Footnotes (continued 2)

418.

As to Befana and her connexion with Epiphany, see J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 234. The personified Befana, an ugly but good-natured old woman, is known in Sicily as well as Italy. See G. Pitrè, Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane (Palermo, 1881), p. 167. As to the ceremony in the Piazza Navona, see H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Kleine Schriften, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 108 sqq., who rightly compares it to the Swiss ceremonies observed at and near Brunnen on Twelfth Night. I witnessed the noisy scene in the Piazza Navona in January, 1901.

419.

P. Fabbri, “Canti popolari raccolti sui monti della Romagna-Toscana,” Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni Popolari, xxii. (1903) pp. 356 sq.; H. Usener, Kleine Schriften, iv. 108 note 62. In the Abruzzi, on the evening before Epiphany, musicians go from house to house serenading the inmates with songs and the strains of fiddles, guitars, organs, and so forth. They are accompanied by others carrying lanterns, torches, or burning branches of juniper. See Antonio de Nino, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi (Florence, 1879-1883), ii. 178-180; G. Finamore, Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), pp. 88 sq. Such house to house visitations may be a relic of an old expulsion of witches and demons.

420.

Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, The Home of a Naturalist (London, 1888), p. 136. Compare County Folk-lore, vol. iii. Orkney and Shetland Islands, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 196. As to the Trows, whose name is doubtless identical with the Norse Trolls (Swedish troll, Norwegian trold), see Edmondston and Saxby, op. cit. pp. 189 sqq.; John Jamieson, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition, edited by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iv. 630 sq., who observes that “while the Fairies are uniformly represented as social, cheerful, and benevolent beings, the Trows are described as gloomy and malignant, ever prone to injure men.”

421.

Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, The Home of a Naturalist (London, 1888), p. 146. Compare County Folk-lore, vol. iii. Orkney and Shetland Islands, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), pp. 202 sq.

422.

The Shetland News, February 1st, 1913, p. 5. As January 5th is reckoned Christmas in Shetland, the celebration of Up-helly-a' falls on January 29th. See J. Nicolson, in The World's Work and Play, February, 1906, pp. 283 sqq. For further information relating to the ceremony I am indebted to the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute David J. Mackenzie (formerly of Lerwick, now of Kilmarnock). According to one of his correspondents, the Rev. Dr. J. Willcock of Lerwick, the present elaborate form of the ceremony dates only from 1882, when the Duke of Edinburgh visited Lerwick on naval business, and Up-helly-a' was celebrated in his honour on a grander scale than ever before. Yet Dr. Willcock apparently does not deny the antiquity of the festival in a simpler form, for in his letter he says: “In former times an old boat filled with tar was set on fire and dragged about, as were also lighted tar-barrels.” Another authority on Shetland antiquities, Mr. Gilbert Goudie, writes to Sheriff Mackenzie that “the kicking about and burning a tar-barrel is very old in Lerwick.” Compare County Folk-lore, iii. Orkney and Shetland Islands, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 205: “Formerly, blazing tar-barrels were dragged about the town, and afterwards, with the first break of morning, dashed over the knab into the sea.” Up-helly-a', the Shetland name for Antinmas, is no doubt the same with Uphalyday, which Dr. J. Jamieson (Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition, iv. 676) defines as “the first day after the termination of the Christmas holidays,” quoting two official documents of a.d. 1494 and 1541 respectively. I have to thank my friend Miss Anderson of Barskimming, Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly calling my attention to this interesting relic of the past.

423.

Stephen Powers, Tribes of California (Washington, 1877), p. 159.

424.

G. Catlin, North American Indians, Fourth Edition (London, 1844), i. 166 sqq.; id., O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans (London, 1867).

425.

Diego de Landa, Relation des Choses de Yucatan (Paris, 1864), pp. 203-205, 211-215; E. Seler, “The Mexican Chronology,” Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28 (Washington, 1904), p. 17. As to the Maya calendar see further Cyrus Thomas, The Maya Year (Washington, 1894), pp. 19 sqq. (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology).

426.

W. E. Roth, Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines (Brisbane and London, 1897), pp. 120-125.

427.

J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 172. Compare above, p. 149.

428.

R. H. Elliot, Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore (London, 1871), i. 60 sq.

429.

A. C. Winter, “Russische Volksbräuche bei Seuchen,” Globus, lxxix. (1901) p. 302. For the Russian ceremony of drawing a plough round a village to keep out the cattle plague, see also W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 396 sqq.

430.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 278.

431.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) p. 174.

432.

Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khasis (London, 1907), p. 157; A. Bastian, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte, 1881, p. 151; id., Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra (Berlin, 1883), pp. 6 sq.

433.

Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 605. See The Dying God, p. 259.

434.

Capt. T. H. Lewin, Wild Races of South-Eastern India (London, 1870), p. 185.

435.

Father Sangermano, Description of the Burmese Empire (Rangoon, 1885), p. 98; Capt. C. J. F. S. Forbes, British Burma (London, 1878), pp. 216 sq.; Shway Yoe, The Burman, his Life and Notions (London, 1882), ii. 334 sq., 342.

436.

F. E. Sawyer, “S. Swithin and Rainmakers,” The Folk-lore Journal, i. (1883) p. 214.

437.

Francis Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,” Asiatick Researches, vi. (London, 1801) pp. 193 sq. Compare Lieut.-General A. Fytche, Burma Past and Present (London, 1878), i. 248 note 1; Max and Bertha Ferrars, Burma (London, 1900), p. 184; (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. ii. pp. 95, 279.

438.

J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Celebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), p. 282.

439.

For particulars as to the winds of Assam I am indebted to my friend Mr. J. D. Anderson, formerly of the Indian Civil Service, who resided many years in that country.

440.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 98 sq.

441.

G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoevell, “Leti-eilanden,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiii. (1890) p. 207. However, it is not quite clear from the writer's words (“Immers de mannen en vrouwen in twee partijeen verdeelt en elk een stuk van de roten in de hande houdende bootsen toch ook door't voor- en achteroverbuigen van't lichaam de bewegingen van cohabitie na”) whether the men and women take opposite sides or are distributed between the two.

442.

T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 168; compare 64. “The Chirus have six crop festivals, one of which, that before the crops are cut, is marked by a rope-pulling ceremony of the same nature as that observed among the Tangkhuls” (op. cit. p. 172). The headman (khullākpa) “is a sacrosanct person, the representative of the village in all religious rites, and surrounded by special alimentary, social and conjugal gennas” or taboos (op. cit. p. 110).

443.

Stewart Culin, Korean Games (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 35; A. C. Haddon, The Study of Man (London and New York, 1898), p. 274.

444.

G. W. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 sq.

445.

H. von Rosenberg, Der malayisch Archipel (Leipsic, 1878), p. 462.

446.

Edward Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xxii. (1911) pp. 158 sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco (Helsingfors, 1913), p. 122.

447.

E. Westermarck, Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco (Helsingfors, 1913). pp. 121 sq.

448.

E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xxii. (1911) p. 159.

449.

H. Coudreau, Chez nos Indiens, Quatre Années dans la Guayane Française (Paris, 1895), p. 234.

450.

Major Forbes, Eleven Years in Ceylon (London, 1840), i. 358.

451.

Sir Henry M. Elliot, Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the North-Western Provinces of India, edited, revised, and re-arranged by John Beames (London, 1869), i. 235.

452.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 321.

453.

E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xxii. (1911) p. 158.

454.

John Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 92; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), pp. 319-321.

455.

C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, op. cit. p. 321.

456.

Jules Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), i. 13, ii. 153-165. Compare Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), i. 86 sqq.; and as to the game of soule, see Guerry, in Mémoires des Antiquaires de France, viii. (1829) pp. 459-461.

457.

In the parish of Vieux-Pont, in the department of Orne, the man who is last married before the first Sunday in Lent must throw a ball from the foot of the cross. The village lads compete with each other for its possession. To win it the lad must carry it through three parishes without being overtaken by his rivals. See A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 244 sq.

458.

J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, “Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer Volksstamm,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, liii. (1901) pp. 140 sq.

459.

Edouard Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux (St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 148.

460.

François Valentyn, Oud- en nieuw Ost-Indiën (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 14. L. de Backer (L'Archipel Indien, Paris, 1874, pp. 377 sq.) copies from Valentyn.

461.

J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), pp. 304 sq.

462.

J. G. F. Riedel, op. cit. pp. 25 sq.

463.

Ibid. p. 141.

464.

See above, p. 155.

465.

J. G. F. Riedel, op. cit. p. 78.

466.

Ibid. p. 357.

467.

Ibid. pp. 266, 304 sq., 327, 357; H. Ling Roth, Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (London, 1896), i. 284.

468.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo (London, 1912), ii. 122 sq.

469.

W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900), pp. 433-435. For other examples of sending away plague-laden boats in the Malay region see J. G. F. Riedel, op. cit. pp. 181, 210; R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 104; A. Bastian, Indonesien, i. 147; C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 150; C. F. H. Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvii. (1882) p. 441; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 12, pp. 229-231; A. L. van Hasselt, Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra (Leyden, 1882), p. 98; C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 835; H. Ling Roth, “Low's Natives of Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii, (1893) p. 25; C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), i. 461 sq.; J. A. Jacobsen, Reisen in der Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres (Berlin, 1896), p. 110.

470.

H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss's Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (1911) pp. 329 sq.

471.

F. Blumentritt, “Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und der Inselgruppe der Talamianen,” Globus, lix. (1891) p. 183.

472.

J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe (Paris, 1832-1833), v. 311.

473.

Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (1881), p. 401; W. Svoboda, “Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, vi. (1893) pp. 10 sq.

474.

P. Denjoy, “An-nam, Médecins et Sorciers, Remèdes et Superstitions,” etc., Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, v. (1894) pp. 409 sq. Compare É. Aymonier, Voyage dans le Laos (Paris, 1895-1897), i. 121. For Siamese applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals, see A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 295 sq., 485 sq.

475.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. p. 48, § 418 (January, 1884).

476.

Id., iii. p. 81, § 373 (February 1886).

477.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 142. Bulls are used as scapegoats for cholera in Cashmeer (H. G. M. Murray-Aynsley, in Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 398 sq.).

478.

Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections of Indian Official, New Edition (Westminster, 1893), i. 203.

479.

Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, op. cit. i. 198.

480.

F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras), an Aboriginal Hill People of the Eastern Ghats,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, i. 213, note.

481.

Mr. Y. V. Athalye, in Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, i. 37.

482.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 169 sq.; id., Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 445.

483.

Kausika Sutra, xiv. 22 (W. Caland, Altindisches Zauberritual, Amsterdam, 1900, p. 29); H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894), p. 498.

484.

Kausika Sutra, xviii. 16 (W. Caland, Altindisches Zauberritual, pp. 44 sq.).

485.

Dom Daniel Sour Dharim Dena (a Dinka convert), in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, lx. (1888) pp. 57 sq.

486.

H. Seidel, “Krankheit, Tod, und Begräbnis bei den Togonegern,” Globus, lxxii. (1897) p. 24.

487.

D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii. No. 3 (October, 1870), p. 237.

488.

Jivangi Jimshedji Modi, B.A., “On the Chariot of the Goddess, a Supposed Remedy for driving out an Epidemic,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, vol. iv. No. 8 (Bombay, 1899), pp. 420-424; Captain C. Eckford Luard, in Census of India, 1901, vol. xix., Central India (Lucknow, 1902), p. 78.

489.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 342.

490.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda, pp. 109, 200. As to the perpetual fire at the entrance to a king's enclosure, see id. pp. 103, 197, 202 sq.

491.

J. H. Gray, China (London, 1878), ii. 306.

492.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. p. 75, § 598 (April, 1884); W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 170.

493.

Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and Superstitions of the Orāōs” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 17; compare H. C. Streatfield, ibid. p. 37.

494.

North Indian Notes and Queries, i. pp. 55, 74 sq., 77, §§ 417, 499, 516 (July and August, 1891), quoting G. W. Traill, Statistical Sketch of Kumaun, pp. 68 sq., and Moorcroft and Trebeck, Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjáb, i. 17 sq. Compare E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 834 sq.

495.

W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet, A Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891 (London, 1891), p. 209. Compare Hue, Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet, Sixième Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 379 sq. For a description of Potala Hill and its grand palace, see L. Austine Waddell, Lhasa and its Mysteries (London, 1905), pp. 330 sqq., 387 sqq.

496.

Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Notes and Queries, No. 3 (Singapore, 1886), pp. 80 sq.

497.

J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), p. 393.

498.

A. Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 93.

499.

Ivor H. N. Evans, “Notes on the Religious Beliefs, Superstitions, Ceremonies and Tabus of the Dusuns of the Tuaran and Tempassuk Districts, British North Borneo,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xlii. (1912) pp. 382-384.

500.

A. Bastian, op. cit. ii. 91.

501.

V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) pp. 228 sq.

502.

Captain F. Wilford, “An Essay on the Sacred Isles in the West,” Asiatic Researches, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 96 sq.

503.

J. H. Gray, China (London, 1878), ii. 306 sq.

504.

W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Corea,” The American Anthropologist, iv. (1891) p. 185; Mrs. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), ii. 56.

505.

Stewart Culin, Korean Games (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 12.

506.

Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa, edited by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1876), pp. 106 sq. Compare Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet (London, 1902), p. 116.

507.

Missionary Fage, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxix. (1857) p. 321.

508.

T. J. Hutchinson, Impressions of Western Africa (London, 1858), p. 162; Rev. J. Macdonald, Religion and Myth (London, 1893), pp. 105-107; Hugh Goldie, Calabar and its Mission, New Edition (Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 49 sq.; Miss Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (London, 1897), p. 495; Major A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (London, 1906), pp. 449-451. The ceremony takes place both in Creek Town and Duke Town. The date of it, according to Miss Kingsley, is either every November or every second November; but with the exception of Mr. Macdonald, who does not mention the period, the other authorities agree in describing the ceremony as biennial. According to Major Leonard it is celebrated usually towards the end of the year. Miss Kingsley speaks of the effigies being set up in the houses themselves; but all the other writers say or imply that they are set up at the doors of the houses in the streets. According to Mr. Goldie the spirits expelled are “all the ghosts of those who have died since the last lustration.” He makes no mention of devils.

509.

Missionary F. Terrien, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, liv. (1882) pp. 375-377.

510.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 58 sqq.

511.

Jakob Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. We have seen (above, p. 193) that these people used a toad as a scapegoat to free them from the influenza.

512.

H. von Wlislocki, Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner (Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 65 sq.

513.

Major A. Playfair, The Garos (London, 1909), p. 92.

514.

E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of the North-West Provinces,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, liii. Pt. i. (1884) p. 62; id., The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 871.

515.

Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 439.

516.

W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” American Antiquarian, vii. (1885) p. 237.

517.

Ibid. p. 236; T. Dwight, Travels in New England and New York (London, 1823), iv. 202.

518.

Above, p. 127.

519.

Leviticus xvi. The word translated “scapegoat” in the Authorised Version is Azazel, which appears rather to be the name of a bad angel or demon, to whom the goat was sent away. “In later Jewish literature (Book of Enoch) Azazel appears as the prince of the fallen angels, the offspring of the unions described in Gen. vi. 1 ff. The familiar rendering ‘scapegoat,’ i.e. the goat which is allowed to escape, goes back to the caper emissarius of the Vulgate, and is based on an untenable etymology” (Professor A. R. S. Kennedy, in his commentary on Leviticus xvi. 8, in the Century Bible). There is some ground for thinking that the animal was killed by being thrown over a certain crag that overhangs a rocky chasm not far from Jerusalem. See Encyclopædia Biblica, ed. T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, vol. i. (London, 1899) coll. 394 sqq., s.v. “Azazel.” Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the Day of Atonement, nine days after the beginning of their New Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given to the poor. See J. Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica (Bâle, 1661), ch. xxv. pp. 508 sqq.

520.

S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger (London, 1859), pp. 343-345. Compare J. F. Schön and S. Crowther, Journals (London, 1848), pp. 48 sq. The account of the custom by J. Africanus B. Horton (West African Countries and Peoples, pp. 185 sq.) is taken entirely from Taylor.

521.

Major A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (London, 1906), pp. 446 sqq.

522.

An Igbodu is a sacred grove in which oracles are given. It is divided into three compartments by fences of palm branches and the omu shrub. Into the first compartment women and uninitiated men may enter; into the other two only priestly officials are permitted, according to their rank in the hierarchy, to enter. See Bishop James Johnson, “Yoruba Heathenism,” quoted by R. E. Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind (London, 1906), p. 254.

523.

Bishop James Johnson, op. cit. p. 263. Bishop Johnson is a native African. It does not appear whether the sacrifice which he describes is occasional or periodical.

524.

Turpin, “History of Siam,” in J. Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels (London, 1808-1814), ix. 579.

525.

The oho-harahi or “Great Purification” is a ceremony, which used to be performed in the Japanese capital twice every year, namely on the last days of the sixth and twelfth month. It included a preliminary lustration, expiatory offerings, and the recital of a norito or formula (not a prayer), in which the Mikado, by virtue of an authority transmitted to him from the Sun-goddess, pronounced to his ministers and people the absolution and remission of their sins. See W. G. Aston, Shinto (London, 1905), pp. 294 sqq. The writer adds (p. 295): “The Chinese had an oho-harahi, defined by Mr. Giles in his Chinese Dictionary as ‘a religious ceremony of purification performed in spring and autumn, with a view to secure divine protection for agricultural interests.’ ” The popular celebrations of the first of May and the first of November in Europe seem to be relics of similar biennial purifications.

526.

W. G. Aston, Shinto, pp. 308 sq.

527.

W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter und ihr Verhältnis zum Brahmanismus,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478.

528.

Aeneas Sylvius, Opera (Bâle, 1571), pp. 423 sq.

529.

H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxx. (1875) p. 198; id., Kleine Schriften, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 109 sq. The custom seems to have been revived in the latter part of the nineteenth century; perhaps it may still be observed. See H. Herzog, Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche (Aarau, 1884), pp. 293 sq.; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.

530.

L. Curtius, “Christi Himmelfahrt,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xiv. (1911) p. 307, quoting the Münchener Neuesten Nachrichten, No. 235, May 21st, 1909.

531.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 164 sqq.

532.

On the use of eponymous magistrates as annual scapegoats see above, pp. 39-41.

533.

J. Thomas Phillips, Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning of the People of Malabar (London, 1717), pp. 6, 12 sq.

534.

Herodotus, ii. 39.

535.

Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, New Edition (London, 1878), iii. 403 sqq.

536.

Herodotus, l.c. As to the worship of sacred bulls in ancient Egypt, see further Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 34 sqq.

537.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 175 sqq., 314 sq.

538.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. p. 54, § 335 (December, 1884).

539.

Strabo, xi. 4. 7, p. 503. For the custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim, compare Demosthenes, Or. xxiii. 68, p. 642; Pausanias, iii. 20. 9.

540.

The ceremony referred to is perhaps the one performed on the tenth day, as described in the text.

541.

“Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc., Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxxviii. (1868) pp. 167, 170 sq.; “Four Years Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, N.S. vii. (1885) pp. 67 sq.; W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet, a Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891 (London, 1891), pp. 211 sq.; L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (London, 1895), pp. 504 sqq., 512 sq.; J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie 1890-1895: Récit du Voyage (Paris, 1897), pp. 257 sq. The accounts supplement each other, though they differ in some particulars. I have endeavoured to combine them. According to Mr. Rockhill's account, which is drawn from Chinese sources, at one point of the ceremonies the troops march thrice round the temple and fire volleys of musketry to drive away the devil. With the like intent they discharge a great old cannon, which bears the inscription, “My power breaks up and destroys rebellion.” The same account speaks of a fencing with battle-axes by a troop of boy-dancers, a great illumination of the cathedral with lanterns, and its decoration with figures made out of butter and flour to represent men, animals, dragons, etc.; also it makes mention of a horse-race and a foot-race, both run by boys. The clerical invasion of the capital at this season is graphically described by an eye-witness. See Huc, Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet, Sixième Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 380 sq.

542.

In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a time of license. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed, and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of license. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital, including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments begin to fire, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the description of the festival in H. A. Oldfield's Sketches from Nipal (London, 1880), ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in India, see J. A. Dubois, Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l'Inde (Paris, 1825), ii. 329 sqq. The Besisi of the Malay Peninsula hold a regular carnival at the end of the rice-harvest, when they are said to be allowed to exchange wives. See W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London, 1906), ii. 70, 76, 145, compare 120 sq. Amongst the Swahili of East Africa New Year's Day was formerly a day of general license, “every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels were settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no inquiry was instituted about the matter.” See Ch. New, Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa (London, 1873), p. 65; and The Golden Bough,2 iii. 250. An annual period of anarchy and license, lasting three days, is reported by Borelli to be observed by some of the Gallas. See Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somal (Berlin, 1896), p. 158. In Ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time of general license. See Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 62.

543.

See The Dying God, pp. 233 sqq., 264.

544.

Above, pp. 186, 189, 201.

545.

H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F. (1875) xxx. 194; id., Kleine Schriften, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) p. 105.

546.

Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems to be a mistake. See H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, xxx. (1875) pp. 209 sqq.; id., Kleine Schriften, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 122 sqq. Again, Lydus does not expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is preserved by Varro, De lingua latina, vi. 45; Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 131; Plutarch, Numa, 13. Mr. W. Warde Fowler is disposed to be sceptical as to the antiquity of the ceremony of expelling Mamurius. See his Roman Festivals of the period of the Republic (London, 1899), pp. 44-50.

547.

H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” pp. 212 sq.; id., Kleine Schriften, iv. 125 sq.; W. H. Roscher, Apollon und Mars (Leipsic, 1873), p. 27; L. Preller, Römische Mythologie3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 360; A. Vaniček, Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (Leipsic, 1877), p. 715. The three latter scholars take Veturius as = annuus, because vetus is etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it seems quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of the Latin.

548.

Cato, De agri cultura, 141.

549.

Varro, De lingua latina, v. 85.

550.

See the song of the Arval Brothers in Acta Fratrum Arvalium, ed. G. Henzen (Berlin, 1874), pp. 26 sq.; J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (Oxford, 1874), p. 158; H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) p. 276.

551.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 42 sqq.

552.

Cato, De agri cultura, 83.

553.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 50 sq., 55, 124 sq.

554.

L. Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 i. 360; W. H. Roscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 49; id., Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 2408 sq.; H. Usener, op. cit. The ceremony also closely resembles the Highland New Year ceremony already described. See Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 322 sqq.

555.

But the Biyârs, a mixed tribe of North-Western India, observe an annual ceremony which they call “burning the old year.” The old year is represented by a stake of the wood of the cotton-tree, which is planted in the ground at an appointed place outside of the village, and then burned on the day of the full moon in the month of Pûs. Fire is first put to it by the village priest, and then all the people follow his example, parch stalks of barley in the fire, and afterwards eat them. Next day they throw the ashes of the burnt wood in the air; and on the morrow the festival ends with a regular saturnalia, at which decency and order are forgotten. See W. Crooke, Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 137 sq. Compare id., Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 319.

556.

Propertius, v. 2. 61 sq.; H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” p. 210; id., Kleine Schriften, iv. 123.

557.

Varro, De lingua latina, vi. 45 ed. C. O. Müller; Festus, s.v. “Mamuri Veturi,” p. 131 ed. C. O. Müller; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 389 sqq.; Plutarch, Numa, 13.

558.

Servius, on Virgil, Aen. vii. 188, “Cui [scil. Mamurio] et diem consecrarunt, quo pellem virgis feriunt”; Minucius Felix, Octavius, 24, “Nudi cruda hieme discurrunt, alii incedunt pilleati, scuta vetera circumferunt, pelles caedunt.” Neither Servius nor Minucius Felix expressly mentions the Salii, but the description given by the latter writer (“pilleati, scuta vetera circumferunt”) proves that he alludes to them. The expression of Minucius Felix pelles caedunt is conclusive in favour of pellem in the passage of Servius, where some would wrongly substitute peltam, the reading of a single MS. That the beating of the skin-clad representative of Mamurius was done by the Salii was long ago rightly pointed out by Dr. W. H. Roscher (Apollon und Mars, p. 49).

559.

Varro, De lingua latina, v. 85, “Saliia salitando, quod facere in comitio in sacris quotannis et solent et debent.” Compare Ovid, Fasti, iii. 387, “Iam dederat Saliis a saltu nomina dicta”; Plutarch, Numa, 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquitates Romanae, ii. 70.

560.

J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) p. 431; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer2 (Munich, 1912), p. 144; W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1911), pp. 96 sq.

561.

Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 325, “Qui deus in saliaribus Saturnus nominatur, videlicet a sationibus.” In this passage Ritschl reads Saeturnus for Saturnus. The best MSS. of the epitome read Sateurnus. See J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (Oxford, 1884), p. 405. As to Saturn in this capacity see below, p. 306.

562.

Columella, De re rustica, ii. 9. 6 sq.

563.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 137 sqq.

564.

J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 427 sq.

565.

L. Preller, Römische Mythologie3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 359. As to the lunar year of the old Roman Calendar see L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 38 sqq.

566.

As to their number and badge see Aulus Gellius, vi. (vii., ed. M. Hertz) 7. 8; as to their function see Varro, De lingua latina, v. 85, “Fratres Arvales dicti sunt, qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut fruges ferant arva, a ferendo et arvis fratres arvales dicti.”

567.

Livy, i. 20. 4; Plutarch, Numa, 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquitates Romanae, ii. 70. Livy only mentions the shields. From an ancient relief we learn that the staves of the Salii terminated in a knob at each end. Hence we may correct the statement of Dionysius, who describes the weapon doubtfully as λόγχην ἣ ῥάβδον ἤ τι τοιοῦθ ἕτερον. See J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, iii.2 432, note 6.

568.

See above, pp. 113, 116, 117, 132, 139, 141, 147, 158, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 186, 191, 196, 200, 204, 214.

569.

Livy, i. 20. 4; J. Marquardt, op. cit. iii.2 432 sq.; W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Third Edition (London, 1891), vol. ii. p. 590, s.v. “Salii.”

570.

See above, pp. 111 sqq.

571.

See above, p. 138.

572.

Labat, Voyage du Chevalier Des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne (Amsterdam, 1731), ii. 80 (p. 99 of the Paris edition).

573.

Olivier de Sanderval, De l'Atlantique au Niger par le Foutah-Djallon (Paris, 1883), p. 230. The phrase which I have translated “for exorcising the spirits” is “pour conjurer les esprits.”

574.

Ludovico di Varthema, Travels in Egypt, Syria, etc., translated by J. W. Jones (Hakluyt Society, London, 1863), pp. 166 sq.

575.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 95, 186 sq.

576.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 111 sq.

577.

Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, liii. (1881) p. 178.

578.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 330 sq.

579.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 335 sqq., 352 sq.

580.

K. Th. Preuss, Die Nayarit-Expedition, I. Die Religion der Cora-Indianer (Leipsic, 1912), pp. xcviii. sq., 61-63. As to the sowing festival of the Mexican Indians, compare K. Th. Preuss, “Die religiösen Gesänge und Mythen einiger Stämme der mexikanischen Sierra Madre,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xi. (1908) pp. 374 sqq.

581.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 137-139.

582.

Dr. F. J. Vonbun, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie gesammelt in Churrhaetien (Chur, 1862), p. 21, quoting J. Stumpf and Ulr. Campell. As the passage is curious and the work probably rare, I will quote the original in full: “Sicherlich auch im zusammenhange mit Donarcultus war ein brauch der leute in der Grub (in Graubünden). ‘Die landleute in der Grub haben noch etwas anererbte bräuche, indem dass sie sich zu etlichen jahren (meistens zur zeit der sonnenwende) besammelten, verbutzten (sich als masken vermummten) und einander unbekannt machten, legten harnisch und geweer an, und nahm jeder ein grossen kolben oder knüttel, zugen in einer rott mit einander von einem dorf zum andern, triben hohe sprünge und seltsame abentheur.—Sie luffen gestracks laufs aneinander, stiessen mit kräften je einer den andern, dass es erhillt, stiessen laut mit ihren grössen stöcken und knütteln, deswegen sie vom landvolk genannt werden die Stopfer. Diese thorechte abentheuer triben sie zum aberglauben, dass ihnen das korn destobas gerathen sölle, haben aber anjetzo abgelassen, und sind diese Stopfer in keiner achtung mehr.’ (Joh. Stumpf). Auch Ulr. Campell erwähnt dieses volksbrauch (s. 11) und bemerkt: ‘mit diesem gebrauche hing früher der glaube zusammen, dass dessen ausübung ein fruchtbares jahr bringe.’ ” The word Stopfer means “stopper,” “rammer,” “crammer,” etc.

583.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 226 sqq., iii. 88 sq.; Fr. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 247 sq., ii. 381; I. V. Zingerle, “Perahta in Tirol,” Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie, iii. (Göttingen, 1855), pp. 203-206; id., Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 128 sq., 138 sq.; J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, Mythen und Sagen Tirols (Zürich, 1857), pp. 46-51, 63-65; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 365; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), § 25, pp. 25-27; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme (Berlin, 1875), pp. 542 sq.; Karl Weinhold, Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland und Schlesien (Vienna, 1875), pp. 19 sqq.; E. Mogk, in H. Paul's Grundriss der germanischen Philologie,2 iii. (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 280 sq. (where it is said that Perchta “spendet dem Acker Fruchtbarkeit und lässt das Vieh gedeihen”); E. H. Meyer, Mythologie der Germanen (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 424 sqq.; P. Herrmann, Deutsche Mythologie (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 303 sqq.; M. Andree-Eysen, Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 156 sqq.; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes (Zürich, 1913), pp. 118 sqq.

584.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 231; I. V. Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 138 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 542 sq.; J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, Mythen und Sagen Tirols (Zürich, 1857), pp. 50 sq.; K. Weinhold, Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland und Schlesien (Vienna, 1875), pp. 21 sqq.

585.

Marie Andree-Eysn, Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 156-175.

586.

Marie Andree-Eysn, Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 179 sq. The authoress kindly presented me with a copy of her valuable work in May 1910, when I had the pleasure of visiting her and her husband, the eminent anthropologist, the late Dr. Richard Andree, in their home at Munich.

587.

See P. Sartori, “Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) pp. 360 sqq. The use in classical antiquity of bells, gongs, and the clash of bronze generally to ban the demon host has been learnedly illustrated by Mr. A. B. Cook in his article, “The Gong at Dodona,” Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxii. (1902) pp. 14 sqq.

588.

Rev. A. L. Kitching, On the Backwaters of the Nile (London, 1912), p. 264. As to the country of the Teso people, who do not belong to the Bantu stock, see id., pp. 26 sq.

589.

Marie Andree-Eysn, op. cit. pp. 180-182. As to the custom of “ringing-out the grass,” see further W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 540; The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 343 sq.

590.

Marie Andree-Eysn, op. cit. p. 182.

591.

Marie Andree-Eysn, l.c.

592.

K. Seifart, Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheim2 (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 180. For more evidence of the supposed fertilizing influence of bells, see P. Sartori, “Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) pp. 363 sq.

593.

I. V. Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 135 sq., 139, § 1196, 1211, 1212.

594.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 268 sq.

595.

Marie Andree-Eysn, op. cit. pp. 182 sq.

596.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 548.

597.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.

598.

See above, p. 236.

599.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 325 sqq.

600.

T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 32; County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 3, Leicestershire and Rutlandshire, collected and edited by C. J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 93 sq.

601.

Mrs. Lilly Grove (Mrs. J. G. Frazer), Dancing (London, 1895), pp. 147 sqq.; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 195 sqq.

602.

As to the swords carried by the Perchten see above, p. 245; as to those carried by the dancers on Plough Monday, see J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 505. As to the sword-dance in general, see K. Müllenhoff, “Über den Schwerttanz,” in Festgaben für Gustav Homeyer (Berlin, 1871), pp. 111-147 (who compares the dances of the Salii); Mrs. Lilly Grove, op. cit. pp. 189 sqq., 211 sqq.; E. K. Chambers, op. cit. i. 182 sqq.

603.

See below, pp. 331 sqq.

604.

Plutarch, Quaest. conviv. vi. 8.

605.

See above, pp. 143 sqq., 209.

606.

Servius on Virgil, Aen. iii. 57, following Petronius; Lactantius Placidius, Commentarii in Statii Thebaida x. 793, p. 452, ed. R. Jahnke (Leipsic, 1898). According to the former writer, the scapegoat was cast out (“projiciebatur”); according to the latter, he was stoned to death by the people outside of the walls (“extra pomeria saxis occidebatur a populo”). The statement of some modern writers that he was killed by being hurled from a height rests on a reading (“praecipitabatur” for “projiciebatur”) in the text of Servius, which appears to have no manuscript authority and to be merely a conjecture of R. Stephan's. Yet the conjecture has been inserted in the text by F. Buecheler in his edition of Petronius (Third Edition, Berlin, 1882, p. 109) without any intimation that all the MSS. present a different reading. See the critical edition of Servius edited by G. Thilo and H. Hagen, vol. i. (Leipsic, 1881), p. 346.

607.

Helladius, in Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 534 A, ed. Im. Bekker (Berlin, 1824); Scholiast on Aristophanes, Frogs, 734, and on Knights, 1136; Hesychius, Lexicon, s.v. φαρμακοὶ; compare Suidas, Lexicon, s.vv. κάθαρμα, φαρμακός, and φαρμακούς; Lysias, Orat. vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from Harpocration. See next note. When the people of Cyrene sacrificed to Saturn (Cronus), they wore crowns of fresh figs on their heads. See Macrobius, Saturn, i. 7. 25.

608.

Harpocration, Lexicon, s.v. φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας ᾽Αθήνησιν ἐξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις, ἕνα μὲν ὑπὲρ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπὲρ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not expressly state that they were put to death; but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to death, we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned. Suidas (s.v. φαρμακός) copies Harpocration. As to the human scapegoats employed by the Greeks at the Thargelia and on other occasions see W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 124 sqq.; J. Töpffer, Beiträge zur griechischen Altertumswissenschaft (Berlin, 1897), pp. 130 sqq.; August Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468 sqq.; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 95 sqq.; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 105 sqq.; W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” Revue Archéologique, iv. Série ix. (1907) pp. 51-57.

609.

Ovid, Ibis, 467 sq.: “Aut te devoveat certis Abdera diebus Saxaque devotum grandine plura petant,” with the two scholia quoted respectively by M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste, p. 108 note 6, and by O. Schneider, in his Callimachea (Leipsic, 1870-1873), ii. 684. The scholiast refers to Callimachus as his authority.

610.

Strabo, x. 2. 9, p. 542; Photius, Lexicon, s.v. Λευκάτης; L. Ampelius, Liber Memorialis, viii. 4; Servius, on Virgil, Aen. iii. 279; Ptolemaeus Hephaest., Nov. Histor. in Photius, Bibliotheca, cod. 190, p. 153, ed. Im. Bekker; Mythographi Graeci, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), pp. 198 sq. According to the manuscript reading in Photius, l.c., the priests flung themselves into the sea; but the reading has been altered by the editors. As to the Kumaon ceremony see above, pp. 196 sq.

611.

Suidas and Photius, Lexicon, s.v. περίψημα. The word which I have translated “offscouring” (περίψημα) occurs in 1 Corinthians iv. 13, where it is similarly translated in the English version. It means properly that on which something is wiped off, like a sponge or a duster.

612.

J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, v. 726-761 (ed. Th. Kiesseling, Leipsic, 1826). Tzetzes's authority is the satirical poet Hipponax. The tune which was played by the flutes while the man was being beaten is mentioned by Hesychius, s.v. Κραδίης νόμος. Compare id., s.v. Κραδησίτης; Plutarch, De musica, 8.

613.

This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by Athenaeus, ix. 9, p. 370 b, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps read φαρμακοῦ with Schneidewin (Poetae lyrici Graeci,3 ed. Th. Bergk, ii. 763).

614.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 113 sqq., especially 123 sq., 133.

615.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. xx. 101; Dioscorides, De materia medica, ii. 202; Lucian, Necyom. 7; id., Alexander, 47; Theophrastus, Superstitious Man.

616.

Theocritus, vii. 106 sqq. with the scholiast.

617.

Compare Aug. Mommsen, Heortologie (Leipsic, 1864), pp. 414 sqq., id., Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468 sq., 479 sqq.; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 105, iii sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), p. 215.

618.

At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. See Diego de Landa, Relation des choses de Yucatan, texte espagnol et traduction française par l'Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864), p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy?

619.

Aelian, Nat. Anim. ix. 26.

620.

The Dying God, pp. 239 sq.

621.

The Dying God, p. 114.

622.

On the other hand, W. Mannhardt regarded the victims as representing the demons of infertility, dearth, and sickness, who in the persons of their representatives were thus hounded with blows out of the city. See his Mythologische Forschungen, p. 129.

623.

W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” Revue Archéologique, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp. 51 sqq.

624.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 313 sqq.

625.

Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquitates Romanae, ii. 56. 4. Compare Livy, i. 16. 4; Plutarch, Romulus, 27.

626.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 248. Compare Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 331 sqq.

627.

See, for example, Helladius, cited by Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 534 a, ed. Im. Bekker, καὶ ἐκράτει τὸ ἔθος ἀεὶ καθαίρειν τὴν πόλιν τοῖς φαρμακοῖς; Harpocration, s.v. φαρμακός (vol. i. p. 298, ed. G. Dindorf), δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἐξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως; Scholiast on Aristophanes, Knights, 1136, δημοσίους δέ, τοὺς λεγομένους φαρμακούς, οἵπερ καθαίρουσι τὰς πόλεις τῷ ἑαυτῶν φόνῳ.

628.

Mr. Paton ingeniously suggests that in the Biblical narrative of Adam and Eve, who for eating a particular fruit were condemned to death and driven out of the happy garden with aprons of fig-leaves about their loins (Genesis iii.), we have a reminiscence of a custom of fertilizing fig-trees by a pair of human scapegoats, who, like the victims at the Thargelia, assimilated themselves to the tree by wearing its foliage or fruit. See W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” Revue Archéologique, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp. 55 sq.

629.

Above, pp. 2, 186. Compare Plutarch, Parallela, 35, where a woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick people with a hammer and bidding them be whole.

630.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 99, 155; id., Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 333, 441, 445.

631.

A. Certeux et E. H. Carnoy, L'Algérie Traditionnelle (Paris and Algiers, 1884), p. 189.

632.

H. Kern, “Een Spanisch schrijver over den godsdienst der heidensche Bikollers,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xlvii. (1897) pp. 232 sq. The Spanish authority is Father José Castaño. An ancient Egyptian relief from Saqqarah represents a mummy at the entrance of the tomb, while the women tear out their hair and the men wave palm-branches, apparently to drive evil spirits away. The custom has been inherited by the modern Arabs, who similarly beat off the invisible foes with palm-branches. See A. Wiedemann, Herodots Zweites Buch (Leipsic, 1890), p. 347. However, in these cases the blows seem to be administered to the demons and not to the corpse.

633.

J. M. van Baarda, “Ile de Halmaheira,” Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, Quatrième Série, iii. (1892) p. 545. As to throwing a banana-trunk into the grave, see Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 97.

634.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 550.

635.

Revue d'Ethnographie, iii. (1885) pp. 395 sq.

636.

R. Schomburgk, Reisen in Britisch-Guiana (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 457 sqq.; Rev. J. H. Bernau, Missionary Labours in British Guiana (London, 1847), p. 52; C. F. Ph. von Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal Brasiliens (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 694 sq.; J. Crevaux, Voyages dans l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1883), p. 548.

637.

Servius, on Virgil, Aen. i. 329. For more evidence see C. Boetticher, Der Baumkultus der Hellenen (Berlin, 1856), pp. 369 sqq.

638.

See my note on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8, vol. ii. pp. 276 sqq.

639.

V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 227.

640.

J. de Acosta, History of the Indies, vol. ii. p. 375 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). See above, pp. 128 sqq.

641.

P. Lozano, Descripcion Chorographica del terreno, rios, arboles, y animales de las dilatadissimas provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba, etc. (Cordova, 1733), p. 67. The reappearance of the Pleiades probably marked the beginning of the year for these people. See Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 307 sqq.

642.

G. Osculati, Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni (Milan, 1850), p. 118.

643.

H. Coudreau, Chez nos Indiens: quatre années dans la Guyane Française (Paris, 1895), p. 544.

644.

G. H. Loskiel, History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America (London, 1794), Part i. p. 37.

645.

The Satapatha Brahmana, v. 4. 4. 7, translated by J. Eggeling, Part iii. (Oxford, 1894) p. 108 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli.).

646.

D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 34.

647.

On the positive benefits supposed in certain cases to flow from a beating compare S. Reinach, “La flagellation rituelle,” Cultes, Mythes et Religions, i. (Paris, 1905) pp. 180 sqq.; E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity (London, 1909-1910), i. 102 sqq.

648.

Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss's Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 124.

649.

Father Lambert, “Mœurs et Superstitions de la tribu Bélep,” Les Missions Catholique, xii. (1880) p. 273; id., Mœurs et Superstitions des Néo-Calédoniens (Nouméa, 1900), p. 218.

650.

F. J. de Santa-Anna Nery, Folk-lore Brésilien (Paris, 1889), p. 253.

651.

R. Temesváry, Volksbräuche und Aberglauben in der Geburtshilfe und der Pflege des Neugeborenen in Ungarn (Leipsic, 1900), p. 8. Compare E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity (London, 1909-1910), i. 106.

652.

A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en zijne beteekenis,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 199.

653.

E. Beardmore, “The Natives of Mowat, Daudai, New Guinea,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 464.

654.

E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xxii. (1911) pp. 163-165.

655.

See below, pp. 298, 302, 304.

656.

E. Westermarck, op. cit. pp. 165 sq., 170, 178. The purificatory character of the rite is duly recognised by Dr. Westermarck (op. cit. p. 178).

657.

J. G. v. Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), i. 155.

658.

W. H. D. Rouse, “Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades,” Folk-lore, x. (1899) p. 179.

659.

K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p. 258, § 1348.

660.

J. F. L. Woeste, Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark (Iserlohn, 1848), pp. 25 sq.; A. Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 161 sqq. The ceremony takes its name of “quickening” from Quieke or Quickenbaum, a German name for the rowan-tree. Quicken-tree is also an English name for the rowan.

661.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 52 sqq.

662.

Rev. W. Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland (London, 1881), p. 188.

663.

A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 106, § 145.

664.

J. F. L. Woeste, Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 26. Compare A. Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 179.

665.

F. S. Krauss, Kroatien und Slavonien (Vienna, 1889), p. 108.

666.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 257.

667.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich (Vienna, 1859), pp. 300 sq.; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, preface dated 1861), pp. 163-167; A. Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 285; J. A. E. Köhler, Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Überlieferungen im Voigtlande (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 173 sq.; M. Toeppen, Aberglauben aus Masuren2, (Danzig, 1867), pp. 69 sq.; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 70, § 83; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus (Berlin, 1875), pp. 258-263; W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 322, 399 sq.; Dr. F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” Globus, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), pp. 100 sq.; Alois John, Sitte, Brauche und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), pp. 67 sq. Mannhardt's whole discussion of what he calls “the Blow with the Rod of Life” (“Der Schlag mit der Lebensrute”) deserves to be studied. See his Baumkultus, pp. 251-303; and compare his treatment of the same theme, “Der Schlag mit dem Februum,” Mythologische Forschungen (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 113-153. The custom of “Easter Smacks” can be traced back to the twelfth century, when the practice was for women to beat their husbands on Easter Monday and for husbands to retaliate on their wives on Easter Tuesday. See J. Belethus, Rationale Divinorum Officiorum, cap. 120, appended to G. Durandus's Rationale Divinorum Officiorum (Lyons, 1584), p. 546 recto: “Notandum quoque est in plerisque regionibus secundo die post Pascha mulieres maritos suos verberare, ac vicissim viros eas tertio die quemadmodum licebat servis in Decembri dominos suos impune accusare.”

668.

Alois John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), pp. 5, 23 sq., 25, 28. Compare Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich (Vienna, 1859), pp. 301 sq.

669.

J. A. E. Köhler, Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Überlieferungen im Voigtlande (Leipsic, 1867), p. 174; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 264 sq.

670.

August Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), pp. 181 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 265. Compare G. Bilfinger, Unterschungen über die Zeitrechnung der alten Germanen, ii., Das Germanische Julfest (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 85 sq.

671.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 24 sq. It is highly significant that the heathen of Harran celebrated the marriage festival of all the gods and goddesses in the very month (March) in which the artificial fertilization of the date-palm was effected (D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, St. Petersburg, 1856, ii. 36, 251). The frequency with which the artificial fertilization of the palm-tree by a mythical winged figure is represented on Assyrian monuments furnishes strong evidence of the religious and economic importance of the ceremony.

672.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 40 sqq., ii. 376 sqq.

673.

J. de Acosta, The Natural and Moral History of the Indies (London, Hakluyt Society, 1880), ii. 323. I have modernized the spelling of the old English translator, whose version was originally published in 1604. Acosta resided both in Peru and Mexico, and published his work at Seville in 1590. It was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894. Compare A. de Herrera, General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Captain John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 207 sq.

674.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 sq.: “On appelait le cinquième moi toxcatl. Au premier jour on faisait une grande fête en l'honneur du dieu appelé Titlacauan, autrement dit Tezcatlipoca, que l'on croyait être le dieu des dieux. C'était en son honneur que l'on tuait, le jour de sa fête, un jeune homme choisi.... Cette fête était la principale de toutes, comme qui dirait la Pâque, et, en réalité, elle se célébrait aux environs de la Pâque de résurrection, ou quelques jours après.” Compare J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. p. 256 (Madrid, 1723). As to Tezcatlipoca, the greatest of the Mexican gods, see J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), pp. 613 sqq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), iii. 199 sqq., 237 sqq.; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 125 sqq. (Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, vol. vi. Heft 2/4).

675.

On the twenty-third of April according to the Spanish text of Sahagun's work as translated in French by D. Jourdanet and R. Simeon (p. 52); the twenty-seventh of April according to the Aztec text of Sahagun's work as translated into German by Professor E. Seler (Altmexikanische Studien, ii. 194).

676.

J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 378, 380; Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 99, 101; Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 159, 160 sq. According to Clavigero, the fifth Mexican month, in which the sacrifice of the human representative of Tezcatlipoca took place, began on the 17th of May (History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen, London, 1807, i. 299); but this must be an error.

677.

E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 117 note 1, 121-125, 153 sq., 166 sq. (Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, vol. vi. Heft 2/4).

678.

J. de Acosta, op. cit. ii. 380; Diego Duran, op. cit. ii. 101; Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), p. 160; J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. p. 257 (Madrid, 1723). I have modernized the spelling of Acosta's old translator (Edward Grimston).

679.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet, et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 sq., 96-99, 103; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899), pp. 116-165, 194-209 (the latter passage contains the Aztec text of Sahagun's account with a German translation); J. de Acosta, The Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), pp. 350 sq.; Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 157 sqq., 180 sq.; Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 98-105; J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. pp. 256 sqq. (Madrid, 1723); F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by Charles Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 300; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 510-512; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), iii. 319 sq. According to Torquemada the flesh of the human victim was eaten by the elders “as a sacred and divine flesh”; but this is not mentioned by the other authorities of the sixteenth century cited above. Elsewhere (Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 92 sq.) I cited this cannibal banquet as an example of a sacramental communion with the deity; but the silence of most early writers on the point makes it doubtful whether the custom has been correctly reported by Torquemada and later writers.

680.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 99-104; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 159-165, 202-209; F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by Ch. Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 301-303; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, iii. 512-516; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 321-324. As to the dances of the maidens wearing garlands of maize, see also J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (London, 1880), ii. 380.

681.

J. de Acosta, The Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 321; Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 118-120; Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 182 sq. Acosta's description of the idol is abridged. As to the Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, worshipped especially by the people of Cholula, see J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), pp. 577 sqq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), iii. 248 sqq.

682.

J. de Acosta, The Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 384-386. I have modernized the old translator's spelling. The accounts of Duran and the anonymous author of the Ramirez manuscript agree verbally with that of Acosta. It is plain that Acosta and Duran drew on the same source, which may be the Ramirez manuscript. However, Duran is the only one of the three who gives the date of the festival (the third of February). See Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 120 sq.; Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par de Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 182 sqq. Compare A. de Herrera, The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Captain John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 218 sq.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), pp. 589 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), iii. 286.

683.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 64, 115-117; J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana (Madrid, 1723), lib. x. cap. 18, vol. ii. p. 268. Compare F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 305; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, iii. 517 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 325-327.

684.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 65 sq., 118-126; J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana (Madrid, 1723), lib. x. cap. 19, vol. ii. pp. 269-271; E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 421-423. Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, iii. 518-520; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 326 sq. I have followed Torquemada (vol. ii. p. 269) and the French translators of Sahagun (p. 65, note 2) in deriving the name of Xilonen from xilotl in the sense of “young cobs of maize.” But according to E. J. Payne, the word xilotl means “hair,” and Xilonen is “Hairy Mother” (Mater comata) with reference to the hair-like fibres or tassels that shoot from the maize-cobs. See E. J. Payne, op. cit. i. 417. On either interpretation the goddess is a personification of the young maize. The goddess of the maize in general was called Cinteotl or Centeotl (Centeutl), a name which, according to Torquemada, is derived from centli, “maize-cob” (Monarquia Indiana, lib. vi. cap. 25, vol. ii. p. 52). But E. J. Payne, while he regards Cinteotl as the maize-goddess, explains her name differently. He says (op. cit. i. 416 sq.): “The Totonacs worshipped the corn-spirit under names which were translated into Mexican as Tzinteotl (goddess of beginning or origin) and Tonacayohua (provider of our food). They considered her to be the wife of the sun, their supreme god. Theoretically subordinated to him, the maize-goddess was in practice the chief deity of the Totonacs: it was to her service that the principal warriors, quitting their wives and children, dedicated themselves in their old age.” Similarly Clavigero, who lived many years in Mexico and learned the Mexican language, explains Cinteotl (Tzinteotl) to mean “original goddess”; he adds that the Maize Goddess changed her name “according to the different states of the grain in the progress of its growth” (History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen, i. 253 note p). Another name applied to the Maize Goddess Cinteotl was Chicomecohuatl or “Seven Snakes.” See J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 13, vol. ii. p. 255; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), pp. 491 sqq.; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 108 sq., 112. Some have held that Cinteotl was a Maize God rather than a Maize Goddess. See H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 349 sqq.

685.

The Mexican year of three hundred and sixty-five days was divided into eighteen months of twenty days each, with five supplementary days over. See J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 36, vol. ii. p. 300 (Madrid, 1723); B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), p. lxvii.; F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 290 sq.

686.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 75, 158-160; J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 29, vol. ii. pp. 284 sq. (Madrid, 1723). Compare F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 312; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique et de l' Amérique-Centrale, iii. 535 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 337 sq.

687.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 18 sq., 68 sq., 133-139: J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana (Madrid, 1723), lib. x. cap. 23, vol. ii. pp. 275 sq.; Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 185-191. Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, iii. 523-525; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 353-359; E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. (Oxford, 1892), pp. 470 sq. A statue of basalt, about half the size of life, said to have come from Tezcuco, represents a man clothed in a human skin which he wears on his body, his arms, and his face; his own skin is painted bright red, the other skin a dirty white. See H. H. Bancroft, op. cit. iv. 522; Marquis de Nadaillac, L'Amérique Préhistorique (Paris, 1883), p. 295, fig. 119. In the Art Museum (Kunst-Museum) at Bâle there is a statuette of the same sort. It is labelled: “Xipe. Der in einer Menschenhaut gekleidete Gott. Gesch. v. H. Luk. Vischer (1828-1837).” The figure is about eighteen inches high and appears to be made of a porous stone. It represents a man seated on his haunches with his feet crossed in front of him and his hands resting on his knees. His own skin, of which the legs, feet, hands, wrists, neck and part of the face are visible, is coloured a terra-cotta red. The rest of his body is covered by the representation of the skin of a human victim, of a greyish colour, quite distinct from that of the wearer, and this skin is also worn like a mask on his face. At his back the jacket of human skin only partially meets, displaying the wearer's red skin under it for some distance; it is as if the skin of the human victim had been split up the back and then drawn together and fastened at the back of the wearer like an ill-fitting and imperfectly buttoned coat. The hands of the human victim are represented dangling at the wrists of the seated figure. I saw this remarkable statuette in the Museum at Bâle on July 25th, 1912, but I was not able to remove it from the case for closer examination. As to Xipe, the Mexican god clad in a human skin, whom the statuette represents, see below, pp. 296 sqq.

688.

As to this name for the Maize Goddess, see above, p. 286, note 1.

689.

Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 179-184. This remarkable festival appears not to be noticed by the other early Spanish writers such as Sahagun, Acosta, and Torquemada, who have given us detailed descriptions of the Mexican festivals. It might perhaps have been conjectured that Duran was here describing the similar festival of the Mother of the Gods (see above, pp. 288 sqq.), which fell about the same time of the year. But the conjecture is excluded by the simple fact that Duran describes both festivals, the one immediately after the other, assigning as their dates the fifteenth and sixteenth of September respectively (op. cit. ii. 180, 185 sq.). Almost nothing is known about Duran except that he was a Spanish monk, apparently a native of Mexico, who had weak health and died in 1588. His work remained in manuscript till it was edited at Mexico in 1867-1880 by José F. Ramirez. The original manuscript is preserved in the Natìonal Library at Madrid. The accounts contained in his history bear internal marks of authenticity and are in general supported by the independent testimony of the other early Spanish authorities.

690.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 236 sqq.

691.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 37 sq., 58-60, 87-94, 584 sq.; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 76-100, 171-188 (the latter passage gives the Aztec text of Sahagun's account with a German translation); Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 147-155; J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 11, vol. ii. pp. 252 sq. (Madrid, 1723). Compare F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 297 sq.; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 503 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), ii. 306 sqq. According to Torquemada, the prisoners were flayed alive, but this statement is not, so far as I know, supported by the other early Spanish authorities. It is Duran who gives the 20th of March as the date of the festival at which the captives were killed and skinned; but this is inconsistent with the evidence of Sahagun, according to whom the second Aztec month, in which the festival fell, ended with the 13th of March. See B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, p. 51.

692.

J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 30, vol. ii. pp. 285 sq. (Mexico, 1723); B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 164 sq. The latter writer does not describe the mode in which the victims were sacrificed at this quadriennial festival; but he describes as in the text the annual sacrifice of victims in honour of the fire-god in the tenth month of the Mexican year (op. cit. pp. 67 sq., 129 sqq.). Compare F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 306 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 329 sq.

693.

J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 30, vol. ii. p. 286 (Madrid, 1723). Compare F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 283 sq.; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, iii. 539 sq.

694.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, pp. 37, 93; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin. 1889) pp. 96, 185 (quoting the Aztec text of Sahagun).

695.

R. Schomburgk, Reisen in Britisch-Guiana (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 319. I have already noticed this and the following stories of the origin of death in The Belief in Immortality, i. 69 sqq.

696.

R. Schomburgk, op. cit. ii. 320.

697.

A. Landes, “Contes et Légendes Annamites,” Cochinchine française, Excursions et Reconnaissances, No. 25 (Saigon, 1886), pp. 108 sq.

698.

H. Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xi. (1884) p. 451; id., Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst (Barmen, 1905), p. 68; E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nias (Milan, 1890), p. 295; A. Fehr, Der Niasser im Leben und Sterben (Barmen, 1901), p. 8.

699.

P. Kleintitschen, Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel (Hiltrup bei Münster, preface dated Christmas, 1906), p. 334.

700.

R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), pp. 260, 265; W. Gray, “Some Notes on the Tannese,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, vii. (1894) p. 232. The same story of the origin of death has been recorded in the Shortlands Islands and among the Kai of German New Guinea. See C. Ribbe, Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomo-Inseln (Dresden-Blasowitz, 1903), p. 148; Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss's Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 161 sq. It is also told with some variations by the natives of the Admiralty Islands. See Josef Meier, “Mythen und Sagen der Admiralitätsinsulaner,” Anthropos, iii. (1908) p. 193.

701.

Miss A. Werner, “Two Galla Legends,” Man, xiii. (1913) pp. 90 sq.

702.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 40 sqq., ii. 376 sqq.

703.

Virgil, Georg. ii. 536-540, Aen. viii. 319-327, with the comments of Servius; Tibullus, i. 3. 35-48; Ovid, Fasti, i. 233 sqq.; Lucian, Saturnalia, 7; Macrobius, Saturn. i. 7. 21-26; Justin, xliii. 1. 3-5; Aurelius Victor, Origo gentis Romanae, 3; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 34. On Saturn and the Saturnalia see especially L. Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 ii. 10 sqq. Compare J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 586 sqq.; W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1899), pp. 268-273; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer2 (Munich, 1912), pp. 204 sqq.; id., in W. H. Roscher's Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, iv. 427 sqq. A good account of the Saturnalia, based on the texts of the classical writers, is given by Dezobry (Rome au siècle d'Auguste,3 iii. 143 sqq.). The name Saturn seems to be etymologically akin to satus and satio, “a sowing” or “planting.” Compare Varro, De lingua Latina, v. 64, “Ab satu est dictus Saturnus”; Festus, s.v. “Opima spolia,” p. 186 ed. C. O. Müller: “ipse [Saturnus] agrorum cultor habetur, nominatus a satu, tenensque falcem effingitur, quae est insigne agricolae.” Compare Tertullian, Ad Nationes, ii. 12; Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, iv. 9; Augustine, De civitate Dei, vii. 2, 3, 13, 15, 18, 19. The god's name appears in the form Saeturnus inscribed on an ancient bowl (H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, vol. ii. pars i. p. 2, No. 2966).

704.

Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Ant. Rom. i. 38; Macrobius, Saturn. i. 7. 31; Lactantius, Divin. Inst. i. 21; Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, ii. 68.

705.

For the general dissipation of the Saturnalia see Seneca, Epist. 18; for the seven days of the popular festival see Martial, xiv. 72. 2; Macrobius, Sat. i. 10. 2; Lucian, Saturnalia, 21.

706.

Horace, Sat. ii. 7. 4 sq.; Macrobius, Saturn. i. 7. 26; Justin, xliii. 1. 4; Plutarch, Sulla, 18; Lucian, Saturnalia, 5, 7; Porphyry, De antro nympharum, 23.

707.

Macrobius, Saturn. i. 12. 7, i. 24. 23; Solinus, i. 35; Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iii. 15; Athenaeus, xiv. 44, p. 639 b; Dio Cassius, lx. 19.

708.

Seneca, Epist. 47. 14. Compare Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 23.

709.

Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 15; Arrian, Epicteti Dissert. i. 25. 8; Lucian, Saturnalia, 4.

710.

“Les Actes de S. Dasius,” Analecta Bollandiana, xvi. (1897) pp. 5-16. I have to thank Prof. Cumont for courteously sending me a copy of this important paper. The bearing of the new evidence on the Saturnalia has been further discussed by Messrs. Parmentier and Cumont (“Le roi des Saturnales,” Revue de Philologie, xxi. (1897) pp. 143-153).

711.

The phrase of the Paris MS. is ambiguous (τοῖς ἀνωνύμοις καὶ μυσαροῖς εἰδώλοις προσεκόμιζεν ἑαυτὸν σπονδήν, ἀναιρούμενος ὑπὸ μαχαίρας); but the other two versions say plainly that the mock king perished by his own hand (μέλλοντα ἑαυτὸν ἐπισφάξαι τῷ βωμῷ τοῦ Κρόνου, Berlin MS.; ἑαυτὸν ἐπισφάξαι αὐτοχείρως τῷ Κρόνῳ, Milan MS.).

712.

Franz Cumont, “Le tombeau de S. Dasius de Durostorum,” Analecta Bollandiana, xxvii. (Brussels, 1908) pp. 369-372. The inscription on the sarcophagus runs thus: Ἐνταῦθα κατακεῖται ὁ ἅγιος μάρτυς Δάσιος ἐνεχθεὶς ἀπὸ Δωροστόλου. The inscription on the altar runs thus: “Vetere diruta nobiliorem FF. Karmelitani excalciati aram extruxerunt subter qua sanctorum martyrum Peregrini Flaviani Dasii corpora et infantium ab Herode necatorum ossa minus decenter antiquitus recondita honorificentius et populo spectanda reponi curaverunt die virgini et matri Theresiae sacro anno MDCCCIV.”

713.

The opinion that at Rome a man used to be sacrificed at the Saturnalia cannot be regarded as in itself improbable, when we remember that down apparently to the establishment of Christianity a human victim was slaughtered every year at Rome in honour of Latian Jupiter. See Tertullian, Apologeticus, 9, Contra Gnosticos Scorpiace, 7; Minucius Felix, Octavius, 22 and 30; Lactantius, Divin. Instit. i. 21; Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 56. We may conjecture that at first the sacrifice took place on the top of the Alban Mountain, and was offered to Saturn, to whom, as we have seen, high places were sacred.

714.

The Dying God, pp. 220 sqq.

715.

Joannes Boemus, Mores, Leges, et Ritus Omnium Gentium (Lyons, 1541), p. 122; The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R. C. Hope (London, 1880), pp. 45 sq.; E. Pasquier, Recherches de la France (Paris, 1633), pp. 375 sq.; R. Herrick, “Twelfth Night, or King and Queene,” The Works of Robert Herrick (Edinburgh, 1823), ii. 171 sq.; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1883), i. 21 sqq.; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), pp. 24-28; R. Chambers, The Book of Days (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 61 sqq.; Desgranges, “Usages du Canton de Bonneval,” Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, i. (Paris, 1817) pp. 233-236; L. Beaulieu, Archéologie de la Lorraine (Paris, 1840-1843), i. 255 sq.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 23 sqq.; id., Das festliche Jahr (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 20-23; E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 29-50; J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes (Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 6; Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), i. 19-29; J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 125; L. Bonnemère, “Le Jour des Rois en Normandie,” Revue des Traditions populaires, ii. (1887) pp. 55 sq.; P. Sébillot, “La Fête des Rois,” Revue des Traditions populaires, iii. (1888) pp. 7-12; A. Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), pp. 74 sq.; J. L. M. Noguès, Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), pp. 49 sqq.; L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), pp. 16 sq.; Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), pp. 16 sq.; F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 312-315; Anatole France, “Le roy boit,” Annales Politiques et Littéraires, 5 Janvier, 1902, pp. 4 sq.; La Bresse Louhannaise, Janvier, 1906, pp. 42-46. The custom of making white crosses on the ceiling is reported for Germany and Switzerland, but apparently not for France. It is mentioned in the earliest of the works cited above, namely that of Joannes Boemus, whose description applies especially to Franconia (Franken).

716.

This I learn from my friend M. Léon Chouville of Rouen and Cambridge. The custom is also kept up in Bresse (La Bresse Louhannaise, Janvier, 1906, pp. 44-46).

717.

L. Beaulieu, Archéologie de la Lorraine (Paris, 1840-1843), i. 256 note 1; E. Cortet, Essai stir les Fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), p. 43.

718.

L. F. Sauvé, op. cit. pp. 17 sq.

719.

Anatole France, “Le roy boit,” Annales Politiques et Littéraires, 5 Janvier, 1902, p. 5. In some parts of France divination was practised for this purpose on Christmas Day. Twelve grains of wheat, each representing a month of the year, were placed, one after the other, on a hot fire-shovel; if the grain bounced up from the shovel, wheat would be dear in the corresponding month, but it would be cheap if the grain remained still. See J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), p. 268. See further P. Sébillot, Le Folk-lore de France, iii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 510 sq.

720.

Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 12.

721.

J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 126-129. Compare Amélie Bosquet, La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse (Paris and Rouen, 1845), pp. 295 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus (Berlin, 1875), pp. 536 sqq.

722.

A. Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), pp. 75 sq.

723.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 33. In many parishes of Gloucestershire it used to be customary on Twelfth Day to light twelve small fires and one large one (J. Brand, op. cit. i. 28).

724.

The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. lxi., February, 1791, p. 116. The article is signed J. W. and dated “Hereford, Jan. 24.” The passage is quoted, correctly in substance, but with many verbal changes, by J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, i. 30 sq., and by (Mrs.) E. M. Leather, The Folk-lore of Herefordshire (Hereford and London, 1912), p. 93.

725.

(Mrs.) Ella Mary Leather, The Folk-lore of Herefordshire (Hereford and London, 1912), pp. 93 sq.

726.

(Mrs.) E. M. Leather, op. cit. pp. 94 sq.

727.

See above, pp. 164 sqq.

728.

G. F. Abbott. Macedonian Folk-lore (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 73-75.

729.

This opinion is mentioned by (Mrs.) E. M. Leather, The Folk-lore of Herefordshire, p. 95.

730.

Thomas Pennant, “A Tour in Scotland, 1769,” in John Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels (London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.

731.

Thomas Hyde, Historia religionis veterum Persarum (Oxford, 1700), p. 257.

732.

Sir Henry Piers, Description of the County of Westmeath, quoted by J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1883), i. 25.

733.

H. J. Byrne, “All Hallows Eve and other Festivals in Connaught,” Folk-lore, xviii. (1907) p. 439.

734.

C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), p. 408.

735.

The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R. C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 46; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 473, § 237; A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 468, § 696; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 411; A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 115, § 354; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 61, § 74; Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube (Iserlohn, n.d.), p. 18; M. Toeppen, Aberglauben aus Masuren2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 61; L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 29, § 294; August Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 175; K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg (Vienna, 1880), p. 250, § 1292; Christian Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 231; J. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen (Vienna, 1885), p. 282; Willibald Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 317; Alois John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 12; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 16 sq.

736.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 473, § 237; A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 468, § 696.

737.

A. Birlinger, op. cit. i. 470.

738.

F. J. Vonbun, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie (Chur, 1862), p. 131; A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, i. 469; Chr. Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 231.

739.

Jules Lecoeur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 20 sq.

740.

J. Loth, “Les douze jours supplémentaires (gourdeziou) des Bretons et les douze jours des Germains et des Indous,” Revue Celtique, xxiv. (1903) pp. 310 sq.

741.

J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 243.

742.

Thomas Pennant, “A Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides in 1772,” in John Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels (London, 1808-1814), iii. 384.

743.

The Hymns of the Rigveda, translated by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892), book iv. hymn 33, vol. ii. pp. 150 sqq.; H. Zimmer, Altindisches Leben (Berlin, 1879), pp. 365-367; A. Hillebrandt, Ritual-Litteratur, Vedische Opfer und Zauber (Strasburg, 1897), pp. 5 sq. However, the Ribhus are very obscure figures in Vedic mythology. Compare H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894), pp. 235 sq.; A. A. Macdonnell, Vedic Mythology (Strasburg, 1897), pp. 131 sqq.

744.

F. Max Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language, Sixth Edition (London, 1871), i. 6 sqq.; O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde (Strasburg, 1901), p. 547; id., Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte3 (Jena, 1906-1907), ii. 228.

745.

This explanation of the sacredness of the twelve days among the Indo-European peoples of the East and West is due to A. Weber. See O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 391-394; id., Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte3 (Jena, 1906-1907), ii. 2. pp. 228-234. It is accepted by J. Loth (in Revue Celtique, xxiv. 1903, pp. 311 sq.), Professor H. Hirt (Die Indogermanen, Strasburg, 1905-1907, ii. 537, 544), Professor J. H. Moulton (Two Lectures on the Science of Language, Cambridge, 1903, pp. 47 sq.), and J. A. MacCulloch (in Dr. J. Hastings's Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii. 81 sq.), but is rejected on what seem to me insufficient grounds by Professor O. Schrader (ll.cc.).

746.

Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 307 sqq.

747.

Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 860, 861; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 365; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 61; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 15; A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 11. The phrase “the Twelve Nights” in the sense of “the Twelve Days and Nights” is doubtless derived from the ancient Aryan custom of counting by nights instead of by days and of regarding the period of the earth's revolution on its axis as beginning with the night rather than with the day. See Caesar, De bello Gallico, vi. 18; Tacitus, Germania, 11; O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 844 sqq.; J. Loth, “L'Année celtique,” Revue Celtique, xxv. (1904) pp. 115 sqq. The Athenians reckoned a day from sunset to sunset, and the Romans reckoned it from midnight to midnight (Censorinus, De die natali, xxiii. 3).

748.

A. Tille, Die Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht (Leipsic, preface dated 1893), pp. 3 sq., 281 sqq.; O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde (Strasburg, 1901), p. 392.

749.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 15.

750.

A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 61, § 74. As to the varying dates of the Twelve Nights see further E. Mogk, “Mythologie,” in H. Paul's Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, iii.2 (Strasburg, 1900), p. 260.

751.

See above, p. 324.

752.

Thus A. Wuttke observes that by far the greater part of the superstitions attaching to the Twelve Nights are of purely heathen origin (Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 p. 61); and K. Weinhold similarly remarks that the superstitions in question cannot have originated in Christian dogmas, and that they point to the sacredness of the winter solstice among the heathen tribes of Germany (Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland und Schlesien, Vienna, 1875, p. 4).

753.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 254 sqq.; and for Easter in particular see my letter “Attis and Christ,” The Athenaeum, No. 4184, January 4th, 1908, pp. 19 sq.; Franz Cumont, Les Religions orientales dans le Paganisme romain2 (Paris, 1909), pp. 106 sq., 333 sq.

754.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1883), i. 21 sq.; E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 32, 38, 39-42; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 21 sq., 30 sq.; id., Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d.), p. 18; id., Das festliche Jahr (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 23-26; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern (Munich, 1860-1867), ii. 262 sq.; L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), pp. 15-18; Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), pp. 13-15; La Bresse Louhannaise, Janvier, 1906, p. 42; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 51; A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), pp. 32-34; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes (Zürich, 1913), pp. 104, 121.

755.

Matthew ii. 1-12.

756.

Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), pp. 13-16.

757.

L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), pp. 15-17. Compare the old Roman cure for the falling sickness (above, p. 68).

758.

O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d.), pp. 17 sq.

759.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 22. The mere names of the three kings worn on the person were believed to be a cure for epilepsy. See J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), pp. 350 sq.

760.

R. Chambers, The Book of Days (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 62, referring to Warton's History of English Poetry.

761.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1883), i. 497 sqq.; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 403 sqq.

762.

John Stow, A Survey of London, written in the year 1598, edited by William J. Thoms (London, 1876), p. 37.

763.

Sir Thomas Urquhart, The Discovery of a most Exquisite Jewel, more precious than Diamonds inchased in Gold (Edinburgh, 1774), p. 146.

764.

J. Brand, op. cit. i. 499.

765.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1883), i. 497 sqq. As to the Lords of Misrule in colleges and the Inns of Court see further E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, i. 407 sqq.

766.

Sir Richard Steele, in The Spectator, Friday, 14th December 1711.

767.

E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, i. 405-407.

768.

L. J. B. Bérenger-Feraud, Superstitions et Survivances, iv. (Paris, 1896) pp. 4 sq., quoting Jacob, Mœurs et Coutumes du Moyen-Age. Compare E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 50 sqq. In some places the festival was held on the octave of Epiphany. See E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 323.

769.

E. Cortet, op. cit. p. 51; Papon, Histoire Générale de la Provence, iii. p. 212, quoted by L. J. B. Bérenger-Feraud, op. cit. iv. 9 sq.; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 293 sq., quoting a circular letter which was addressed by the Faculty of Theology at Paris to the bishops and chapters of France on March 12th, 1445. Many details as to the mode of celebrating the Festival of Fools in different parts of France are on record. See A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 293-295; E. Cortet, op. cit. pp. 52 sqq.; L. J. B. Bérenger-Feraud, op. cit. iv. 5 sqq.; G. Bilfinger, Untersuchungen über die Zeitrechnung der alten Germanen, ii. Das germanische Julfest (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 72 sq.; and especially E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, i. 274 sqq.

770.

E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 53-56; L. J. B. Bérenger-Feraud, Superstitions et Survivances, iv. 28-41; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 330-334. While the Festival of Fools appears to have been most popular in France, it is known to have been celebrated also in Germany, Bohemia, and England. See E. K. Chambers, op. cit. i. 318 sqq. In his youth the Bohemian reformer John Huss took part in these mummeries. The revellers wore masks. “A clerk, grotesquely vested, was dubbed ‘bishop,’ set on an ass with his face to the tail, and led to mass in the church. He was regaled on a platter of broth and a bowl of beer, and Huss recalls the unseemly revel which took place. Torches were borne instead of candles, and the clergy turned their garments inside out and danced” (E. K. Chambers, op. cit. i. 320 sq.).