151; Conservative ascendancy, 154-155; Liberal revival, 156-157; present significance of party names, 162; current issues, 163-165; labor and politics, 165-166. —Plural Vote, 89-90. —Poor Law, 178. —Premier, selection, 66; choice of colleagues, 67; leadership, 72-73. —Prince of Wales, 49. —Private Legislation, 137-138. —Privy Council, origins, 17; under the Tudors, 19; under Charles II., 37; relations with ministry and cabinet, 60; Judicial Committee as a court, 175. —Protectorate, 29-30. —Provisional Orders, 138. —Poyning's Law, 40. —Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, 85-86. —Referendum, Unionist proposal of, 109. —Reform Act of 1832, 81-82. —Regency, 50. —Representation, beginnings of, 11. —Representation of the People Act, of 1867, 83-84; of 1884, 84-85. —Rosebery, Lord, proposals for reform of Lords, 105, 108. —Salisbury, Marquis of, first ministry, 157; second ministry, 152; third and fourth ministries, 153. —Scotland, union of 1707, 39-40; allotment of parliamentary seats, 85; representative peers, 98-99. —Shire, 5. —Shire-moot, 5. —Society for Constitutional Information, 81. —Speaker, of House of Commons, history and functions, 121-123; powers, 139. —Star Chamber, Court of, 20. —Stuarts, absolutism, 26; overthrow, 29; restored, 30; finally expelled, 32. —Supreme Court of Judicature, 173-175. —Tariff Reform, rise and effects of issue, 155-156. —Taxation, powers acquired by Parliament, 14, 22. —Toleration Act, 33. —Tory Party, rise, 39; ascendancy from 1783 to 1830, 145-146. —Township, 4. —Treasury, 62. —Tudors, popularity, 18; relations with Parliament, 21. —Unionists, position in Lords, 102-106. —Westminster Palace, 116. —Whig Party, rise, 39. —William I., governmental policies, 6-7. —William III., accession, 32. —Witenagemot, 4. —Woman's Suffrage, 91-92.

Folkething. See Denmark. France:— —Adjoint, 350. —Administration, under Old Régime, 341-342; overhauled in 1789-1791, 342; revival of centralization, 343; under Second Empire, 344; changes under Third Republic, 345; the department, 346-347; the arrondissement, 347; the canton, 348; the commune, 348-351. —Amendment, of constitution, 307, 327-328. —Appeal, courts of, 338. —Arrondissement, electoral unit, 318; created, 343; organization, 347. —Assize, courts of, 338. —Associations, law of, 331. —Ballottage, 319. —Bloc, rise, 331; present condition, 332. —Bonaparte, Napoleon, and constitution of the Year VIII., 293-295; organization of local administration, 343. —Bonapartists, policies in 1871-1875, 303-304. —Bordeaux, National Assembly meets at, 302. —Briand, A., programme of electoral reform, 322; ministry, 332. —Bureaus, in Parliament, 325-327. —Canton, created, 342; made a judicial unit, 343; present character, 348. —Cassation, Court of, 338-339. —Catholic Party, rise, 338. —Chamber of Deputies, composition, 317; term and qualifications, 318; electoral process, 319; proposed electoral reform, 319-320; the Briand programme, 322; reform bill of 1912, 323-324; sessions, 325; officers, 325; bureaus and committees, 326; procedure, 326; powers and functions, 327-329; party strength in, 332. —Church, legislation concerning, 331. —Clemenceau, ministry, 331-332. —Code Civil, 335-336. —Code Napoléon, 335-336. —Code of Civil Procedure, 336. —Code of Commerce, 336. —Code of Criminal Instruction, 336. —Combes, ministry, 331. —Commission du Suffrage Universel, 321, 323. —Committees, in Parliament, 325-327. —Commune, suppressed, 303; continuity of, 342; place in Napoleonic system, 343; council made elective, 344; under Second Empire, 344-345; legislation concerning in 1884, 345; present character, 348; number and size, 348; council, 348-349; mayor and assistants, 349-350; importance, 350-351. —Concentration, policy of, 330. —Concordat, abrogated, 331. —Conseil de préfecture, 346. —Conservative Party, after 1848, 329; in control of Senate after 1876, 330; changed character, 333. —Constitution, of 1791, 290-291; of the Year I., 291-292; of the Year III., 292-293; of the Year VIII., 293-295; Constitutional Charter of 1814, 295-297; of Second Republic, 297-298; of Second Empire, 299-300; of Third Republic, 304-306; process of amendment, 305, 327-328. —Constitutional Charter, 295-297. —Convention, 292. —Corps législatif, under constitution of 1791, 291; under constitution of the Year VIII., 294. —Council, of department, made elective, 344; present character, 346-347. —Council, of arrondissement, 347. —Council, of commune, made elective, 344; organization and functions, 348-349. —Council of Elders, in constitution of the Year III., 292-293. —Council of Five Hundred, in constitution of the Year III., 292-293. —Council of State, composition and functions, 340. —Courts, of justice of the peace, 337; of first instance, 337; of appeal and of assize, 338; of Cassation, 338-339; appointment and tenure of judges, 339; administrative, 339-340; Council of State, 340; of Conflicts, 341. —Department, created, 342; organized by Napoleon, 343; council made elective, 344; under Second Empire, 344-345; the office of prefect, 346; the council, 346-347. —Elections, under constitution of the Year VIII., 293-294; under Constitutional Charter of 1814, 296; arrondissement as unit, 318; conduct, 319; ballottage, 319; question of reform, 319-322; the Briand programme, 322; of 1906, 331; of 1910, 332; reform bill of 1912, 323-324. —Electoral Reform. See Elections. —Empire, Napoleonic, 295; Second French, 299-300. —Extreme Left, in Chamber of Deputies, 332. —First Instance, courts of, 337. —Franchise, under Napoleonic system, 294; under Constitutional Charter of 1814, 296-297; present regulations, 317. —Frankfort, Peace of, 302. —Généralité, 342. —Great Western Line, purchase of, 332. —Impeachment, 309. —Intendant, 342. —Interpellation, 314. —Jaurès, socialist leader, 334. —Journal Officiel, 326. —Judges, appointment and tenure, 339. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Juge de paix, 337. —Law, codification, 335-336; character, 336-337; administrative, 339. —Left, in Chamber of Deputies, 332. —Legislation, President's part in, 309-310; processes, 326-327; powers, 328-329. —Legitimists, policies in 1871-1875, 303-305. —MacMahon, Marshall, president, 304. —Mayor, functions, 347-350. —Millerand, Étienne, socialist member of ministry, 334. —Ministry, place in governmental system, 311; composition, 312; responsibility, 312-313; frequency of changes, 313; interpellation, 314. —Multiple Candidature Act, 318. —Napoleon III., proclaimed emperor, 299. —National Assembly, of 1871-1875, 302-303; of Third Republic, election of President, 309, 328; amendment of constitution, 327-328. —Orleanists, policies in 1871-1875, 303-304. —Pacification, policy of, 330. —Parliament, establishment of bicameral system, 315; original form of Senate, 315-316; composition and election to-day, 316-317; composition of Chamber of Deputies, 317-318; question of electoral reform, 319-324; sessions, 325; officers, 325; committees, 326; procedure, 326; powers and functions, 327-329. —Parliamentarism, 313. —Parties, multiplicity, 312-313; development after 1848, 329; situation after 1876, 330; rise of Radicals, 330; the bloc, 331; rise of Socialists, 330-331, 333-334; elections of 1906, 331; elections of 1910, 332; changes since 1871, 333. —Penal Code, 336. —Prefect, creation in 1800, 343; appointment and functions, 346. —Premier, position and powers, 312. —President, title created, 303; occupants of the office, 308; election, 308, 328; term, 309; qualifications, 309; salary and privileges, 309; powers, 309-311; relation with ministers, 311-312. —Procedure, in Senate and Chamber of Deputies, 326-327. —Procureur, 327. —Progressive Party, rise, 331. —Proportional Representation, movement for establishment of, 320-324. —Province, abolished, 342. —Prussia, war with, 301. —Radical Party, rise, 330; ascendancy, 331. —Ralliés, 330. —Republic, Second, 297-298; Third established, 302-304. —Republican Party, in 1848, 329; control of Chamber of Deputies after 1876, 330. —Right, in Chamber of Deputies, 332; present character, 333. —Rivet Law, 302. —Rouvier, ministry, 331. —Sarrien, ministry, 331 —Scrutin d'arrondissement, established in 1820, 296; re-established in 1889, 318; proposed change from, 319-320. —Scrutin de liste, established in 1817, 296; election of senators by, 316; advantages of, 319-320; proposals to re-establish, 320-324. —Senate, original form, 315-316; composition and election to-day, 316-317; sessions, 325; officers, 325; bureaus and committees, 325-326; procedure, 326; powers and functions, 327-329. —Sieyès, electoral project, 294. —Socialist Party, rise, 330; gains, 331; in Chamber of Deputies, 332; growth and present character, 333-334. —Thiers, Louis Adolph, made Chief of the Executive Power, 302; made President of the French Republic, 303; retirement, 303. —Trade-unions, and socialism, 333-334. —Tribunal des Conflits, 341. —Veto, 310. —Waldeck-Rousseau, ministry, 331; Franchise, in Great Britain, in early nineteenth century, 79-81; extension, 81-85; present system, 85-88; questions concerning, 88-91; in German Empire, 224-225; in Prussia, 258-260; development in France, 294-297; in France to-day, 317; in Italy, 376-378; in Switzerland, 426; in Austria, 467-472; in Holland, 526-528; in Belgium, 539-548; in Denmark, 563-564; in Norway, 581-582; in Sweden, 592-597; in Spain, 617-618; in Portugal, 637, 641.

Germany (see also Prussia and Austria): —Abgeordnetenhaus, of Württemberg, 278. —Abtheilungen, in German Reichstag, 226; in Prussian Landtag, 264. —Agrarian Party, 234. —Alsace-Lorraine, original organization, 282; the Landesausschuss, 283; movement for autonomy, 284; bill of 1910, 285; present governmental system, 286-287. —Amendment, of Imperial constitution, 209. —Amtsgericht, 243. —Antisemitic Party, 232. —Army, 208. —Austria, war with Prussia, 200. —Baden, granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 279. —Bavaria, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 275-276. —Bebel, August, president of German Social Democratic party, 240. —Bernstein, Edward, and the "revisionist" socialists, 239. —Bismarck, Otto von, minister-president of Prussia, 199; plan for reorganization of German Confederation, 200; establishment of North German Bund, 200; creation of the German Empire, 201; and socialism, 231; dismissed, 233; and Prussian local government, 266-267. —Bloc, 234. —Bremen, governmental system, 281. —Bülow, Count von, chancellor, 234; and political parties, 236; on electoral reform in Prussia, 261. —Bund. See Confederation of 1815 and North German Confederation. —Bundeskanzleramt, 216. —Bundesrath, composition, 217; legal character, 218; sessions and procedure, 219; committees, 220; powers and functions, 221-222. —Caprivi, General von, chancellor, 233. —Carlsbad Decrees, 248. —Centre Party, rise, 230; pivotal position, 235; present position, 236-240. —Chancellor, appointment, 213; legal position, 214; functions and powers, 215-217. —Civil List, of king of Prussia, 253. —Confederation of 1815, formation, 195; character, 195-197; terminated, 200. —Committees, in German Bundesrath, 220; in Reichstag, 226; in Prussian Landtag, 264. —Conservative Party, rise, 229; varying fortunes, 233-234; present position, 236-240. —Constitution, of Confederation of 1815, 194-196; grants in various states, 197; grant in Prussia, 199; of the Empire, 202-204; process of amendment, 209; of Prussia, 250-252. —Courts, regulated by Law of Judicial. Organization, 243; inferior tribunals, 243; Reichsgericht, 244. —Crown. See Emperor. —Elections, of members of Reichstag, 224-225. —Emperor, title, 210; legal position and privileges, 211; powers, 211-213; relations with Chancellor, 214. —Empire, established, 201; constitution, 202-203; nature, 203-207. —Erfurt Programme, 239. —Frankfort, seat of Diet, 195; parliament of 1848, 198; the Fürstentag, 199. —Gneist, Rudolph von, writings on government, 266. —Gotha, congress at, 231. —Guelf Party, 232. —Hamburg, governmental system, 280-281. —Hanoverian Party, 232. —Hardenberg, Count von, establishes a ministry of state, 255. —Holy Roman Empire, terminated, 193. —Kulturkampf, 230. —Landgericht, 243. —Landtag, of Bavaria, 275-276. —Law, character, 241-242. —Legislation, powers, 221, 227-228; methods, 219-220, 226-227. —Lübeck, governmental system, 281. —Metternich, Count, at Congress of Vienna, 195. —Ministry, organization, 213-215. —Napoleon I., changes wrought in Germany, 193-194. —National Liberal Party, rise, 229; preponderance, 230; break-up, 233. —North German Confederation, formation, 200; converted into Empire, 201. —Oberlandesgericht, 243. —Parliamentarism, absence in German Empire, 213; absence in Prussia, 254. —Parties, rise, 229; older alignments, 229-230; more recent alignments, 230-232; minor parties, 232-233; rise of the bloc, 234; recent developments, 236-240. —Polish Party, 232. —Privileges, of members of Reichstag, 225. —Proportional Representation, in Württemberg, 278. —Prussia, in Confederation of 1815, 194-195; voting power in the Diet, 195-196; Bismarck's ministry, 199; war with Austria, 200; leadership of North German Bund, 200; creation of German Empire, 201; pre-eminence and special privileges, 207-217; position in Bundesrath, 218-219; regeneration in Napoleonic period, 246-248; repression of liberalism, 248; diet of 1847, 249; revolution of 1848, 249-250; formation of constitution, 250. —Reichsgericht, 244. —Reichsgesetzblatt, 215. —Reichsland. See Alsace-Lorraine. —Reichstag, composition, 223; electoral system, 224; franchise, 225; privileges of members, 225; sessions and officers, 226; committees, 226; conduct of business, 227; powers and franchise, 227-228. —Revolution of 1848, in Germany, 198-199; in Prussia, 249-250. —Saxony, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; governmental system, 276-278. —Social Democratic Party, rise, 231; growth, 232; triumph in 1912, 236-238; present programme and character, 239-240; strength in Prussia, 260-261. —Sonderrechte, 208. —Standeversammlung, of Saxony, 277. —Statthalter, of Alsace-Lorraine, 286. —Versailles, William I. proclaimed emperor at, 193. —Vienna, Congress of, arrangements in Germany, 194. —Vorparlament, of 1848, 198. —William I., proclaimed German Emperor, 193. —Württemberg, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 278-279. —Zollverein, rise, 197. Great Britain. See England.

Hamburg, governmental system, 280-281. Herrenhaus. See Prussia and Austria. Herzegovina. See Austria-Hungary. Holland:— —Administration, organization of province, 532-533; organization of commune, 533. —Amendment, process, 523. —Assembly, of province, 532. —Batavian Republic, established, 518. —Belgium, revolution in, 520; independence of, 521. —Commune, organization, 533. —Conservative Party, 529-530. —Constitution, granted by William I., 519; revision, 521-522; present character, 523; process of amendment, 523. —Council of commune, 533. —Council of State, 524. —Courts, 531-532. —Crown, status and privileges, 523-524; powers, 525. —Elections, movement for reform, 526; law of 1896, 527; pending questions, 527-528; of 1903, 529-530; of 1909, 530. —France, Holland annexed to, 518. —Franchise, movement for liberalizing, 526; law of 1896, 527; pending questions, 527-528. —High Court, 531. —Judiciary, principles, 531; courts, 531-532. —Liberal Party, 529-530. —Ministry, composition, 524; powers, 525. —Napoleon, relations with the Netherlands,> 517-518. —Parliament. See States-General. —Parties, rise, 529; present alignment, 520; elections of 1909, 530. —Province, organization, 532-533. —States-General, composition of the houses, 526; electoral system, 527-528; organization and powers, 528-529; political complexion, 530. —Socialists, 529-530. —Vienna, Congress of, arrangements respecting the Netherlands, 518. —William I., king of the Netherlands, 518-519; grants constitution, 519-520; resists Belgian independence, 520-521; abdicates, 521. —Woman's suffrage, 527-528. Holy Roman Empire, terminated, 193. House of Commons. See England. House of Lords. See England. House of Representatives. See Belgium. Hungary:— —Administration, 506-507. —Andrássy, introduces electoral reform bill, 495. —Andrew II., promulgates Golden Bull, 446-447, 489. —Árpáds, dynasty of, 447. —Ausgleich, established, 458-459; and Hungarian political parties, 500. —Austria, establishment of control, 443; encroachment by, 449-450; suppresses revolution of 1848, 455-456; constitutional experiments, 457-468; Ausgleich established, 458-459. —Bánffy, ministry, 502. —Banus, of Croatia-Slavonia, 508. —Chamber of Deputies, composition, 493; electoral system, 493-494; movement for electoral reform, 495-496; electoral procedure, 497-498; organization, 498; powers, 499-500. —Constitution, foundations, 446-447; development, 447-448; March Laws, 453-454, 489; character, 490. —County, origins, 506; organization, 507. —Courts, 505-506. —Croatia, government, 507-508. —Crown. See King. —Deák, Francis, builds up Liberal party, 452; voices demands of Hungary, 457; retirement, 501. —Elections, present franchise, 493-494; movement for reform, 495; reform bill of 1908, 495-497; procedure, 497-498; of 1905, 503. —Franchise, present system, 493-494; electoral reform bill of 1908, 495-497. —Golden Bull, promulgated, 446-447, 489. —Hedérváry, ministry, 504-505. —Independence, proclaimed in 1849, 455. —Judiciary. See Courts. —King, status, 491. —Law, 505. —Liberal Party, origins, 452, 501-502; demands in 1860-1861, 457; ascendancy, 501, 502. —Magyars, settlement in Europe, 445; policies in 1848, 454; number and domination of, 494. —March Laws, promulgated, 453. —Metternich, repressive policy, 452. —Ministry, composition and status, 491-492. —Mohács, battle of, 448. —Parliament, composition, 492-493; electoral system, 493-497; organization and procedure, 497-498; powers 499-500; obstructionism in, 502-505. —Parliamentarism, 498. —Parties, and question of Ausgleich, 500; rise of Liberals, 500-501; era of parliamentary obstructionism, 502-505. —Pragmatic Sanction, promulgated, 449. —Revolution of 1848, 453-455. —Settlement, 445. —Slavonia, government, 507-508. —Stephen I., receives crown from Pope, 446. —Table of Magnates, composition, 492-493; privileges, 493; organization and procedure, 498; powers, 499-500. —Tisza, István, ministry, 503. —Tisza, Kálman, ministry, 501-502. —Turks, invasions of, 448. —Wekerle, ministry, 504.

Initiative, in Switzerland, 421, 432-434. Interpellation, in Prussian Landtag, 265; in French Chamber of Deputies, 314; in Italian Chamber of Deputies, 380. Ireland, union of 1801, 40-41; allotment of parliamentary seats, 85; over-representation, 89; representative peers, 98-99; question of Home Rule, 150-152. Italy:— —Administration, patterned on French, 363; nature and organization of province, 384; nature and organization of commune, 385. —Austria, influence in Italy in eighteenth century, 353; position after 1815, 358; helps suppress revolution of 1848, 361; Piedmontese-French alliance against, 362; loss of Venetia, 364. —Ballottaggio, 378. —Bissolati, political influence, 397. —Bonaparte, Napoleon, and the Cisalpine Republic, 354; overthrows Genoese oligarchy, 354; wins at Marengo, 355; supervises revision of Italian constitutions, 355-356; crowned king of Italy, 356; annexes Rome to France, 357; prophecy of Italian unification, 359. —Campo Formio, treaty of, 354. —Cassation, courts of, 382. —Catholics, political activities, 400-402. —Cavour, Count, policies, 362. —Chamber of Deputies, composition, 375; franchise law of 1882, 376; franchise to-day, 376-377; electoral procedure, 378; qualifications and privileges of members, 378-379; organization, 379-380; procedure, 380-381. —Charles Albert I., becomes king of Piedmont, 360; grants constitution in 1848, 360-361; abdicates, 361. —Circondaro, 383. —Cisalpine Republic, 353-354. —Code Napoléon, established in Italy, 357. —Committees, of Parliament, 380. —Commune, nature and organization, 385. —Conservative Party, origins, 391; lack of normal development, 398. —Constitution, of Cispadane Republic, 354; of Transpadane Republic, 354; of Ligurian Republic, 355; of Roman Republic, 355; of Parthenopæan Republic, 355; revisions in 1802-1803, 355-356; of Napoleonic kingdom of Naples, 357; proclaimed in Naples in 1820, 359; proclaimed in Naples in 1848, 360-361; granted in Piedmont in 1848, 360-361; character of Statuto, 365-367. —Council, of province, 384; of commune, 385. —Courts, patterned upon the French, 381; ordinary tribunals, 381-382; courts of cassation, 382; administrative courts, 382-383. —Crispi, ministries, 393, 394-395. —Crown, status, 368; civil list, 368; powers and functions, 368-369; relation with ministers, 370. —Depretis, ministries, 392-393. —Elections, development of laws regarding, 376; franchise, 376-378; procedure, 378; Catholic participation in, 400-402; of 1909, 402-403. —Extreme Left, influence, 395; groups of, 398. —France, relations with Italy during Napoleonic period, 354-357; allied with Piedmont, 362; receives Savoy and Nice, 363; withdrawal of troops from Rome, 364. —Franchise, prior to 1882, 375; law of 1882, 376; present regulations, 376-377; electoral reform, 377. —Fortis, ministry, 396. —Garibaldi, conquest of Sicily, 363. —Genoa, government remodelled, 354. —Giolitti, ministries, 394, 396-398. —Giunta, of province, 384; of commune, 385. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Italian Republic, 356. —Interpellation, 380. —Left, origins, 391; dominance, 392-394; prospects of harmony, 398. —Liberal Party, in control, 395. —Ligurian Republic, established, 354; annexed to France, 356. —Lombardy, Austria's position in, 353, 358; annexed to Piedmont, 363. —Lunéville, treaty of, 355. —Luzzatti, ministry, 396. —Mandamento, 381. —Milan, Transpadane Republic inaugurated at, 354; Napoleon crowned at, 356. —Ministry, composition, 369; organization and functions, 370-371; ordinances, 371-372. —Naples, invaded by French, 355; Murat king of, 357; revolution of 1820, 359; revolution of 1848, 360-361; annexed to kingdom of Italy, 363. —Napoleon. See Bonaparte. —Nice, ceded to France, 363. —Non Expedit, purpose and effect, 400-401; partial relaxation, 401-402. —Novara, battle of, 361. —Ordinances, 371. —Papacy, and revolution of 1848, 360-361; losses of territory to Piedmont, 362-363; and of temporal dominion, 387; Law of Papal Guarantees promulgated, 388; prerogatives, 388-389; relations with state, 389; opposition to existing system, 390; the Non Expedit, 400-402. —Papal Guarantees, Law of, promulgated, 388; contents and character, 388-389; papal attitude toward, 390. —Parliament, of united kingdom of Italy, 364; composition, 372-373; legislative weakness of Senate, 373; proposed reform of Senate, 373-374; composition of Chamber of Deputies, 375; franchise, 376-377; electoral procedure, 378; qualifications and privileges of members, 378-379; organization, 379-380; procedure, 380-381. —Parties, rise of, 391; rule of Radicals, 392-394; era of composite ministries, 395-398; lack of real conservatives, 398-399; groups of Extreme Left, 398; rise of socialism, 399-400; effects of the Non Expedit, 401-402; elections of 1909, 402-403. —Parthenopæan Republic, 355. —Piedmont, incorporated with France, 355; recovery in 1815, 358; revolution of 1821, 360; revolution of 1848, 360; obtains constitution, 361; accession of Victor Emmanuel II., 361; ascendancy of, 362; annexations of 1859-1860, 362. —Pius IX., reforms, 360; and revolution of 1848, 360-361; loss of temporal dominion, 387; rejects Law of Guarantees, 390. —Plombières, agreement of, 362. —Prefect, 384. —Premier, appointment, 369-370. —Pressburg, treaty of, 356. —Province, nature and organization, 384. —Radical Party, origins, 391; dominance, 392-394. —Republican Party, weakness, 399. —Revolution, of 1820-1821, 359; of 1848, 360. —Right, origins, 391; loss of power, 392; coalition with Left, 393. —Risorgimento, 353. —Roman Republic, 355. —Rome, republic established in 1798, 355; annexed to France, 357; annexed to kingdom of Italy, 364; becomes capital of kingdom, 364. —Rudini, ministries, 394-395. —Sardinia, kingdom of. See Piedmont. —Savoy, ceded to France, 363. —Scrutinio di lista, established in 1882, 376. —Senate, composition, 372-373; legislative weakness, 373; proposed reform, 373-374; privileges and powers, 375; organization, 379; procedure, 380-381. —Sindaco, of commune, 385. —Socialist Party, rise and character, 399-400. —Sonnino, ministries, 396-397. —Statuto, granted, 360; character, 365, 366-367; amendment, 365-366. —Transpadane Republic, 354. —Treaties, 369. —Turin, kingdom of Italy proclaimed at, 364. —Uffici, 380. —Venice, ceded to Austria, 354; annexed to kingdom of Italy, 364. —Vienna, Congress of, settlement of Italian affairs, 358. —Victor Emmanuel II., accession as king of Piedmont, 361; building of Italian unity, 362-364. —Zanardelli, ministry, 396.

Landsthing. See Denmark. Landtag. See Prussia. Law, of England, 167-169; of Germany, 241-242; of France, 335-339; of Switzerland, 439; of Hungary, 505. London, government, 190-191.

Magna Carta, importance and character, 9. Ministry, organization and status in Great Britain, 57-70; proceedings, 71-73; in German Empire, 213-215; in Prussia, 254-256; in France, 311-314; in Italy, 369-372; in Austria, 464-465; in Hungary, 491-492; in Holland, 524-525; in Belgium, 536-537; in Denmark, 560-568; in Norway, 580-581; in Sweden, 590-591; in Spain, 615-616; in Portugal, 635-636, 644.

Netherlands. See Holland. Non Expedit, nature and effects, 400-402. Norway:— —Administration, organization, 588. —Amtsthing, 588. —Bernadotte, and union with Sweden, 554, 573-574. —Commune, organization, 588. —Conservative Party, 585-586. —Constitution, of Eidsvold, 574; present form, 578; amendment, 579. —Consular Service, question of, 576-577. —County, organization, 588. —Courts, organization, 587-588. —Crown, restoration of independence, 578; status, 580; powers, 580-581; question of veto, 584-585. —Denmark, united with, 553, 572-573; separated from, 554. —Eidsvold, constitution of, 574. —Elections, method, 581; franchise, 581-582; of 1909 and 1912, 587. —Formaend, 588. —Franchise, development, 581-582; present system, 582. —Haakon VII., crowned king, 578. —Höiesteret, 587. —Independence, movement for in 1813-1814, 574; achieved, 577-578. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Kalmar, union of, 553. —Karlstad, convention of, 578. —Kiel, treaty of, 554, 573, 575. —Liberal Party, growth, 585-586. —Lagthing. See Storthing. —Michelsen, ministry, 577. —Ministry, composition, 580; functions, 580-581. —Odelsthing. See Storthing. —Parliament. See Storthing. —Parliamentarism, 581. —Parties, history to 1905, 585-586; status since 1905, 586-587. —Riksakt, of 1815, 574-575. —Social Democratic Party, 587. —Steen, carries electoral reform, 581. —Storthing, composition, 581; electoral system, 581-582; sessions and organization, 582; powers and procedure, 583-584. —Sverdrup, organizes first Liberal ministry, 585. —Sweden, union with established, 574; nature of union, 574-575; friction with, 575-576; question of consular service, 576-577; separation from, 577-578. —Union. See Sweden. —Veto, power of, 584-585. —Woman's Suffrage, status, 582.

Papacy. See Italy. Parliament. See England, France, Italy, Austria, etc. Parliamentarism, in Great Britain, 143; in German Empire, 213; in Prussia, 254; in Austria, 464-465, 480-481; in Hungary, 498; in Belgium, 536-537; in Denmark, 560-562; in Norway, 581; in Sweden, 591. Parties, rise in England, 38-39; history in England, 143-166; in Germany, 229-240; in France, 329-333; in Italy, 391-402; in Switzerland, 434-437; in Austria, 475-483; in Hungary, 500-505; in Holland, 529-530; in Denmark, 565-568; in Norway, 585-587; in Sweden, 592-600; in Spain, 620-625; in Portugal, 631-633, 639-642. Plural vote, in England, 88-90; in Austria, 468; in Belgium, 550-551. Portugal:— —Administration, organization under monarchy, 638-639; under republic, 646. —Arriaga, Manoel, elected president, 642. —Bonaparte, Napoleon, subjugation by, 629. —Braga, Theophile, leader of provisional government, 641. —Braganza, house of, proscribed, 641-642. —Brazil, relation with, 629. —Chagas, João, ministry, 642. —Charter, of 1826, 630; revised, 631. —Chartist Party, 630-631. —Commune, organization, 638-639. —Congress, composition and powers, 645-646. —Constitution, of 1826, 630; revision of 1852, 631; character under monarchy, 634-635; of republic framed, 642-643; nature, 643; amendment, 643. —Cortes, extinct at opening of nineteenth century, 629; revival, 630-631; party strength under monarchy, 633-634; renewed in 1908, 634; composition under monarchy, 636-638. —Council of Municipalities, composition and powers, 645-646. —Courts, under monarchy, 638; under republic, 646. —Crown, status prior to 1910, 635-636. —Dictadura, of France, 633-634. —District, organization, 638-639. —Elections, of 1906, 633; system prior to 1910, 637; of 1910, 640; provision for in decree of 1911, 641-642. —Franchise, under monarchy, 637; under decree of 1911, 642. —Franco, dictatorship, 633-634. —House of Deputies, under monarchy, 636-637. —House of Peers, under monarchy, 636-637. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Liberal Concentration, of 1906, 633. —Manoel II., overthrow, 641. —Miguel, assumption of crown, 630. —Ministry, status prior to 1910, 635-636; under the republic, 644. —National Council, composition and powers, 645-646. —Parties, rivalries, 631-632; dictatorship of Franco, 633-634; elections of 1906, 633; and revolution of 1910, 639-642. —Pedro IV., contest with Miguelists, 630. —Pombal, reforms, 629. —President, status and powers, 644. —Progressive Party, 631-634. —Regenerador Party, 631-634. —Revolution of 1910, origins, 639; character and results, 640-641. —Rotativos, 632-633. —Septembrist Party, 631. —Thomar, Count of, ministry, 631. President, of France, 303-312; of Switzerland, 422-424; of Portugal, 644. Proportional Representation, in Würtemberg, 278; movement for in France, 320-324; in Switzerland, 419, 433; in Belgium, 543-545; in Denmark, 563. Province, in Prussia, 268-270; in Italy, 384; in Austria, 485-487; in Holland, 532-533; in Belgium, 550-551; in Spain, 627. Prussia (see also Germany and Austria):— —Abgeordnetenhaus, composition, 258; electoral system 258-260; question of electoral reform, 260-263; session and powers, 263-264. —Abtheilungen, in Landtag, 264. —Administration, reform measures of Stein and Hardenberg, 265; reforms of Bismarck, 266; general principles, 267; the province and its government, 268-270; the government district, 270-271; the circle, 271-272; the commune, 272-273. —Amendment, of constitution, 252. —Amtsgerichte, 243. —Austria, war with, 200. —Bezirksausschuss, 270. —Charlottenburg, constitution promulgated at, 251. —Circle. See Kreis. —Civil List, 253. —Committees, in Landtag, 264. —Commune, organization, 272-273. —Constitution, obstacles to establishment, 248; promulgated, 250; nature, 251; amendment, 252. —Crown, status and power, 252. —Diet, of 1847, 249. —Elections, present system, 258-260; question of reform, 260-263. —Franchise, 258-260. —Frederick William III., and constitutionalism, 248-250. —Hardenberg, reform measures, 247-265. —Herrenhaus, original provisions of constitution concerning, 257; law of 1853, 257; composition to-day, 257-258. —Interpellation, in Landtag, 265. —Judiciary, 243-244. —Kreis, organization, 271. —Kreisausschuss, 271. —Kreistag, 271. —Landeshauptmann, 270. —Landgerichte, 243. —Landrath, 271. —Landtag, composition, 257-258; electoral system, 258-260; electoral reform, 260-263; sessions, 263; powers, 264. —Ministry, composition, 254; organization and workings, 255-256; subsidiary executive bodies, 256. —Napoleon, and Prussia, 246-247. —Oberlandesgerichte, 243. —Oberpräsident, 269. —Oberrechnungskammer, 256. —Regierungsbezirk, organization, 270-271. —Regierungspräsident, 270. —Revolution of 1848, 249-250. —Schulze, 272. —Social Democratic Party, 260-261. —Stadtrath, 273. —Stein, reform measures, 247, 265; and Prussian local government, 265. —Parliamentarism, absence of, 254. —Province, origins and number, 268-269; organs of central administration, 269; organs of self-government, 269-270. —Provinziallandtag, 270. —Provinzialrath, 269. —Volkswirthschaftsrath, 256.

Referendum, Unionist proposal in Great Britain, 109; in Swiss cantons, 419-420; in Swiss federal government, 430-432. Reichsrath. See Austria. Republicanism, in France, 297-298, 302-304, 329-330; in Italy, 399. Rigsdag. See Denmark. Riksdag. See Sweden.

Saxony, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; governmental system, 276-278. Scotland, union of 1707, 39-40; allotment of parliamentary seats, 85; representative peers, 98-99. Senate. See France, Italy, Belgium, Spain. Social Democrats, in German Empire, 231-240; in Prussia, 260-261; in France, 330-334; in Italy, 399-400; in Switzerland, 434-436; in Austria, 469-470, 483; in Holland, 529-530; in Belgium, 540-548; in Norway, 587; in Sweden, 593-595, 600; in Spain, 625. Spain:— —Administration, organization, 627-628; principles, 628. —Alfonso XII., accession, 610. —Amendment, of constitution, 611. —Ayuntamiento, of commune, 628. —Bonaparte, Napoleon, conquest by, 603-604. —Cadiz, Cortes convoked at, 604. —Cánovas del Castillo, ministries, 621-622. —Carlists, 606, 609, 620. —Commune, organization, 627. —Congress of Deputies, composition and election, 617-618; sessions and organization, 618-619; powers, 619-620. —Conservative Party, character, 621, 625; governments of, 621-623. —Constitution, of 1812 drawn up, 604; rescinded by Frederick VII., 605; of 1834, 607; of 1837, 607; of 1845, 607-608; of 1869, 608; of 1876, 611; character and contents to-day, 611-612. —Cortes, convened in 1810, 604; drafts constitution of 1812, 604; under constitution of 1812, 604; under constitution of 1834, 607; under constitution of 1837, 607; under constitution of 1845, 608; under constitution of 1869, 608-609; establishes republic, 609; re-establishes monarchy, 610; adopts constitution of 1876, 611; composition to-day, 616-618; sessions and organization, 618-619; powers, 619-620; strength of parties, 624-625. —Council, of province, 627; of commune, 628. —Courts, organization, 626-627. —Crown, rules of succession, 613; regencies, 613-614; powers, 614-615. —Elections, of senators, 617; of deputies, 618; of 1907 and 1910, 624-625. —Espartero, regent, 607. —Estatuto Real, of 1834, 607. —Isabella II., accession, 606; declared of age, 608; abdicates, 608. —Ferdinand VII., reign, 605-607. —France, intervention, 605. —Franchise, present system, 618. —Governor, of province, 627. —Judiciary. See Courts. —King. See Crown. —Law, 626. —Liberal Party, character, 621, 625; governments of, 621-623. —Maria Christina, regency, 606-607; abdicates, 607. —Maura, ministries, 623-624. —Ministry, composition, 615; functions, 615-616. —Parliament. See Cortes. —Parties, beginnings, 620; character of Liberals and Conservatives, 621-622; since 1903, 623-624; elections of 1910, 624-625; republicans and socialists, 625. —Pragmatic Sanction, of 1830, 606. —Province, organization, 627. —Regency, 613-614. —Republic, established, 609; abolished, 610. —Republican Party, rise, 620; present character, 625. —Revolution of 1820, 605. —Sagasta, ministries, 621-623. —Salic Law, rescinded, 606. —Scrutin de liste, in election of deputies, 618. —Senate, composition, 616; appointment and election, 616-617; sessions and organization, 618-619. —Serrano, regent, 609. —Socialist Party, character of, 625. —Succession, rules of, 613. —Supreme Court, 626-627. States-General. See Holland. Storthing. See Norway. Sweden:— —Administration, organization, 601. —Agricultural Party. See Landtmannapartiet. —Amendment, process, 589. —Bernadotte, and union with Norway, 554, 573-574. —Conservative Party, and electoral reform, 592-596; long tenure of power, 599-600. —Consular Service, question of, 576-577. —Constitution, character, 572, 589; amendment, 589. —Constitutional Committee, 598. —County, organization, 601. —Courts, organization, 600-601. —Crown, early status, 570-571; present basis, 590; relations with ministry, 590-591. —Elections, present system, 592; movement for reform, 592-596; of 1908 and 1911, 600. —Franchise, present regulations, 592; rise of movement for reform, 592-593; Conservative proposal of 1904, 593-594; Staaff project of 1906, 594-595; law of 1907-1909, 595-596; question of women's suffrage, 596; bill of 1912, 596-597. —Gustavus III., rehabilitation of monarchy, 571. —Gustavus IV., abdicates, 572. —Högsta Domstolen, organization and functions, 600-601. —Independence, established, 570. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Karlstad, convention of, 578. —Kiel, treaty of, 554, 573, 575. —Landsthing, of county, 601. —Landtmannapartiet, growth, 599. —Liberal Party, and electoral reform, 592-596; gains, 600. —Lindman, project for electoral reform, 595. —Ministry, composition, 590; powers, 590-591. —Norway, union with, 573-574; nature of union, 574-575; friction with, 575-576; question of consular service, 576-577; separation of, 577-578. —Parliament. See Riksdag. —Parliamentarism, 591. —Parties, and electoral reform, 592-596; military and tariff questions, 598-599; history since 1891, 599-600. —Regerings-formen, of 1809, promulgated, 572. —Riksakt, of 1815, 574-575. —Riksdag, original character, 591; reorganization in 1866, 591; composition of chambers, 591-595; electoral system, 582; movement for electoral reform, 592-596; organization and procedure, 597; powers, 597-598. —Social Democratic Party, and electoral reform, 593-595; gains, 600. —Staaff, project for electoral reform, 594. —Statsrad. See Ministry. —Supreme Court. See Högsta Domstolen. —Union. See Norway. —Women's Suffrage, movement for, 596-597. Switzerland:— —Act of Mediation, 407. —Bezirksammann, 422. —Bezirksrath, 422. —Bonaparte, Napoleon, promulgates Act of Mediation, 407. —Bundesgericht, nature and functions, 437-438. —Bundesrath. See Federal Council. —Canton, constitutions liberalized, 409; sovereignty, 412; federal control, 412-413; powers exercised concurrently with Confederation, 414-415; variation of constitutions, 416; the Landesgemeinde, 417-418; the Greater Council, 418-419; use of referendum, 419-420; use of initiative, 421; the executive Council of State, 421; local administration, 422; the judiciary, 422. —Centralism, triumph in 1848, 410; as a political issue, 434. —Clerical Party, character, 434-435. —Commune, 422. —Confederation, origins, 405; composition in later eighteenth century, 406; erected into Helvetic Republic, 406; remodelled in 1803, 407; reorganized in 1815, 408; constitution of 1848 and 1874, 410; nature, 411-412; control of cantons by, 412; powers vested exclusively in, 413-414; powers denied, 414-415; general aspects, 415. —Constitution, of Helvetic Republic, 406-407; remodelled in 1803, 407; of 1815, 408; of cantons liberalized, 409; of 1848, 410; revision of 1874, 410; nature of government established by, 411-416; amendment, 431-432. —Council of State, executive agency in cantons, 421. —Council of the States, composition, 427; compared with Senate of United States, 427-428; powers, 428-429; procedure, 429-430. —Courts, of the cantons, 422; absence of administrative tribunals, 425-426; the Bundesgericht, 437-438; Civil Code, 439. —Diet, of Confederation in 1803-1815, 407; after 1815, 408. —Elections, of Federal Council, 423; of National Council, 426; of Council of the States, 428; party conditions, 435-437. —Federal Assembly, relations with Federal Council, 424-425; composition, 426; powers, 428-429; procedure, 429-430. —Federal Court. See Bundesgericht. —Federalism, triumph of in 1803, 407; in 1815, 408; survival in present constitutional system, 411; as a political issue, 434. —Federal Pact, 408. —Franchise, 426. —Gemeindeversammlung, 422. —Greater Council, of the canton, 418-419. —Helvetic Republic, creation and character, 406-407. —Initiative, employment in cantons, 421; in the federal government, 432-434. —Judiciary. See Courts. —Landammann, 421-422. —Landesgemeinde, 417-418. —Law, 439. —Left. See Radical Party. —Liberal Party, character, 435. —National Council, composition, 426; organization, 427; powers, 428-429; procedure, 429-430. —Parties, prolonged ascendancy of Radicals, 434; alignments to-day, 434-435; stability of groups, 435-436; inactivity, 436-437. —President, election and functions, 422-424. —Proportional Representation, 419, 433. —Radical Party, prolonged ascendancy, 434; present character, 434-436. —Referendum, origins, 419; operation in cantons, 419-420; optional form in federal government, 430-431; obligatory form, 431-432. —Right. See Clerical Party. —Socialist Party, rise, 434-436. —Sonderbund, 409. —Vienna, Congress of, disposition of Swiss affairs, 408.

Table of Magnates. See Hungary.

Woman's Suffrage, in Great Britain, 91-92; in Holland, 527-528; in Norway, 582; in Sweden, 596-597. Württemberg, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 278-279.

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centered.]

1903 1907 Seats gained Seats lost

Centre 102 104 2 0

Conservatives 53 58 5 0

Free Conservatives 22 22 0 0

National Liberals 51 56 5 0

Social Democrats 79 43 0 36

Radicals 42 50 8 0

Antisemites and Economic Union 22 30 8 0

Poles 16 20 4 0

Liberal Union 10 13 3 0

Volkspartei (Democrats of South) 6 7 1 0

Alsatians 10 7 0 3

Guelfs or Hanoverians 5 1 0 4

Danes 1 1 6 0

Independents 0 7 7 0

—— —— —— ——

Total 397 397 43 43

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Transcriber's note: The listing in the index for "Switzerland, Bundesrath" refers the reader "Switzerland, Federal Council", which is absent in the original text.